ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

IB HIGHER LEVEL
GLOBAL POLITICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
IB HIGHER LEVEL GLOBAL POLITICS
1. Power, Sovereignty and
International Relations
1.1. Power
Power is the ability to influence or control the behaviour
and decisions of people
Power accompanied with legitimacy is referred to as
‘authority’
The concept of power is present is social relations as well
IB’s definition of power:
The ability to induce change through influence and
control
An aspect of relations among people functioning
within a social construct
Contested relations between (groups) of people
dominate politics; increased especially due to
globalisation; resulting in the need to consolidate
power
Types of power:
Hard Power:the use of military force or economic
influence in order establish control
Soft Power: the use of a country’s attractive aspects
(such as language, education or culture) in order to
influence another nation- state’s population
The soft power theory was first coined by the
political scientist Joseph Nye
Balance of Power: All states try to ensure survival by
preventing a single state from consolidating excessive
military or economic power which in turn could be used
to dominate other states
Balance of Power is achieved through:
Increasing the country’s military or economic
capabilities or
By forming economic or military alliances with other
countries in the region
1.2. Realism
A global political theory that suggests that all nations are
motivated by national interests in order to consolidate
power and influence
States are concerned of how much power they hold in
comparison to other states
Four types of Realism:
Classical Realism
Structural Realism
Offensive Realism
Defensive Realism
Classical Realism:
Presumption that the longing for power and influence
is an innate human desire
Nation- states are led by individuals who share the
desire to dominate the global political system
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Structural Realism:
Nation- states pursue power because of the structure
of the international system
Anarchy:
An ordering principle
There is no central authority that governs all the
countries
As a result of the anarchic nature of the international
system (no central authority governing all countries),
nations pursue power in order to ensure their own
survival
5 key assumptions of Structural Realism:
All states operate in an anarchic system
All states possess offensive capability to a certain
extent
The intention of other states can never truly be
confirmed
Survival is the primary goal of every state
States are rational actors
How states consolidate/ increase power:
Military: increased military prowess in terms of
development of modern weapons ( eg. development
of nuclear weapons), spending on defense as well as a
large military force
Latent power: the wealth that the country possesses
as well as the size of the population
Offensive Structural Realism (Theory by John
Mearshimer):
States that its rational for countries to pursue as
much power as possible
States must pursue absolute power in the
international system(hegemony) as much as possible
Defensive Realism: (Theory by Kenneth Waltz)
Unwise for states to overtly maximise their power
considering the international system is likely to
retaliate (balance of power)
The pursuit to absolute hegemony is irrational and
cost ineffective
Anarchy: the absence of certain authority
The theory of structural realism suggests that the
international system is in a state of ‘anarchy’, meaning
there is no higher authority that governs all the states
The opposite of anarchy is known as “hierarchy”, the a
system where an authoritative figure/ authoritative
figures are present (eg. national governmental
systems)
Every state has the ability and liberty to inflict harm upon
another state in an anarchic global system; albeit at
differing capacities.
States ultimately want to discern whether other states in
the system are:
Revisionist states: willing to use force to alter the
balance of power in the region/ world
Status Quo States: Satisfied with the current position
and the state of affairs, with no desire to use force.
It is almost impossible to discern another state’s
intentions with a high degree of certainty
IB HIGHER LEVEL GLOBAL POLITICS
Unlike Military capabilities, intentions cannot be
objectively verified as they are in the minds of the
decision-makers
Survival is the primary goal of every state (Although states
pursue ulterior goals as national well- being, prosperity
and the protection of human rights)
States are assumed to be capable of coming up with
sensible strategies in order to maximise the prospects for
survival
They may miscalculate from time to time considering they
operate with imperfect information
Hegemony: Control exerted by a single country upon
other nations in the international system.
Balance of Power: theory which states the inevitable
retaliation by states against a hegemon in order to
maintain a ‘balance of power’ (or influence) in the
international system; avoids potential threats and
conflicts.
Offensive structural Realism (John Mearsheimer)
It makes sense for states to pursue as much power as
possible
states should pursue hegemony where possible
Defensive Structural Realism (Kenneth Waltz):
Unwise for slates to maximise their share of power as
the global political system is likely to retaliate
Pursuit of hegemony is irrational
Hegemony : Offensive Realism
Offensive realists argue that states should always be
looking for opportunities to gain power and should do
so whenever it seems feasible,
States should maximise power with their ultimate
goal being their establishment as a hegemon,
because that is the way to guarantee their survival in
the international system
Hegemony: Defensive Realism
While defensive realists recognize that the
international system creates strong incentives to gain
additional increments of power, they maintain the
stance that it is irrational, at a strategic level, to
pursue hegemony.
States should not maximise power but should instead
strive for what Waltz labels “ an appropriate amount
of power”.
Defensive realists emphasize that if any state
becomes too powerful, balancing will occur
There is an offence-defence balance, which indicates how
easy or difficult it is to conquer a territory or defeat a
defender in battle
The Offence-defence battle is almost always in the
defender's favour
Any state in pursuit of conquest is likely to lose a lot of
resources.
Aims in Offensive position are limited as the state would
strive to retain its position simultaneously
Even when conquest is feasible, it does not pay: the costs
outweigh the benefits
Because of the existence of nationalism, it's difficult for
the conqueror to subdue the conquered
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The ideology of nationalism is all about self-
determination , which means the occupied will ultimately
rise against the occupier
Realism summary
it's more rational for states to pursue power
Offensive and defensive realist's beendet disagree on
how much power is enough
Global political system is characterised by power
Dominated 20th century thinking about global
politics- most other theoretical perspectives are
reactions to or criticisms of realism.
1.3. Liberalism
Liberalism in Global Politics: (John Locke)
Apart from realism, liberalism is a more widely
accepted alternative perspective on comprehending
global politics
Other theoretical perspectives include idealism, neo -
Marxism, constructivism and feminism.
International liberalism is different from domestic
liberalism
In International relations, liberalism refers to the
emphasis on interdependence between states
Realism stresses on continuity of international systems,
liberalism stresses on change.
Key Principles:
Societies and states have become extremely
Interdependent over the 20th century
therefore it is easier for states to relate with each
other
Interdependence:
the idea that states and their fortunes are connected
to each other
what happens in one state can have effects on
another state
relations between two states can greatly affect the
relations between other states
Complex interdependence: a kind of interdependence
(aside from the tradiſional form) established after the
second world war.
Components of complex interdependence
Multiple channels
Multiple issues
Decline in the use of effective military force
Realism sees states as the only significant actors, and
therefore is confined to state-to-state relations
Liberalism does not deny the importance of State-to-state
relation; but also proposes that states aren't the only
important actors in global politics.
Non-state actors in global politics :
Transnational corporations
Non-governmental organisations
Intergovernmental organisations
Liberalism underlines all these non-state actors as
important components across national borders.
Substate actors are also important:
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Non- multinational businesses that purchase

1.4. Types of Power
imported goods
Provincial government trade missions Types of power (summary)
Individuals who travel, or have relations beyond their
Hard power power
country of origin.
Soft power
Why focusing on only state-to-state relations is
Multilateralism
inadequate Unilateralism
States aren't the only actors to have interests that A country's soft power is its ability to form alliances and
drive their action
influence parties, not through military force.
Non-state actors may have their own goals and
Soft Power uses attractive aspects to establish influence
interests that may differ to those of the stales
such as culture, languages, education and values
Multiple areas of interest to global actors: The theory of soft power heavily relies on the concept
states are not only interested in military security coined by Joseph Nye in the year 1980, which outlines the
Other factors include economic, ideological, religiou,
same aforementioned values.
cultural and environmental issues
Multilateralism: the idea of multiple countries
Purely domestic matters can have a grave impatt
collaborating with each other working towards resolving a
internationally as a result of interdependence, making
global issue.
it a foreign policy. Unilateralism: one country working in solitude on a
Complex interdependence means the military is not
particular issue
as effectively or as frequently used as it was in the
The unilateralism /multilateralism debate:
past- many issues of concern
Trade relations and economy can also collapse If Unilateralism Multilateralism
unwarranted military force is used. Is only a concern to weaker
Complete interdependence means stales are Guarantees collective
nationsCreates a sense of
constrained in use of military power as it only harms supportClarifies the nation’s
independence from
the interests of multiple stars and other actors. perception on the
diplomatic obligationsCan
The three components of interdependente (complex) lead issueIncreases the benefits of
lead to collective disapproval
liberalists to expect much more cooperation in global alliance****Although it leads
and (multilateral) even action
politics. to compromises
against state
Comparing Liberalism and Realism
Liberals do not deny the existence of conflict but
Note: Soft power is fragile - it can be destroyed and is
argue cooperation is the norm
often embedded in society which is beyond the
States trade peacefully, sign non-aggression pacts;
government's control. ·
share military responsibilities
Military power:
some states have small/ no militaries
Military strength is essential while applying hard
Some centuries old military rivalries have transformed
power
into military /economic partnerships
Military resources such as land, air or sea. are the
States cooperate because it is in their interests to do so.
ultimate means of force for another group or state to
Justification for the liberal perspective:
comply or to change their behaviour.
States realise that hostile actions are likely to harm
The military force of states tends to determine the
their states Interests as much as those of any
overall power they possess (number of soldiers,
potential rivals
weapons, nuclear power, GDP spending etc)
the multiple channels that connect non state actors
There are a multitude of factors, however, that go into
tend to constrain states
determining which states are actually Militarily powerful
Even if leaders recognise security threats and want to
Poor yet unstable states (such as Iraq, Afghanistan, South
use forces, they often receive criticism in the form of
Sudan) tend to spend a larger portion of their GDP on
public opinion
defense. They primarily use this force however to diffuse
In democracies where opposition is legal and citizens can
conflicts that occur internally
hold their authority accountable, multiple channels are
States with larger populations (such as China, US, India)
more likely to constrain leaders from engaging in conflict.
Wealthy countries and those keen on playing a major role
The effects on complex interdependence is more
în international security spend the most on defense, with
significant in a democratic world
the p5 nations of the UNSC (US, UK, China, Russia and
(other) factors responsible for complex interdependence:
France) having the largest defense budget
spread of democracy
Military power, however, does not merely depend on the
Nuclear Deterrence
amount of resources, but also the fact that how well the
Wealth redistribution
resources are put to use and weather the objective of the
Technological development (increased
military is being achieved as an end result
communication)

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IB HIGHER LEVEL GLOBAL POLITICS
Example: Failed “War on Terror” campaign (US :2001)
Military power is often measured by the size of a state's
military or its military spending.
It is also useful to assess how effective a state?s military is
in the conflicts it engages in
Just as military power is measuredó economic power too
can be measured through multiple parameters:
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): measures merely the
size of the domestic output, for example in billions of
dollars.
GDP per capita. Measures the size of an economy as a
proportion of the total population
Economic growth : measures the annual or quarterly
percentage by which a state's economy has grown or
declined.
A lot of nation's choose to rely solely on economic power
(example: Germany / Japan)
However it is unlikely that if a country is not a major
economic power; they will have a strong military
considering the fact that a larger portion of that country's
GDP would be spent on perfecting the military.
States tend to also usé economic power as hard power (
sanctions, for instance)
States also build an economic relationship among each
other (mainly through trade) that helps aid any strengths
or weaknesses the country might require
Economic power can be measured in different ways. It
can be used as a method of hard power- in the form of
sanctions - and is needed 'If states wish to be strong
military powers.
Structural Power:
Structural powers is when states influence the
political ideas, structure and framework of 'global
politics
Example: Capitalism vs communism (ideological
warfare):
2011: Afghanistan, Libya, Iraq; use of Military power
by US
Arab Spring (2011): Mass public demonstrations
Ideological: relating to political principles and structures
for ordering government and society
Structural power is the means by which states affect
global politics, usually by promoting a model of politics
that they favour , such as democracy or capitalism.
Relational power: this is when a state has a relationship
with another state and uses this relationship to influence
the other state to change its behavior. A state may use
military, economic, hard, soft, smart power, or a
combination of these to achieve its aims and goal
In order to be successful, the state must know the other
state's strengths' and weaknesses and know both what
would be a convincing threat and what would be an
attractive reward.
Joseph Nye’s 3 types of relational powers:
Threats and rewards that are likely to encourage the
state to a desired goal.
Controlling the agenda: 'limiting the choices of the
other state to reach a desired goou.
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Establishing preferences: getting the other state to
want the same goal as your state
One state can use its (relational) influence to change the
behavior of another state using hard, soft and smart
power.
Social and Cultural power:
Globalization has a huge impact on this
Gives advantage to brands from country of Origin
(soft power)
Eg: Simpsons, facebook, BBC etc.
Cyber powers
eg. Wikileaks (2016)
Governments of nations west heavily in cyberspace
A lot of countries also use cyber attacks against
countries
The Internet has empowered new groups at both
state and individual level.
key infrastructures such as banking, water, transport
and tele depend on cyber security.
The relatively new social, cultural and cyber powers have
varying effectiveness. Cultural power may do little for
nations whereas cyber power has empowered many
groups, states and individuals.
Measuring Power
measuring power as resources : this is done by
calculating the size of the amies, economies and
populations
Although the most obvious forms of measuring
power, it is argued, that these cannot be considered
accurate as states may not use these resources
effectively.
Furthermore, it is possible that states may misuse or use
these powers ineffectively against their opponents.
Measuring power as behavioural outcomesë measuring
the practical effect that states have when they use their
power resources
This usually involves judgement regarding objectives such
as air strikes or sanctions being levied effectively
Distribution of power; understanding whether the word
system is unipolar, bipolar or multipolar.
Unipolar: when one state is more powerful than all
Multipolar: when power is distributed amongst all
states
Bipolar: is when power is available majorly only
between 2 (perhaps rival states)
1.5. Sovereignty
Sovereignty: A state with sovereignty has complete
control over its own government and it has external
sovereignty when it allows other states control over what
happens within their borders.
Factors:
permanent population
defined territory and borders
effective government
the capacity and legitimacy to enter into relations with
other states.
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The Montevideo Convention is used to determine
whether a nation is a sovereign state, however there are
many challenges to this method because some non-state
actors conform to features of statehood.
It is possible to gain statehood (independently.), usually
by holding a referendum and to be recognised by the UN.
However there are many States and contested borders
around the world
Realists argue that despite globalisation eroding state
sovereignty, states are still the most powerful factors in
international politics However, liberals believe that the
rise of IGOs is becoming as important, and sometimes
even more than the role of states in the global order.
Liberals believe that state sovereignty is not exclusive and
therefore believe in the necessity of intervention in states
abusing their powers, where realists would argue the
opposite
States can be organised in a number of different ways,
ranging from democracy to autocracy and with a variety
of structures such as federal (unitary)
1.6. The Emergence of the Nation State
System
Actors in global politics:
the most fundamental actors are individual people
the behaviour of individuals affects how trends in the
world are changed
But individuals exert even more influence through
organisations
Social Contract Theory: people tend to join groups and
establish governments naturally. Trade a portion of their
freedom for law and order in order to ensure collective
security and relative peace.
Nation States are the pre-eminent political organisations
on the world stage today.
Modern nation state system was born with the peace of
Westphalia (1648)
Thirty years War: complex multidimensional conflict
originating from cultural, political and economic
currents sweeping Europe following a protestant
reformation.
1.8. Intergovernmental Organisations
No overarching institution had the authority to
regulate state control.
Anarchy became core organizing principle of
Westphalia rather than hierarchy
State: an organised political entity with a permanent
population, a well defined territory and a government
Nation: group of people who feel common identity due to
a shared language, culture and history.
Nation - State: a specific geographic area containing a
sovereign polity, whose population identities with polity.
1.7. State Legiłemacy
John Locke (Theory)
blank slate
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
unalienable rights
Separation of powers in government
Legislation
Execution
Social Contact Theory (Reiteration): agreement between
people in society to accept punishments and abide by
law.
Thomas Hobbes:
Humans are inherently hostile
Laws are here to protect us from each other
Worst state of humanity
John Locke:
Humans are inherently good
Laws are here to protect our inalienable rights
best state of humanity
Sacrifice liberty to gain protection
Popular Sovereignty: government is geared by the people,
power comes from the people, and. therefore people
need to have a say in governance
Authoritarian government
ruled by a single person or a group of people
people in the country have very few rights and
freedoms
obedience to central authority is insisted upon
these governments have strong Military force
Democracy: A system of government by which the
population elects a leader to represent them
government elected by the people for the people.
The people of a democracy have rights and freedom that
they must be given by law
A form of government in which all eligible citizens have an
equal say in the decisions that affect their lives.
Types of states:
Fragile: the presence of a less than competent
government, unable to protect its people or citizens
from a range of conflicts. Eg. Yemen
Failed: a government that has disintegrated to a point
where the basic functions of a state authority are not
being performed; as a result losing its legitimacy. Eg.
Syria
Intergovernmental Organisations: “responsible for
maintaining international peace and security, developing
friendly relations among nations, achieving international
cooperation, and being a centre for harmonizing actions
of nations” (UN)
Headquarters of the UN in New York, Nairobi, Vienna,
Geneva and Den Haag
Led by Secretary General Antonio Guterres
6 principal organs:
UN General Assembly
UN Secretariat
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
UN Security Council (UNSC)
UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
UN Trusteeship Council
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A Non-Governmental Organisation
NGOs tend to be non-profit, voluntary, citizens’
groups which are organised on a local, national or
international level.
task-oriented/driven by people that share a common
interest, NGOs perform a variety of service and
humanitarian functions
Increase accountability of the governments
advocate and monitor policies while also increasing
political participation
Major actors in international politics
Types of NGOs:
Operational: Mobilize financial resources, materials,
volunteers to bring about a difference at a local,
national or international level. Funds are obtained
through donations or crowdfunding campaigns. Eg.
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF)
Advocacy: Campaign and activism based NGOs and
operate to expand political and social awareness in
society, and help increase the state authority’s
accountability within state (or outside) borders. Eg.
Amnesty International
1.9. Political parties
Social Movements: a loosely organised initiative by a
group of people to attain conclusive results for a
particular cause, typically socio-political in nature. Eg.
Black Lives Matter Movement
Violent protest: an organised initiative portraying
collective disapproval towards a socio- political reform
(protest); which oftentimes devolves into the use of
violent force and aggression by state and non state
actors. Eg. Yellow Vest Protests
Political parties:
They are a key element in almost every country in the
world.
There are one party systems (China), 2 party systems
(US) and multi-party systems (India)
Political parties by nature function at a national level,
therefore
They differ in their composition, structure and aims
Joseph Howe , Washington: “political parties should not
exist as they create a divide and impedition of free
thought”
Similar ideas across political parties:
they agree on some policies and programs for the
society with a view to promote the collective good
since there can be different views on what is good for
alle parties try to persuade people as to why their
policies, are better than others
they seek to implement these policies by winning
popular support through elections
Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in
society
Parties are a part of society and thus Involve
partisanship
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Thus, a party is known by which part it stands for,
which policies it supports and whose interests it
upholds
1.10. Interstate Relations
Informal forum: provides an opportunity for world
leaders to meet and discuss matters of global importance
(Eg. G8)
Global Governance:
Global Governance is a movement towards political
integration of transnational actors aimed at
negotiating responses to problems that affect more
than one state or nation.
Tends to involve institutionalisation (Eg.UN, ICC, WB,
EU etc)
Limited enforce compliance
“Global governance” also used to describe designating
laws , rules or regulations at a global scale
Treaties: an informal agreement between 2 more
countries for military, economic or diplomatic reasons.
Collective Security: the idea that countries are more able
to project hard power as a part of an alliance than they
would Individually.
Economic Trade Corporations:
One of the common methods of cooperation
in the form of economic treaties, negotiations over
tariffs, barriers to trade or membership of regional
trade organisations ( Eg. Eurasian Economic Union)
Intrastate war: Sustained political violence that takes
place between armed groups representing the state, and
a non- state groups.
Violence of this sort is usually contained within the
borders of a single state, but comes with the risk of
spilling over.
Interstate war: Interstate violence is a conflict between
two or more states (both members of the international
system) who use their forces in the conflict
Key Questions:
Causes of the conflict
Similarities
Differences
Effect on the global political system
Level of Analysis
Terrorism- there is no agreed definition; terrorism can be
defined in many different ways
Criteria for determining terrorism:
methods /results of achieving an objective
Perpetrator
Target (military/ civilian?)
Motive
Legitimacy of the cause
2. Human Rights
2.1. Definitions
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Human Rights: A list of fundamental rights every person Political Civil/ Social Economic
is entitled to, regardless of their personal differences. Article 9 Article 14
Human Rights are divided into positive and negative
Article 10 Article 16
rights that determine action and inaction respectively.
Positive Rights: An obligation by others (primarily the Article 11 Article 18
authority) to provide to a person. Eg. Right to Education, Article 16 Article 19
Food, Housing, Employment Article 21 Article 20
Negative Right: These call for the prevention of activities Article 24
by others that may infringe upon the human rights one
Article 26
possesses; often consisting of social and political rights.
Eg. Freedom of expression, speech, privacy, fair trial, Article 27
religion etc. Article 28
History of Human Rights Charters: Article 29
The Cyrus Cylinder- 539 BC Article 30
Magna Carta- 1215 CE
Petition of Rights- 1628 CE
United States’ Declaration of Independence- 1776 2.3. Multilateralism Vs Bilateralism
US Constitution- 1787
Declaration of Rights of the Man and of the Citizen- Theories of International Relations in Human Rights:
1789 Multilateralism: The alliance of multiple countries
US Bill of Rights- 1791 pursuing a common objective
The First Geneva Convention- 1864 Multilateral implementation of human rights helps
Three Generations of Human Rights: increase nations’ sense of responsibility and
First Generation: Focus primarily on Civil (rights facilitate national compliance towards the
possessed by the citizens of a country) and Political protection of human rights by inculcating public
(right to participate in the politics of the country) scrutiny.
rights. Primarily negative rights. Concrete multilateralism can result in
Second Generation: Focus on Social and Economic consequences to the violation human rights, but
rights; eg. The right to safe working conditions, wages, does not necessarily guarantee positive
equal pay, education etc. These are a combination of implementation
positive and negative rights. Bilateralism: The conduct of political, economical or
Third Generation: Rights relating to individual and social relations between two sovereign states
collective identities (culture). Eg. the right to pursue The allocation of resources through bilateral
one’s belief, practice any religion, protection against means is a lot more efficient compared to
any form of discrimination etc. These are primarily multilateral
positive rights. Unilateral actions can also help prevent
consequences that affect a state in the long-run
Multiple foreign policies often restrict national
2.2. Universal Declaration of Human interests and use a narrow, partisan perspective
Rights (UDHR) whilst implementing HR; while bilateral
agreements tend to be more specific.
The UDHR is a foundational document of international Perspectives on Human Rights:
human rights law, consisting of a range of civil, political Liberal
and economic rights possessed by people regardless of Realist
their differences; adopted by the member states of the Social Constructivist
UN in 1948. Critical
Link to the simplified version of the declaration:
https://www.amnestyusa.org/wp- 2.4. Non-Governmental Politics of
content/uploads/2017/11/Simplified-UDHR.pdf
Segregation of the rights mentioned in the UDHR: Human Rights
Political Civil/ Social Economic Non-state actors also have a significant effect on human
Article 1 Article 3 Article 17 rights and diplomacy- primarily non-governmental
(advocacy) organisations
Article 2 Article 4 Article 22
Civil Society: public political space that is neither the
Article 6 Article 5 Article 23 market nor the state
Article 7 Article 12 Article 25 Civil societies operate nationally and transnationally
Article 8 Article 13 Strategies and resources of NGOs/ Civil societies:

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Resources include the information and the human
capital that NGOs/ CS possess
Strategies include the creation of public pressure and
accountability on authorities through
press/journalism, campaigns or protests
Civil Society advocacy exists at a systematic level in
democratic, sovereign states
The implementation of human/civil rights lies with state
authority, this NGOs/ CS must act through the state to
achieve their objectives
International NGOs operate on a multilateral level to
increase international accountability among state actors
Drawbacks of NGOs:
Ineffective expression despite good intention
Lack of financial and political stability
Lack the influence/ authority that state actors possess
Power of public opinion is limited
However, NGOs/ INGOs are often more eligible to carry
out Human Rights’ initiatives as they do not have any
vested interests
Many have developed reputations of accuracy and
impartiality over the years; Eg. Amnesty International, Al
Jazeera
People in need to HR assistance:
Refugees
Asylum Seekers
Internally Displaced People (IDPs)
Stateless persons
2.5. International Criminal Court
Placed in Hague, Netherlands and established in Rome,
Italy in the year 2002
The ICC is the permanent international court established
in order to investigate, prosecute and try individuals
accused of committing crimes against humanity, war
crimes, crimes of aggression and genocide.
Crimes against Humanity: acts of crime committed
against civilians systematically during times of war or
peace.
War Crimes: violation of the laws of war that holds an
individual accountable for the actions of combatants.
Eg Acts of sexual violence, killing of POWs etc
Crime of aggression: where a state actor plans,
initiates and executes an act of using military force
against another nation; going against ‘Charter of UN’
Genocide: Systematic killings of people belonging to a
specific ethnicity, religion, or race.
The ICC has tried over 30 cases with 17 detainees over
the years
Examples of ICC’s cases:
Democratic Republic of Congo (2006): Former
Congolese leaders Thomas Lubanga, Germain
Katanga and Jean- Pierre Bemba tried for war crimes
and crimes against humanity.
Ivory Coast (2002): Former president Laurent Gbagdo
held responsible for crimes against humanity.
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Sudan (2003 onwards): Arrests and detention of many
Janjaweed militias for war crimes and crimes against
humanity, taking into account the humanitarian crisis
of Darfur.
Uganda (2005): Indicted Ugandan Rebel Leader Joseph
Kony for war crimes, although not convicted.
Libya (2011): saif Al-Islam Gaddafi indicted for crimes
against humanity during the Libyan revolution; yet to
be convicted.
The primary criticism the ICC has received over the years
is that it primarily targets African nations for investigating
human rights crimes; claiming bias.
2.6. Claims on Human Rights
(Indigenous Peoples)
Indigenous people: Socio-cultural groups that share ties
with the region’s ancestral lands and natural resources
where they reside, occupy or have been displaced from.
Characteristics of indegenous people:
Smaller population, relative to the dominant
population of their country
They have (or had) a dialect or language of their own,
separate from national languages
Distinct cultural traditions and practices
Have their own land/ territory with ancestral integrity
Examples of indigenous people:
Inuit of the Arctic
Native Americans
Hunter-Gatherers in Amazon
Maasai Tribe of East Africa
Aboroginal people of Australia
The UN Declaration of Rights of the Indigenous Peoples
(UNDRIP) was adopted by UN member states in the year
2007. It outlines laws to protect the dignity and well-being
of people belonging to indigenous communities.
2.7. Individual V. Collective Rights
The argument of whether group rights (such as those of
the Indigenous people) is more efficient, or whether the
rights of everyone can be better protected if
implemented at an individual level.
Classical Liberal approach:
Places emphasis on the rights of individual people
Driven by the notion that the guarantee for the rights
of individuals would lead to collective rights
Human rights flow from the individual to the group
Despite the increased support towards individual rights
over the years, certain scenarios (such as ethic cleansings,
mass genocides, refugee crises etc.) call for the protection
of collective rights.
2.8. Universalism V. Cultural Relativism
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Progressive Realisation: UN places emphasis on the Indivisible: all rights are of equal importance and
recognition and propagation of second and third cannot be placed in a hierarchical structure. Every
generation rights in member states, recognizing that a human must possess all rights.
lack of resources can hamper the progress thus only Interdependent: the protection of one right ensures
being able to attain these rights in the long run. the protection of others. Similarly, the denial of one
Natural Law (Theory): also contributes to the denial of other rights.
Theory that arises from values intrinsic to human
nature
Applied to Human Rights; it states that all humans 3. Development
have the capacity to understand and adhere to basic
moral and ethical obligations, thus adhering to the 3.1. Definition of Development
basic concept of Human Rights.
Human Rights propagates the idea of ‘Universalism’- a Development: The overall improvement in the social and
global political theory that calls for the implementation of economic well-being of a country. This includes the
laws and principles across cultures regardless of the improvement in the quality of life; in addition to
differences. monetary development, such as:
Cultural Relativism: The idea that one’s beliefs, practices Healthcare
and values should be understood from the perspective of Education
their own culture or belief system, as opposed to Mortality Rate
implementing universal values. Average life span
Cultural Relativism opposes the idea of Gender equality
‘Ethnocentrism’- the judging of other cultures/ beliefs Racial equality (etc.)
based on the standards set by one’s own ethnicity
Relativists also view Universalism (or any conventions,
declarations, or documents associated with the same) 3.2. Indicators of Development
as ‘Western Constructs’ or the blatant use of western
soft power to increase transnational influence on Indicator Definition
laws. Total value of the amount of
The politicization of Human Rights: The use of Human goods and services produced
Rights laws for national/international political agendas in a country (measured in
Gross Domestic Product
and motives dollars). This can also be
(GDP)/ per capita
calculated per capita by
dividing total output by the
2.9. Key Terms
total population.
Justice: The idea of fairness, with individuals receiving Total amount of goods and
what they deserve. services produced by a
Liberty: Having freedom and/or autonomy to act country’s residents (meaning
Gross National Product
according to their will. production occurring in
(GNP)/ per capita
Positive: Individuals acting as per their own will another country is also
Negative: Acting in reaction to external coercion counted). Can be measured
Equality: All humans, regardless of differences, are of the per capita.
same intrinsic value. Social equality is a strong Percentage of the population
determinant of the level of justice. with the ability to read and
Literacy Rate
Codification: The conversion of ideas into laws write (not restricted to
Crimes against Humanity: acts that violate human/ civil english).
rights declarations eg. systematic murder, enslavement, Fundamental facilities and
discrimination, deportation-committed against civilian Infrastructure structures needed for the
populations. functioning of an economy.
Customary (international) law: verbal agreement that is
An index that measures key
binding to all states
aspects of human life (such
Genocide: ethnic cleansing/ violent crimes committed
Human Development Index as healthcare, education,
against a specific sector of a population
(HDI) standard of living etc.) to
Humanitarian Intervention: Military intervention
determine the level of
conducted uni/bi/multilaterally in light of protecting
development.
national human rights
Human Rights are:
Inalienable: they cannot be taken away from people
under any conditions.

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IB HIGHER LEVEL GLOBAL POLITICS
Indicator Definition
PPP is reflective of the
differences in price between
countries for the same goods
or service. Essentially used to
Purchasing Power Parity determine the value of
(PPP) currencies, the parity can
also be indicative of a
country’s level of
development and standard of
living.
Number of people being
Birth/ Death Rates born/ passing away per 1000
people every year.
GDP plus the net inflow of
Gross National Income (GNI)/
cash. Can be measured per
per capita
capita.
All forms of debt that the
National Debt government of a country
owes.
Level of education on
Education average among the
population of a country.
The ratio of men to women in
a country. Also refers to the
amount of accessibility each
Gender Discrepancy gender has to economic
resources compared to the
other. (eg. employment
opportunities.
Statistical measure of a
person’s average lifespan.
Life Expectancy
Indicates the level of
healthcare in an economy.
Proportion of disposable
Human Poverty Index (HPI)
income spent on investment.
Marginal Propensity to Invest Proportion of poverty in a
(MPI) country.
3.3. Political Factors Affecting
Development
Poor Management:
Governments are required to build and maintain
infrastructure, raise and spend money wisely on the
right projects and create opportunities for investment
The presence of poor infrastructure and resource
allocation can lead to low economic development in a
country
Systematic Corruption:
The acquiring of illicit benefits (usually monetary) by
exploiting one’s position of authority
Red Tape and overly bureaucratic procedures are
examples of the same that, don't only lead to slow
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litigations, but also disempower and demotivate any
forms of financial investments
Political Instability: Ethnic tensions, communal violence,
civil or interstate wars are examples of conflict, and
factors that lead to political instability. This in turn can
inhibit development as:
Most economic resources in the country would be
allocated towards conflict resolution
Investments in the economy would be inherently less
due to the unpredictable circumstances
3.4. Economic Factors Affecting
Development- the Debt Crisis
Aside from political factors, low economically developed
countries especially struggle with development due to the
debt crisis
Debt crisis: when the government of a country is unable
to pay back its debt; a situation where national
expenditure exceeds revenue
Causes:
Colonialism’s legacy: The debt incurred by a lot of
countries is a result of the former colonies
transferring large amounts of debts with high interest
rates to them
Odious debt: Where autocratic regimes indebted the
citizens of their countries by borrowing excessive
amounts from lending nations.
Scale of the debt crisis:
Ratio of debt repayment for developing countries is
1:13 USD
As of now, developing and low economically
developed countries carry a total debt of over 520
billion USD
Heavily In Debt Poor Countries (HIDPC) initiative:
Established in the year 1996 through the IMF and the
World Bank for the reduction and cancellation of
debts for LEDCs
However a lot of complications; such as unfair
conditions, are associated with the initiative
Effect of the debt crisis on children:
The efforts of debt cancellation and financial
resolutions have been slow, especially for emerging
economies dealing with widespread poverty
UNICEF’s progress of nations report in 2000 claimed
that nearly 11 million children each year die due to
the crisis
Debt and the environment:
Prolonged debt leads to unregulated use and
extraction of natural resources in LEDCs leading to
depletion which is of detriment to the environment
This also prevents the allocation of resources for the
protection or restoration of the environment
Additionally, the response to natural disasters and
calamities is inadequate as a result of the lack of
financial backing
IB HIGHER LEVEL GLOBAL POLITICS
Poverty: a state in which the population of a country lacks
basic finances and resources to sustain themselves at an
elementary level
Absolute Poverty: When the population is ‘Below
Poverty Line’ and cannot afford even the basic
necessities such as food, clothes or shelter
Relative Poverty: When the income of a population is
less compared to another sector of the population
Poverty Cycle: \n
Effects on development:
The poverty cycle is hard to break unless there is
external intervention (eg. governmental/ non-
governmental aid)
The lack of qualitative or skilled labour in a country
arising from the aforementioned factors can lead to a
low rate of economic growth, and thus impede
development as well
Welfare, increased crime rates, healthcare and the
need for increased public resources increase
government expenditure; something that could have
instead been allocated towards investing or
infrastructure that would facilitate development
3.5. Social Factors Affecting
Development
Discrimination:
This can occur based on gender, race, religion, tribe
etc. at a systematic level
The disenfranchisement of an entire sector of the
population can significantly lessen the economic
productivity of a country
Population:
Countries with very large populations also suffer from
slow development
A large population inherently is not a problem,
however the lack of resources can impede the
sustainability of the population
Culture:
A country’s culture covertly influences aspects such as
business, trade and level of development within a
country
Factors such as nationalism, communal violence, and
radical philosophy can can impede development
Limitations:
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Cultures tend to also progress and evolve in
alignment with the developmental progress
Culture and development, oftentimes, are also
exempt from each other
3.6. Institutional Factors Affecting
Development
International institutes such as the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) exist to help provide economic and
financial support at a transnational level
Descriptions:
IMF: Provide support for international financial and
monetary stability; as well as trade, employment and
sustainability.
World Bank: Provides loans and grants to low to
middle income economies
WTO: Intergovernmental organisation that regulates
international trade and trade laws
Institutions such as these help promote economic
development by ensuring financial support to economies,
and help them grow at par with the international
community
Unfortunately, power dynamics within the organisation
can lead to biases and increased indebtedness that could
negatively impact development
3.7. Environmental Factors Affecting
Development
Natural resources, such as oil, timber, coal etc. are
essential to the foundational stages of economic
development of a country
The depletion or mismanagement of natural resources
can lead to significant reduction in the economic growth/
development of a country
Factors such as pollution; which includes carbon
emissions, excessive use of fossil fuels, water pollution,
litter etc. lead to social costs which the countries
resources would be allocated towards managing instead
of investing in the economy
Sustainable development: Development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising on the
resources required in the future
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Developed in
2015, the 17 SDGs coined by the UN outline issues that
need to be addressed in order to ensure sustainable
development at a global level
3.8. Models of Development
Model: Theory designed to explain a certain situation or
behavior within the intention to predict the same in the
future
IB HIGHER LEVEL GLOBAL POLITICS
One of the simplest models of development is the ‘Core
Model’ which suggests that the world is divided into two
parts; the more economically developed north and the
less economically developed south, separated by the
‘Brandt Line’
\n
(Source:
https://denzil2016.wordpress.com/2016/02/03/brandt-line/ )
Although the model in today’s world is pretty much
outdated; it still generates an argument for the
developmental gap that exists between the nations
Perspectives:
Neoliberal: Argue that if international economic
development was based on liberal theories then it can
facilitate over all development
Neomarxist: Argue that the developmental gap arises
as a result of an unequal economic structure, which
can only be resolved through complete economic
reformation
3.9. Approached for developing
economies
Neoliberal developmental strategies:
Deregulation: Removing bureaucratic restrictions
from corporations and sunrise industries can lead to a
faster process of development
Privatization: Pursuit of profits and personal
investments can help inject money into the economy
Tax cuts: Encourage business growth and emergence
of new businesses
Fewer worker protection laws: Unions and laws can
often reduce overall productivity; easing on the
strictness of these factors can facilitate the same
Lesser environmental restrictions
Low trade barriers
Disadvantages of Neoliberal strategies:
Protectionist policies work better while ensuring
national development, unlike free markets
MNCs and national businesses alike can easily exploit
labour and resources without strict labour and
environmental protection laws which can lead to high
social costs
Neomarxist developmental strategies:
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Implementation of protectionist policies such as tarrif
or non-tariff barriers to prevent excessive
consumption of imported goods and promote
national produce
Implement ‘Import Substitution’, complete
termination of certain imported goods/ services to
promote local produce
Global economic system reform
Increased economic aids at a multilateral and bilateral
level
Disadvantages of Neo marxist strategies:
Aids increase international intervention
The lack of international competition in economies
can reduce innovation of products which is important
for development
Quality of products would also be poor considering
imported goods are often produced with better
quality
3.10. Developing Society
Factors affecting social development:
Citizenship skills and engagement: The total amount
of population employed, as well as the portion of the
population comprising of skilled labour affect level of
development
Improvement in education/ facilities
Improvement in healthcare facilities
Sustainable living
Indigenous revitalisation: Promotion of indegenous
heritage and culture to increase inclusivity
4. Peace and Conflict
4.1. Definition of Peace, Conflict and
Violence
The definition of peace is a contested concept
The ‘negative’ definition of peace is the absence of war
General definition of peace:
The absence of war as well as
The availability of elementary resources required for
survival and development such as access to water,
food, shelter, education and healthcare. This is the
‘positive’ definition of peace
4.2. The Balance of Power Theory
Balance of power is a theory that states that national
security is strengthened when military capability is
distributed so that no single state has the power to
dominate all the other states in the region.
States like to preserve an equilibrium in the international
system (which happens to be “multipolar”)
Polarity in Global Politics:
IB HIGHER LEVEL GLOBAL POLITICS

Multipolar system: few dominating states (eg. current
state of affairs)
Bipolar system: 2 dominating states (eg. Cold War era
with US and USSR)
Unipolar system: A single, dominant state (eg. US
hegemony post 1991 (dissolution of USSR), although
China is said to overtake them soon).
Balance of power is a subset of the theory of realism
What happens when a single state consolidates
considerable power:
The state would use both military and economic
exploits in order to dominate the weaker states and
dictate its terms
In such a scenario, weaker states tend to form
alliances with each other in order to effectively
oppose the hegemon
Countering a threat:
Balancing: encompasses the actions that a state, or a
group of states take in order to equalise the odds
against more powerful states:
Internal Balancing: This includes increasing
economic and military capabilities within the
country in order to compete with possible
hegemons
External Balancing: Involves the expansion and
strengthening of a country’s alliances in order to
increase their cumulative power
Bandwagoning: A state joins forces with an already
strong power in hopes of increasing their own
influence
Buck-Passing: instead of taking the responsibility to
balance a power in the region, states often pass it on
to other states (known as “buck- catchers”) in the
region
Blood-letting: A situation where a state causes the
buck-catcher and aggressor to engage in conflict while
retreating to the sidelines -> “Bait and Bleed”
(3rd Module) Mearshimer’s Strategies (of Buck-Passing)
Seeking good diplomatic relations with the aggressor
by shifting the focus to the buck catcher
Still maintaining a neutral relationship with the buck-
catcher
Increasing military strength to deter the aggressor
and shift its focus to the buck-catcher
Facilitating growth in favour of the buck-catcher
4.3. Conflict and Violence
Violence: Physical psychological harm caused by external
entities
Direct Violence: Physical or mental harm caused to
people such as assault, rape, murder etc.
Indirect Violence: Comes from intangible sources
Structural Violence: Violence that stems as a result of the
social structure; oppression being an example of the
same. This counts as ‘indirect violence’ as it is covert.
Cultural Violence: Aspects of culture; such as religion,
ideology, race etc. that lead to violence.
Definitions of types of conflicts:
Dispute: a political conflict is classified as a dispute
when it meets all parameters of the basic concept
Non-Violent Crisis: when physical violence is being
shown implicitly or explicitly with a disregard towards
the damage of property or people
Violent Crisis: When at least one actor uses force
against another and causes harm to people
Limited War: when at least one party involved uses
significant force against the other (usually military)
and inflicts severe damage on people and property
War: when the use of force against people and
property is intentional and extensive, leading to grave
consequences.
Concept of Violence intensity:
Dispute Non-Violent Conflicts Low Intensity
Non-Violent Crisis
Violent Crisis Violent Conflicts Medium Intensity
Limited War High Intensity
War
4.4. Justifications against Humanitarian
Intervention
State actors violate human rights within borders in a
multitude of ways:
Governments stay in power without conducting
elections
Implement policies that can induce violence and
internal conflict at a systematic level
Due to the concept of state sovereignty however (on of
the most important principles of international relations),
external forces cannot easily intervene in the internal
affairs of a state to put an end to the injustice
Despite the existence of international human rights laws
(such as the UDHR), their non-binding nature makes it
difficult for states to carry out swift interventions
4.5. The Just War Theory
The theory specifies conditions for judging whether it is
“just” to go to war, and how the conditions of war should
be.
There are three primary principles developed by Christian
Theologians that determine the level of justness involved
in participating or instigating war:
Taking human life is wrong
States have a duty to defend citizens and provide
justice
Protection of people’s rights and morals require the
use of force on occasion
Criteria for Just War:
Jus ad Bellum (right to go to war)
Jus in Bello (right to conduct in war)
Jus Ad Bellum: cannot be solely for recapturing

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Just cause Transformative Justice: Uses the criminal act as an

Comparative justice learning opportunity for the victims and the
Injustice on one side must outweigh the other community affected
Overcomes the presumption of the use of force Retributive Justice: Based on punishment instead of
Competent authority: rehabilitation
Only duly constituted public authorities may wage
war 4.6. Causes of Conflict
Just war must be initiated by a justful political
system Generally it is a matter of ‘Greed’ VS ‘Grievance’
Right intention: Potential causes of conflict:
Force may be used only in a truly just cause Territorial control
Correcting a suffered wrong is considered right Material interest
intention, while economic motivation is not Scarcity of resources
Probability of success Ideological differences
Arms should not be used for a futile cause or Threatened identity and perception
In a situation where disproportionate measures
are required to achieve success
Last resort: Force may only be used if all other
4.7. Parties to Conflict
measures have been tried and exhausted
State and non-state actors are responsible for the
Proportionality: The anticipated benefit of waging war
instigation of modern conflicts
should exceed or be in proportion to its expected
Non-state actors include terrorist organisations (for
harm
example)
Imminence of danger
Security Dilemma: When a state, in order to strengthen
Jus In Bello:
its defense, forms military relations with other states or
Distinction:
increases its arms and ammunition. This in turn can lead
Just War Conduct should be governed by the
to other states imitating the action anticipating hostility,
principle of distinction
thus creating unwarranted tensions among states and
Acts of war should be directed towards
increasing the chances of conflict.
combatants and not non-combatants under
Systematic Conflict: International system (of structural
circumstances they aren’t responsible for
anarchy) is the primary contributor to modern
Proportionality:
international conflicts
Just War Conduct should be governed by the
Dyadic relations (at a bilateral or multilateral level) can
principle of proportionality
also be contributors to conflict
Combatants must make sure that the damage or
harm caused civilians or civilian property is not
excessive in relation to concrete and direct 4.8. Interstate War
military advantage
Military Necessity: Dyadic analysis: focus on the dyads of two states:
Just War Conduct should be governed by the Are pairs of democracies less likely to go to war?
principle of military necessity Are there certain pairs of states destined to be
An attack or action must be intended to help in military rivals?
the defeat of the enemy Should the blame for war be placed on the structure
Fair treatment of Prisoners of War; of international politics or the relationship between
Enemy combatants who surrender/ are captured the two states?
no longer pose a threat
It is therefore wrong to torture them or mistreat 4.9. Peacemaking, Peacekeeping, and
them in any other manner
Malum in Se (No Means)
Peacebuilding
Doing wrong or evil on purpose
Peacekeeping: Keeping people from attacking each other
Combatants may not use unethical (or “evil”)
by placing a barrier between them (often in the form of
methods of warfare such as rape, coercion of
neutral forces). Eg. UN Peacekeepers
enemy combatants, massacres, uncontrolled use
of weapons etc. Peacemaking: The process of arriving at a settlement with
possible assistance from a mediator. Negotiators are
Types of Justice
Restorative Justice: A personalised approach to justice oftentimes diplomats, however citizens also tend to play
an important role in the peacemaking process
where the victims and offenders mediate an
Peacebuilding: Process of normalizing relations and
agreement that satisfies both parties; often with the
involvement of the community. reconciling differences between all citizens of warring

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factions

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IB HIGHER LEVEL
Global Politics

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