A3 Homeostasis Assessment

Course Title: Biology
Unit Title: Homeostasis for healthcare WJG336
Unit: Level: 3 Credit Value: 3
Date Set: 10th January 2023 Date Due:
Student Name:
Tutor Name: Sarah Gardiner

Task Briefing Front Sheet
Task No.: 1 of 1
Task Title: Workbook

Date of Internal
Verification of 7th October 2021
assignment:
Description of Assessment Task (mapped to ACs)

TASK: Complete the workbook that follows. You can include appropriate images that
should be appropriately referenced.
Section 1 AC 1.1,1.2,1.3
Section 2 AC 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
Section 3 AC 3.1
Learning Outcomes Assessment Criteria

Understand the concept of 1.1 Define the term homeostasis and apply
homeostasis in the human body. this to the nervous and endocrine systems.
1.2 Characterise the three classes of
neurones and explain how they work in a
simple reflex arc.
1.3 Explain the propagation of a nerve
impulse and synaptic transmission.
Understand the gross layout of 2.1 Identify the main endocrine glands in the
and feedback mechanisms body and link them to some of their specific
associated with the endocrine secretions.
system. 2.2 Summarise how hormones reach their
target cells and exert their influence at a
cellular level.
2.3 Distinguish between positive and
negative feedback mechanisms such as the
effect of oxytocin (in labour) and the control
of Ca2+(linked to osteoporosis) respectively.
Understand the roles of the 3.1 Research and report on one homeostatic
endocrine system in the human system, such as temperature regulation,
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body. glucose regulation or water regulation.
Grading Information
If you have achieved all Level 3 criteria you will receive a grade (Pass, Merit or Distinction) against
the following Grade Descriptors. There are no descriptors for Pass; learners achieve a Pass by
meeting all ACs for the unit at Level 3.
Grade To achieve a Merit: To achieve a Distinction:
Descriptor The learner The learner
GD1a Demonstrated a very good grasp of Demonstrated an excellent grasp of
Understanding of the knowledge base the knowledge base
the subject
GD2 b Made use of relevant concepts with Made use of relevant concepts with
Application of breadth or depth that goes beyond breadth and depth beyond the
knowledge the minimum required to Pass. minimum required to Pass.
GD5 Shows very good command of Shows excellent command of

Communication language (including technical or language (including technical or
and presentation specialist language) specialist language)
Taken as a whole, demonstrated a Taken as a whole, demonstrated an

GD7c
very good response to the demands of excellent response to the demands of
Quality
the brief. the brief.
What this means for this assignment

Grade descriptor 1 will be assessed on accuracy and detail of responses
Grade descriptor 2 will be assessed on breadth and depth of explanations and evaluation.
Grade descriptor 5 will be assessed on ability to present information clearly and concisely using
specialist language.
Grade descriptor 7 will be assessed on the quality of written answers, accurate use of specific
terminology and referencing of sources.
Student Declaration
 I confirm that I have not received any help or information from anyone other than my subject
teacher(s) in the production of this work, apart from that which is acceptable under the
scheme of assessment.
 Any books, information leaflets or other materials (eg videos, software packages or
information from the internet) used to help complete this work are referenced. I understand
that presentation of material copied from books or other sources without acknowledgement
will be regarded as deliberate deception.
 I declare that this work is my own; I understand that if I have copied from someone else or
allow another candidate to copy from me, or if I cheat in any other way, I may be
disqualified from at least the subject concerned.
Signature of student:
Date submitted:
Section 1
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1.1 Define the term homeostasis and give an example that involves both the nervous and
endocrine systems.
Scientist Walter Cannon initially used the term "homeostasis" in 1926 to describe the "milieu
intérieur" that his colleague physiologist Claude Bernard had mentioned in 1865. The name
"homeostasis" is derived from the Latinized Greek words "homeo," which means "similar to,"
and "stasis", which means "standing still" (Davies, 2016). The ability of organisms to keep
their body's internal environment within parameters that enable them to survive is referred to
as homeostasis. It is a self-regulating mechanism that maintains vital bodily functions at
predetermined levels within a constrained range of possible values (Fink, 2016).
Homeostasis is composed of three main components: a receptor, a control center, and an
effector. The receptor, as the name implies, is a component of a homeostatic system that
receives information about the body's status. It monitors and perceives changes in its
surroundings, both internal and external. It takes the shape of a sensory nerve terminal, which
receives information (i.e., a stimulus) and responds by creating a nerve impulse based on the
type, presence/absence, or degree of stimulation (Libretti and Puckett, 2021).
Homeostasis of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
The nervous and endocrine systems play huge roles in the maintenance of a relative constant
environment of the body. Any disturbances in the internal environment are monitored by
sense organs such as receptors, which include chemoreceptors sensitive to the partial pressure
of oxygen in arterial blood, mechanoreceptors sensitive to blood pressure, and
chemoreceptors within the central nervous system sensitive to concentrations of hydrogen

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ions or various hormones. To counteract the disruption, information from these sensory
organs is supplied to the central nervous system, the control center where it is processed and
appropriate outputs which include neurotransmitters, hormones, etc. are transmitted to
effectors such as muscles (striated, smooth, and cardiac) and glands (Brown, 2012). A typical
example of homeostasis is that of water balance in the body.
Water's homeostatic control
A change in water concentration results in active control via homeostasis to return it to its set
point by the action of the nervous and endocrine systems (Neuroendocrine system). The
hypothalamus in the central nervous system contains osmoreceptors that detect the water
concentration of the body at any point in time and it delivers this information via chemical
messengers to the pituitary gland, which is located next to it in the brain (Biology Online,
2020).
In response, the posterior pituitary gland then secretes anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) also
known as vasopressin, which targets the kidney, and is in charge of maintaining water levels.
When the hormone (ADH) reaches its target tissue, it exerts a hormonal effect by causing the
cells of the renal tubules to become more or less permeable to water. When more water is
needed in the bloodstream, high quantities of ADH make the tubules more permeable and
when less water is required in the bloodstream, low ADH concentrations make the tubules
less permeable (Vokes, 1987). There are situations that disrupt the balance of water in the
body.
Uncontrolled Water Loss
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The loss of blood causes hypovolemia due to the loss of water and solutes (Armstrong and
Johnson, 2018). The loss of intravascular fluids (blood and water) causes hypovolemia. To
keep your internal organs working, you need to drink enough of fluids. Hypovolemia causes
weariness, weakness, and dizziness. Replacement of lost fluids and restoration of optimal
hydration are accomplished via intravenous fluid therapy (Cleaveland Clinic, 2022).
Although sweating does result in some solute loss through the skin, much more water is lost,
and dehydration sets in.
Water Overload
Overhydration would occur if one drank an excessive amount of water, since doing so would
dilute the plasma and reduce the osmolarity. Symptoms of water intoxication range from
relatively minor ones like frequent urination to more severe ones like vomiting and cramping,
and in extreme cases like convulsions and death (Lewis III, 2022).
Hypervolemia may also be caused by excessive intravenous fluids, although an isotonic
solution would keep the plasma osmolarity the same despite the substantial rise in plasma
volume (Armstrong and Johnson, 2018). Hypervolemia, or fluid overload, occurs when there
is an excess of fluid in the body. Blood and water are two of the most vital body fluids for
maintaining healthy organs. Hypervolemia is often seen in the pregnant population and in
those with heart and renal disease (Cleaveland Clinic, 2022).
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Diagrammatic Representation of Water Homeostasis by Neuroendocrine system (Biology
Online, 2020)
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1.2 Characterise the three classes of neurones and explain how they work in a simple reflex
arc.
The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) is made up of two types of cells: neurons
and glia cells. In some areas of the brain, glia, also known as support cells (astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes), outnumber neurons, but neurons are the major actors (NIH, 2022).
Neurons are information transmitters. They transfer information between different parts of
the brain and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system through electrical impulses
and chemical signals. Neurons are made up of three fundamental components: a cell body
and two extensions known as an axon and a dendrite (LibreTexts, 2018). A nucleus is located
within the cell body and controls the cell's activity as well as containing the genetic material.
The axon, which resembles a long tail, conveys messages from the cell. Dendrites resemble
tree branches and carry messages inside the cell. Neurotransmitters, which are chemicals, are
sent across a tiny area called a synapse between the axons and dendrites of nearby neurons to
interact (NIH, 2022).
Functional Classification of Neurons
Despite the fact that there are billions of neurons and numerous variants, neurons may be
divided into three main classes based on their function:
1. Sensory neurons (long dendrites and short axons),
2. Relay neurons (having short dendrites and long/short axons), and
3. Motor neurons (they have short dendrites and long axons).
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Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons (also known as afferent neurons) are nerve cells that transport sensory
information as nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system and
brain. When nerve impulses reach the brain, they are converted into sensations like vision,
hearing, taste, and touch. This sensory information can be physical (through sound, heat,
touch, and light) or chemical (by taste or smell). Touching a highly hot surface is a typical
stimulus that can be sensed. When this occurs, the sensory neurons send messages to the
central or peripheral nervous system, regarding the information they have received. The
majority of sensory neurons are classified as pseudo-unipolar. This indicates they have one
axon that is divided into two branches (Guy-Evans, 2021).
Motor Neurons
Motor neurons (also known as efferent neurons) are nerve cells that transport messages from
the central nervous system to effector organs such as muscles, glands, etc. which carry out a
response e.g movement. They function by releasing neurotransmitters, which cause responses
that result in a number of activities such as muscular contraction, glandular secretion, etc.
Motor neurons are found in the brainstem or spinal cord (central and peripheral nervous
systems) and connect to muscles, glands, and organs throughout the body.
These neurons send messages from the spinal cord or brain to skeletal and smooth muscle to
govern actions such as muscle movements either directly or indirectly. For example, when
you contact a hot surface with your hand, the motor neurons from the central and peripheral
nervous system send a message to the effector organ, most likely the nearest muscle to the
origin of the stimulus. The hand is then moved away from the hot area by the contraction of
these muscles (Guy-Evans, 2021).
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Relay Neurons
A relay neuron (also known as an interneuron) enables communication between sensory and
motor neurons. Because of their small axons, relay neurons connect multiple neurons inside
the brain and spinal cord. Interneurons, like motor neurons, are multipolar. This indicates
they have a single axon and several dendrites.
Interneurons, in addition to connecting neurons, can communicate with one another via
building networks of varying complexity. Interneural communication aids the brain in
performing complex processes such as learning and decision-making, as well as playing an
important part in reflexes and neurogenesis (regeneration of neurons) (Guy-Evans, 2021).
A much lesser classification of neurons is based on their structure. This classification is based
on the amount of processes that extend out from their cell body. This classification results in
three primary groups: multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons (Brigham Young University,
2022).
Structural Classification of neurons (Labster Theory, 2022)
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Multipolar neurons have three or more processes that protrude from the cell body. They
account for more than 99% of all neurons in humans and are the most common neuron type
found in the CNS and the PNS's efferent division.
Bipolar neurons have only two processes that extend from the cell body in opposite
directions. A dendrite is one type of process, whereas an axon is another. These are present in
the retina of the eye and the olfactory system; however, they are uncommon.
Unipolar neurons feature a single, short process that originates from the cell body before
branching into two additional processes that stretch in opposite directions. The peripheral
process is linked with sensory reception and is defined as a process that extends peripherally.
The central process is the one that reaches toward the CNS. Unipolar neurons are typically
present in the PNS's afferent division (Brigham Young University, 2022).
Simple Reflex Arc
A reflex action is an instinctive (involuntary) and speedy response to a stimulus that reduces
body damage from potentially dangerous situations and is thus critical to the survival of many
creatures. A reflex or simple reflex arc is the neural pathway followed during a reflex action
(BBC Bitesize, 2019).
A simple reflex arc consists of a receptor, an interneuron (or adjustor), and an effector; these
units work together to form a functional group. Sensory cells convey afferent signals from the
receptor to a central interneuron, which contacts a motor neuron. Efferent impulses are
carried by the motor neuron to the effector, which creates the reaction (LibreTexts, 2018).
This reflex arc involves three types of neurons, but it also includes a two-neuron arc in which
the receptor makes direct contact with the motor neuron. Simple responses in a two-neuron
arc are prompt, brief, and automatic, involving only a portion of the body (Rogers, 2019).
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A Simple Reflex Arc (biology-igcse, 2014)
1.3 Explain the propagation of a nerve impulse and synaptic transmission. You should
include how the nerve impulse moves along an axon and how the signal is transmitted to
a post synaptic neuron.
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The transmission of a nerve impulse along a neuron from one end to the other is caused by
electrical changes across the cell's membrane. An unstimulated neuron's membrane is at a
“resting membrane potential” or one can say it is polarized, which means there is a difference
in electrical charge between the outside and interior of the membrane. In relation to the
exterior, the inside is negative. Maintaining an excess of sodium ions (Na +) on the outside
and an excess of potassium ions (K +) on the inside creates this polarization. A small amount
of Na + and K + is always seeping across the membrane via leakage channels, but Na +/K +
pumps in the membrane actively restore the ions to the correct side. Ions can also traverse the
membrane through gated channels as well as leaky channels. Neurotransmitters and changes
in membrane potential cause gated channels to open (Brown, 1991)
To appreciate how neurons transmit impulses and communicate with one another, first one
must understand the origins of the baseline or the 'resting' membrane potential, and
afterwards an understanding of the generation of action potential which is propagated as the
impulse (CliffsNotes, 2015).
Resting Potential: The resting potential describes the unstimulated, polarized state of a
neuron (at about –70 millivolts).
Depolarization: A depolarization is a change in the resting potential of the plasma membrane
as a result of the stimulation. When a stimulus opens Na + or K + gated channels, a
depolarization arises. When Na + channels open, positive sodium ions enter and depolarize
the membrane (become more positive). If the stimulus opens K+ channels, positive potassium
ions exit across the membrane and hyperpolarize the membrane (become more negative).
Graded Potential: A graded potential is a depolarization not sufficient enough to cause an
action potential, it does not travel far from its origin. Cell bodies and dendrites have graded
potentials (Khan Academy, 2015).

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Steps involved in one transmission cycle from resting to action and back to resting potential:
1. Action Potential: An action potential, unlike a graded potential, can travel long
distances. Na + channels in the trigger zone open when a depolarization occurs. If the
stimulus is strong enough and then depolarization exceeds a particular level (threshold
potential), additional Na + gates open, boosting the flow of Na + even further,
resulting in an action potential or complete depolarization (from -70 to around +30
millivolts). This causes neighboring Na + gates further down the axon to open. As
opened Na + gates stimulate neighboring Na + gates to open, the action potential
travels along the length of the axon. The action potential is all or nothing: When the
stimulus fails to cause depolarization that surpasses the threshold value, there is no
action potential; but, when the threshold potential is exceeded, there is complete
depolarization (Fröhlich, 2016).
2. Repolarization: In reaction to the entry of Na ions, K+ channels open, allowing K +
on the inside of the cell to rush out. Repolarization is caused by the flow of K + out of
the cell, which restores the initial membrane polarization. In repolarization, however,
the K+ ions are on the outside and the Na+ ions are on the inside, as opposed to the
resting potential. The Na + gates close shortly after the K + gates open.
3. Hyperpolarization: By the time the K+ channels close, more K+ has exited the cell
than is required to maintain the original polarized potential. As a result, the membrane
becomes hyperpolarized (about –80 millivolts).
4. Refractory Period: The cell membrane is in an unusual state due to the movement of
the action potential across the membrane. The membrane is polarized, but the Na +
and K + are on opposite sides. The axon will not respond to a new stimulation during
this refractory period. To restore the original distribution of these ions, Na+ and K+
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pumps in the cell membrane return them to their resting potential location. The cell is
ready for another stimulation once these ions have been entirely returned to their
resting potential location (CliffsNotes, 2015).
Propagation of Nerve Impulse (Raven, 2021).
Propagation of Action Potential
Ions can only pass through the membrane at nodes (nodes of Ranvier) between regions of
myelin in neurons having a myelin sheath on their axon. As a result, the action potential
seems to bounce from node to node throughout the axon membrane rather than spreading
gradually across the entire membrane (Lumen, 2019). This accelerates the movement of the
action potential. The 'jumping' of the action potential from one node to the next is referred to
as ‘saltatory conduction’. If there were no Ranvier nodes along an axon, the action potential
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would propagate very slowly because Na+ and K+ channels would have to continuously
regenerate action potentials at every (myelinated) location along the axon rather than at
particular points (Jurisic, 1987)
Synaptic Transmission
The synapse, sometimes known as the "gap," is the space between neighboring neurons,
where information is passed from one neuron to another. Synapses are typically formed
between axon terminals and dendritic spines; however, this is not always the case. Axon-to-
axon, dendrite-to-dendrite, and axon-to-cell body synapses are also present. The neuron that
sends the signal is known as the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron that receives the signal is
known as the postsynaptic neuron. It is important to note that these designations are local to a
specific synapse—most neurons are both presynaptic and postsynaptic. Synapses are
classified into two types: chemical synapses and electrical synapses (Raven, 2021).
Chemical Synapses
Chemical diffusion transports action potentials across the synapse in chemical synapses.
Chemical synapses involve the following processes:
1. Ca2+ (calcium) gates open. When an AP reaches the end of an axon, the membrane
depolarizes and gated channels open, allowing Ca 2+ to enter.
2. Neurotransmitters such as Acetylcholine (Ach), Epinephrine, Nor-Epinephrine (NE)
and Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) are released by synaptic vesicles. When Ca
2+ enters the axon's terminal end, synaptic vesicles combine with the presynaptic
membrane, thus releasing a neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
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3. The neurotransmitter attaches to postsynaptic receptors. The neurotransmitter diffuses
across the synaptic cleft and binds to postsynaptic protein receptors. Different proteins
act as receptors for various neurotransmitters.
4. Either the postsynaptic membrane is stimulated or inhibited. There are two potential
outcomes for the postsynaptic membrane, each of which is graded potentials,
depending on the type of neurotransmitter and the type of membrane receptor:
(a) When positive ion gates open, the membrane depolarizes (allowing more Na + and
Ca 2+ to enter than K + to depart), resulting in an excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP). An action potential is generated if the threshold potential is surpassed.
(b) When the K + or chlorine ion (Cl -) gates open, the membrane becomes more
polarized (hyperpolarized), resulting in an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). As
a result, generating an action potential on this membrane becomes more challenging.
5. The neurotransmitter is broken down and recycled. After binding to the postsynaptic
membrane receptors, the neurotransmitter is either transported back to and reabsorbed
by the secreting neuron or broken down by enzymes in the synaptic cleft that
emanates from the postsynaptic membrane (e.g., Ach is broken down by
Acetylcholinesterase).
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Synaptic Transmission (Pereda, 2014)
Electrical Synapse
While there are fewer electrical synapses than chemical synapses, they are found in all
neurological systems and serve important and distinct roles. Electrical synapses have a very
distinct way of neurotransmission than chemical synapses. The presynaptic and postsynaptic
membranes are relatively close together in an electrical synapse and are physically coupled
by channel proteins generating gap junctions. Current can travel straight from one cell to the
next through gap junctions. Other molecules, such as ATP, can permeate through the huge
gap junction pores in addition to the ions that transport this current (Cliffsnotes, 2015).
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Section 2
2.1 Identify the main endocrine glands in the body and link them to some of their specific
secretions. Draw and label or insert an appropriate image to show the position of the main
endocrine glands. Create your own table to outline the gland’s secretion and a brief function.
The endocrine system is an intricate network of glands and organs. Hormones are used to
manage and coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and
development, as well as your response to injury, stress, and mood (John Hopkins Medicine,
2019).
Although there are eight primary endocrine glands distributed throughout the body, they are
nevertheless considered one system because they perform comparable jobs, have similar
mechanisms of action, and have numerous critical interrelationships. Non-endocrine portions
of certain glands serve activities other than hormone release. The pancreas, for example,
contains a significant exocrine part that secretes digesting enzymes as well as an endocrine
section that secretes hormones. Hormones are secreted by the ovaries and testes, which aid in
the production of sexual gametes and secondary sexual characteristics. Some organs, such as
the stomach, intestines, and heart, create hormones, but this is not their major role (NIH,
2019).
The endocrine system is comprised of the following main glands:
1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary
3. Pineal
4. Thyroid gland
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5. Parathyroids
6. Pancreas
7. Adrenal gland
8. The Gonads (ovary and testes)
1. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is located in the lower central region of the brain. It
connects the endocrine and neurological systems. The hypothalamus' nerve cells
produce hormones (anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin, prolactin inhibiting
hormone, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH), corticotrophin-releasing
hormone, somatostatin, growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and
thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH)) that regulate the release of pituitary
hormones. The hypothalamus collects information from the brain (such as ambient
temperature, exposure to light, feelings etc.) and delivers it to the pituitary gland. This
information regulates the pituitary gland's production and release of hormones.
(Healthdirect, 2019)
2. Pituitary Gland: Pituitary gland: a kidney-shaped gland located at the base of the
brain. The pituitary gland has an anterior and a posterior portion. The hormones
secreted from its posterior portion (ADH and oxytocin) are synthesized in the
hypothalamus, while those secreted by the anterior portion (GH, TSH, prolactin,
ACTH, LH and FSH) are synthesized in the anterior pituitary. Luteinizing hormone
(LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin, growth hormone, thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH), and adrenocorticotrophic hormone are its major
hormones (ACTH) (Healthdirect, 2019). Their functions include the control of other
glands to produce hormones that control blood pressure, blood sugar levels, stress
response, menstruation, sperm generation, bone growth, muscle mass, contractions

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during childbirth, production of breastfeeding, and bonding between mother and
infant (Campbell and Jialal, 2020).
3. Pineal Gland: The pineal body is located in the center of the brain, beneath the corpus
callosum. It receives sensory signals from optic nerves in the retina that triggers its
secretion of the hormone melatonin, which signals to the body when it's time to sleep.
Melatonin influences reproductive development as well as daily physiological cycles.
4. Thyroid Gland: Thyroid: The thyroid gland is located at the front of the lower neck. It
has a butterfly shape. It is responsible for the production of the thyroid hormones
thyroxine (T2) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones regulate the rate
of metabolism and cellular respiration. The higher the concentration of thyroid
hormone in the bloodstream, the higher the metabolic rate of the body.
Thyroid hormones are crucial because they aid in the growth and development of
children and adolescents' bones, as well as the development of the brain and
neurological system.
5. The parathyroid glands are little pea-sized glands found right beneath the butterfly-
shaped thyroid gland in the neck. Usually, people have about four parathyroid glands,
two of which are located behind each 'wing' of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid
glands play a critical role in carefully managing calcium levels in the circulation. As a
result, calcium levels are often relatively steady. This is necessary to guarantee that
the neurological system and the body's muscles function correctly, as well as that
bones remain strong.
The bones and kidneys are the primary organs on which parathyroid hormone acts.
When calcium levels are low, the parathyroid glands release a parathyroid hormone
into the circulation, causing the bones to release calcium and raise levels in the
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bloodstream. It also causes the kidneys to cease losing calcium in the urine and
stimulates the kidneys to boost vitamin D metabolism (Campbell and Jialal, 2020).
6. Pancreas: Pancreas is a lengthy, slender, and delicate organ with an endocrine and
exocrine portion. It runs from the regions of the duodenum to the spleen in the
posterior abdominal wall. The exocrine component of this gland secretes digestive
enzymes, which go via a conduit to the duodenum. The islets in the pancreas release
glucagon and insulin, making up the endocrine system. When blood glucose levels are
low, alpha cells within the pancreatic islets release the hormone glucagon. If blood
glucose levels are too high, beta cells in the pancreatic islets will release insulin
(National Cancer Institute, 2020).
7. Adrenal gland: The adrenal gland, also known as the suprarenal gland, is paired with
one gland placed in the top section of each kidney. Each gland has an outer cortex and
an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex is required for life, although the medulla can be
removed without causing death. The adrenal cortex is divided into three areas, each of
which produces a distinct category or kind of hormone. All cortical hormones are
steroids chemically. Mineralocorticoids are produced by the adrenal cortex's
outermost portion. Aldosterone is the most important mineralocorticoid, acting to
preserve sodium ions and water in the body. The middle portion of the adrenal cortex
secretes glucocorticoids. Cortisol is the most important glucocorticoid, because it
raises blood glucose levels (National Cancer Institute, 2020). The gonadocorticoids,
often known as sex hormones, are the third kind of steroid released by the adrenal
cortex. The deepest area secretes them. Male hormones, androgens, and female
hormones, oestrogens, are released in small amounts by the adrenal cortex in both
sexes, but their influence is generally obscured by hormones from the testes and
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ovaries. The masculinizing impact of androgen production in females may become
apparent after menopause, when estrogen levels from the ovaries decline (NIH, 2019).
8. Gonads: Human sex hormones are mostly produced in the gonads. Both sexes exhibit
this trait. The scrotum is the site of the male gonads (testes). Androgens are a class of
hormones that they produce, with testosterone being the most prominent. These
hormones act as puberty hormones, signals to a boy's body that it's time to grow taller,
lower his voice pitch, and sprout facial and pubic hair, and in the sperm production.
The ovaries, the female reproductive organs, are found in the pelvic. The female
hormones estrogen and progesterone are produced, and eggs are produced. When a
female enters the puberty stage, estrogen plays a role. A girl's menstrual cycle is
regulated in part by estrogen and progesterone. Pregnancy is also influenced by those
same hormones (Hirsch, 2018).
Endocrine Glands, Hormones Secreted, Sites of Action and Functions
Endocrine gland Hormone(s) secreted Site(s) of action Functions
Hypothalamus (ADH), oxytocin, They act on their They regulate the
dopamine, (GnRH), specific cells in the production and
(CRH), somatostatin anterior release of anterior
(GHRH) and (TRH) hypothalamus pituitary hormones
Anterior Pituitary (LH), (FSH), LH and FSH act on
prolactin, growth the Gonads
hormone (GH), Prolactin acts on Inhibits the
thyroid stimulating mammary gland production of milk
hormone (TSH), GH acts on all body Major factor in
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adrenocorticotrophic cells Energy balance
hormone (ACTH) and controls
growth of body
cells.
TSH acts on the Stimulates the
Thyroid gland synthesis and
release of thyroid
hormones
ACTH acts on the Stimulates
adrenal glands synthesis and
controls the release
of adrenal
hormones
Posterior Pituitary anti-diuretic hormone ADH acts on tubular Increases water
(ADH), cells of the kidney permeability of
nephron and
retains body water
Oxytocin Acts on smooth Stimulates
muscles of the contraction of
uterine wall uterine and
mammary muscles
Thyroid Thyroxine (T2) and Acts on bone cells Maintains basic
Tri-iodothyroxine and other supporting metabolic rate
(T3) tissue cells (BMR), stimulates
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bone development
Pineal gland Melanocortin Most body cells, Maintains the
including endocrine circadian rhythm
cells.
Parathyroid parathormone Cells of the Bones, Regulates the
Kidney and small amount of calcium
intestines in the blood
Pancreas Insulin On muscle and Lowers blood
adipose cells sugar
Glucagon On muscle and Makes glucose
adipose cells available
Adrenal (cortex) Aldosterone Tubular cells of Maintains water
nephron balance
Cortisol most body cells Functions in
including muscles, glucose
adipose and liver homeostasis
Sex hormones Acts on sex organs Slight support to
gonads secretions
Epinephrine Acts on nervous Increase
Adrenal (Medulla) system sympathetic
stimulation
Norepinephrine Nervous system Increase
sympathetic
stimulation
Page 24 of 45
Gonads (testes) Testosterone On male Controls sperm
reproductive organs production, and
secondary sexual
characteristics
Gonads (ovaries) estrogen On female Regulates
reproductive system menstrual cycle
and pubertal
changes
Page 25 of 45
Position of the Main Endocrine Glands (US EPA, 2015)
Page 26 of 45
2.2 Summarise how hormones reach their target cells and exert their influence at a cellular
level. You could include both steroid and peptide hormones.
Hormones are chemical agents that are released directly into the bloodstream, where they are
carried to organs and tissues throughout the body to perform their activities. Hormones are
released by endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream as a chemical messenger. These
hormones are carried by the blood throughout the body where they eventually come into
contact with their target cell i.e., cells with receptors specific to the hormone. They bind to
their specific receptors and are target specific (Libretexts, 2018). The mechanism of
hormonal activity is divided into two groups based on how a hormone binds to a particular
receptor. The two groups are:
1. Fixed membrane receptor system (Peptide hormones)
2. A mobile receptor system (Steroid hormones)
Mechanism of Fixed Membrane Receptors (Peptide Hormones)
The water-soluble hormones also known as peptide hormones are composed of amines or
proteins, examples include growth hormone, oxytocin, ADH, etc.
The lipid membrane of target cells is impermeable to these peptide hormones. On the cell
membrane, they have a target receptor that the peptide hormone binds to. The cell membrane
enzyme adenyl cyclase is triggered when the hormone binds to membrane target receptor.
This promotes the synthesis of cyclic AMP (cAMP). The secondary messenger is cAMP. It
permeates the cell membrane and initiates a number of enzymatic processes that result in
biochemical changes.
The target cell reacts to these modifications, and after the expected change has been
effected, the enzyme phosphodiesterase deactivates cAMP. (Karki, 2017)

Page 27 of 45
Action of peptide hormone (FSH) on a fixed membrane receptor (Karki, 2017)
Mobile Receptor System (steroid hormones)
The receptor for lipid-soluble hormones, including steroid and fatty acid hormones, is inside
the cell, floating freely in the cytoplasm, and they can readily pass through the plasma
membrane. Some of these receptors are found on the nucleus of the cell and are specific to
thyroxine hormone. When certain steroid hormones bind to these receptors, they form a
hormone-receptor complex and the cell's enzymatic activity is activated, causing biochemical
changes. The hormone-receptor complex is transported into the nucleus and is localized for
several steroid hormones (testosterone, progesterone, estrogen, cortisol) and thyroxine.
This most triggers the transcription of particular sections of DNA to mRNA by the hormone-
receptor complex and it ultimately leads to the cytoplasmic initiation of protein synthesis.
The protein (enzyme) modifies the cell's biochemistry. (Libretexts, 2018)
Page 28 of 45
Mechanism of action of steroid hormone(estrogen) on mobile receptor (Karki, 2017)
Page 29 of 45
2.3 Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms such as the effect of
oxytocin (in labour) and the control of Ca2+ (linked to osteoporosis) respectively.
The endocrine system aids in the regulation and maintenance of numerous bodily processes
by synthesizing and releasing hormones. It is made up of glands spread throughout the body
that release hormone-like substances right into the circulation. A highly developed
homeostatic system known as feedback, controls the hormone levels in the blood. The gland
from which the hormone was released from receives feedback on the hormone's amount in
the blood or its effects in other body cells. Hormonal levels in our blood is always in
equilibrium as a result of both positive and negative feedback controls. (Ralph Casas, 2019)
Negative Feedback Loop
When there is negative feedback, the response will cancel out or have the opposite impact as
the stimulus. The control of blood calcium levels is an illustration of a negative feedback
loop. The hormone parathyroid is secreted by the parathyroid glands, and it controls the
amount of calcium in the blood. The parathyroid glands detect a drop in calcium and release
more parathyroid hormone into the blood stream. The parathyroid hormone promotes calcium
uptake into the bloodstream from the collecting tubules in the kidneys and stimulates calcium
release from the bones. In contrast, the parathyroid glands produce less parathyroid hormone
when blood calcium levels are too high. Due to the fact that the effects in both cases are
adverse (contrary to the stimulus), both responses are illustrations of negative feedback.
(Ralph Casas, 2019)
Page 30 of 45
Negative Feedback mechanism in Calcium Homeostasis (Sturm, 2019)
Renal calcium reabsorption, intestinal calcium absorption, as well as bone calcium
resorption, are all mechanisms involved in calcium homeostasis all stimulated by parathyroid
hormone. Bone resorption is a key process for regulating blood calcium levels, alongside
intestinal absorption and renal reabsorption. Bone cells called osteoblasts and bone resorption
cells called osteoclasts are continually at work remodeling bone. In order to build bone,
osteoblasts need the help of osteoclasts, which resorb calcium from the bone matrix as they
break it down. Bone calcium loss may be controlled by adjusting PTH levels (Pu, Chen and
Xue, 2016).
Clinically relevant consequences of calcium homeostasis disruption include metabolic bone
disease due to hypercalcemia or hypocalcemia (MBD). Bone demineralization is the root
cause of MBD, a set of multifactorial bone illnesses marked by a heightened propensity to
fracture. As the third most common endocrine ailment, metabolic bone disease (MBD) refers
to any condition that disrupts the normally occurring mineralization process in the skeleton.
Page 31 of 45
Osteoporosis, primary hyperparathyroidism, osteomalacia, and fluorosis are the most frequent
occurrences of metabolic bone disease (Oladunni Ale, Akande and Da Rocha-Afodu, 2020).
For the elderly population, osteoporosis is a major health concern since it is a severe MBD.
It's a loss of density in the skeleton that might cause deformities and breaks as a result of the
weakened bone structure (Oladunni Ale, Akande and Da Rocha-Afodu, 2020).
Positive Feedback Mechanism
Positive feedback systems are less common as opposed to negative feedback. Positive
feedback mechanisms regulate self-replicating, potentially uncontrollable phenomena without
the need for constant modification. In systems that produce positive feedback, the initial
stimulus is reinforced rather than suppressed. Positive feedback makes a difference from the
normal value, instead of undoing changes, it increases them, consequently re-enforcing the
change.
The release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland during labor is a typical illustration
of a positive feedback process. The muscular contractions of the uterine walls that forces the
infant into the delivery canal are induced by oxytocin. During labor, the continuous presence
of the baby and subsequently its pressure against the uterine wall serves as the stimuli which
triggers the continuous release of oxytocin. This in turn causes the contractions to get
stronger and more frequent, up until the moment the baby is outside the birth canal. These
contractions only stop when the stimulus to the pressure receptors quits i.e when the baby is
delivered, which also causes the production of oxytocin to stop. (BD Editors, 2016)
Page 32 of 45
Positive Feedback Mechanism of oxytocin release (Cindy Seiwert and University, 2019)
Section 3
3.1 Research and report on one homeostatic system, such as temperature regulation, glucose
regulation or water regulation.
Page 33 of 45
Thermoregulation and Homeostasis
In order to maintain homeostasis, the body must constantly check its internal circumstances.
Each physiological situation has a certain set point, including body temperature, blood
pressure, and the quantities of particular nutrients. A set point is the physiological value that
around which the normal range varies. A normal range is a measure of physiological
parameters at their optimum levels. The usual human body temperature, for example, is
roughly 37°C (98.6°F). Body temperature tends to vary within a normal range a few degrees
above and below that threshold. Control centers in the brain and other regions of the body use
negative feedback to monitor and respond to departures from homeostasis. (Whitmer, 2021)
This negative feedback mechanism can turn back a departure from the fixed point, and
therefore keep bodily variables within a physiological range. It is constantly being used by
the body to maintain homeostasis (Whitmer, 2021).
The process of thermoregulation is how the human body controls body temperature and its
variation from the normal physiological set-point. This process enables our body to maintain
its internal core temperature even when the outside environment has a significantly different
temperature. Every thermoregulation system aids in bringing your body back into balance, an
equilibrium state (Biga et al., 2020).
The body's core temperature, which ranges from 36.5 to 37.5 °C (or 97.9 to 99.5 °F), remains
constant. Approximately 60% of the energy released during ATP synthesis by cells all
throughout the body is heat that is utilized to keep body temperature constant. A common
illustration of a negative feedback process is thermoregulation. (Holland, 2017)
Page 34 of 45
Thermo-regulation a negative feedback mechanism (Biga et al., 2020)
The master switch that serves as a thermostat to control the body's core temperature is located
in the hypothalamus in the brain. The hypothalamus is principally responsible for the
physiological regulation of core body temperature (Ahlborn, 2000). The hypothalamus has
important temperature sensors/ thermo-receptors and control systems coupled to nerve cells
(Woo and others, 2021). There are two subcategories of thermo-receptors, those that react to
cold temperatures and those that react to warm temperatures. These nerve cells, which are
dispersed throughout the body's peripheral and central nervous systems, are sensitive to
temperature fluctuations and are able to communicate with the hypothalamus through the
process of negative feedback, keeping the core temperature constant. (2015 Tansey and
Johnson)
The hypothalamus can start a number of actions to reduce the temperature if it is too high.
These include inducing perspiration to allow the evaporation of water on the skin to cool its
surface and boosting blood flow to the body's surface to allow for the dissipation of heat via
Page 35 of 45
the skin. In contrast, the hypothalamus can also start stimulate shivering to produce heat, or
stimulate the increased secretion of thyroid hormone to consequently increase basal
metabolic rate if the temperature drops below the set-point or predefined core temperature.
Higher metabolism results in increased internal heat production.
Mechanisms of Heat Exchange
The body employs conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation as its four primary
means of heat exchange when the surrounding conditions are not thermo-neutral. Each of
these processes depends on the ability of heat to move from a higher concentration to a lower
concentration; hence, the rates at which each of these processes exchange heat vary with
ambient temperature.
Thermo-regulatory Response to Environmental Temperature
Humans have a feedback mechanism for controlling their body temperature that encourages
either heat growth or decrease.
Heat Loss
The "heat-loss center" is an area of the brain with specific neurons that are stimulated when
the brain's temperature control center gets stimuli from the thermal sensors saying that the
body's temperature is higher than it should be.
This stimulus has three significant effects:
1. Vasodilation of cutaneous blood vessels, enabling more blood from the the body's core to
flow to the skin's surface and radiate heat into the surroundings.
Page 36 of 45
2. Sweat glands are triggered to enhance secretion as blood supply to the skin rises. Sweat
carries heat with it when it evaporates from the skin's surface into the surrounding air
simultaneously causing cooling by evaporation.
3. The depth of breathing deepens, and a person may breathe via
an open mouth rather than through the nasal airways. Thus, causing the lungs to lose
more heat.
Thermo-regulatory effect on skin and hair follicle (Bio, 2012)
Heat Gain
This occurs when the surrounding temperature is too low. Cold exposure, as opposed to heat
exposure, stimulates a brain area known as the heat-gain center. To limit heat loss, this
thermo-regulatory center transmits impulses to effectors near the skin's surface, skeletal
muscles and blood vessels:
Page 37 of 45
1. Blood flow to the epidermis is reduced, preventing heat from being lost to the environment
and blood returning from the limbs is redirected into a network of deep veins. It draws heat
closer to the center of the body, reduces heat loss, and raises blood pressure.
2. Sweat glands cease generating sweat in order to reduce energy transmission to the
environment.
3. Hairs stand on end to trap air, which helps to insulate the body
4. If heat loss is substantial, the brain sends more random impulses to skeletal muscles,
causing them to contract and shiver. Shivering muscular contractions use ATP to release heat.
5. The brain also stimulates the thyroid gland in the endocrine system to produce thyroid
hormone, which boosts cellular metabolic activity and, as a result, heat generation throughout
the body. (Sherrell, 2021)
Vasodilation and dilation of cutaneous blood vessels during thermo-regulation (Saliha, 2018)
During acute exposure to cold conditions in the body, Catecholamines(norepinephrine) are
released throughout the body when the sympathetic nervous system is activated.
Page 38 of 45
Catecholamine produces systemic arteriolar constriction, increased heart rate, and cardiac
contractility. Thus, making the heart work harder to pump blood through the restricted blood
arteries and consequently increasing blood pressure.
Vasoconstriction increases the resistance to blood flow and hence blood pressure, resulting in
a weak pulse (decreased pulse amplitude) in the vessels of the extremities.
Page 39 of 45
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A3 Homeostasis Assessment

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A3 Homeostasis Assessment

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Course Title: Biology

Unit Title: Homeostasis for healthcare WJG336

Unit: Level: 3 Credit Value: 3

Date Set: 10th January 2023 Date Due:

Tutor Name: Sarah Gardiner

Task Title: Workbook

Description of Assessment Task (mapped to ACs)

Learning Outcomes Assessment Criteria

GD5 Shows very good command of Shows excellent command of

Taken as a whole, demonstrated a Taken as a whole, demonstrated an

What this means for this assignment

as homeostasis. It is a self-regulating mechanism that maintains vital bodily functions at

predetermined levels within a constrained range of possible values (Fink, 2016).

Homeostasis is composed of three main components: a receptor, a control center, and an

type, presence/absence, or degree of stimulation (Libretti and Puckett, 2021).

Homeostasis of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

of oxygen in arterial blood, mechanoreceptors sensitive to blood pressure, and

chemoreceptors within the central nervous system sensitive to concentrations of hydrogen

appropriate outputs which include neurotransmitters, hormones, etc. are transmitted to

example of homeostasis is that of water balance in the body.

Water's homeostatic control

Uncontrolled Water Loss

and dehydration sets in.

Hypervolemia may also be caused by excessive intravenous fluids, although an isotonic

those with heart and renal disease (Cleaveland Clinic, 2022).

interact (NIH, 2022).

Functional Classification of Neurons

divided into three main classes based on their function:

1. Sensory neurons (long dendrites and short axons),

2. Relay neurons (having short dendrites and long/short axons), and

3. Motor neurons (they have short dendrites and long axons).

axon that is divided into two branches (Guy-Evans, 2021).

these muscles (Guy-Evans, 2021).

they have a single axon and several dendrites.

building networks of varying complexity. Interneural communication aids the brain in

performing complex processes such as learning and decision-making, as well as playing an

important part in reflexes and neurogenesis (regeneration of neurons) (Guy-Evans, 2021).

Structural Classification of neurons (Labster Theory, 2022)

found in the CNS and the PNS's efferent division.

present in the PNS's afferent division (Brigham Young University, 2022).

Simple Reflex Arc

(BBC Bitesize, 2019).

a post synaptic neuron.

electrical changes across the cell's membrane. An unstimulated neuron's membrane is at a

in membrane potential cause gated channels to open (Brown, 1991)

afterwards an understanding of the generation of action potential which is propagated as the

impulse (CliffsNotes, 2015).

neuron (at about –70 millivolts).

Depolarization: A depolarization is a change in the resting potential of the plasma membrane

as a result of the stimulation. When a stimulus opens Na + or K + gated channels, a

Graded Potential: A graded potential is a depolarization not sufficient enough to cause an

potentials (Khan Academy, 2015).

potential), additional Na + gates open, boosting the flow of Na + even further,

resulting in an action potential or complete depolarization (from -70 to around +30

opened Na + gates stimulate neighboring Na + gates to open, the action potential

depolarization (Fröhlich, 2016).

2. Repolarization: In reaction to the entry of Na ions, K+ channels open, allowing K +

becomes hyperpolarized (about –80 millivolts).

resting potential location (CliffsNotes, 2015).

Propagation of Nerve Impulse (Raven, 2021).

Propagation of Action Potential

particular points (Jurisic, 1987)

Chemical synapses involve the following processes: