APP 006: Practical Research 2

Module #15: Designing Research Instrument and Establishing Validity, Reliability and Usability

INSTRUMENT is a term that you will use for a
measurement device (survey, test, and
questionnaire). To help distinguish between
instrument and instrumentation, consider that the
instrument is the device being used to gather data
and instrumentation is the course of action (the
process of developing, testing, and using the device).
Instruments fall into two broad categories,
researcher-completed and subject-completed,
distinguished by those instruments that researchers
administer versus those that are completed by
participants. Researchers chose which type of
instrument, or instruments, to use based on the
research question.

Researcher-completed Instruments Subject-completed Instruments

1) Rating scales 8) Questionnaires
2) Interview schedules/guides 9) Self-checklists
3) Tally sheets 10) Attitude scales
4) Flowcharts 11) Personality inventories
5) Performance checklists 12) Achievement/aptitude tests
6) Time-and-motion logs 13) Projective devices
7) Observation forms 14) Sociometric device

INSTRUMENTATION The term instrumentation refers WHAT ARE DATA? The term data refers to the kinds of
to the entire process of collecting data in a research information researchers obtain on the subjects of
investigation. their research.

The whole process of preparing to collect data is called instrumentation. It involves not only the selection or
design of the instruments but also the procedures and the conditions under which the instruments will be
administered. Several questions arise: These questions are important because how researchers answer them may
affect the data obtained.
1. Where will the data be collected? This question 3. How often are the data to be collected? This
refers to the location of the data collection. question refers to the frequency of collection.
Where will it be? in a classroom? a schoolyard? a How many times are the data to be collected?
private home? on the street? only once? twice? more than twice?
2. When will the data be collected? This question 4. Who is to collect the data? This question refers
refers to the time of collection. When is it to take to the administration of the instruments. Who
place? In the morning? afternoon? evening? is to do this? the researcher? someone selected
over a weekend? and trained by the researcher?

CLASSIFYING INSTRUMENTS
Þ Research instruments can be classified
in many ways. Some of the more
common are in terms of who provides
the data, the method of data
collection, who collects the data, and
what kind of response they require
from the subjects.
Þ Research data are obtained by directly or indirectly
assessing the subjects of a study.
Þ Self-report data are provided by the subjects of a study
themselves.
Þ Informant data are provided by other people about the
subjects of a study.
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
Þ There are many types of researcher-completed
instruments. Some of the more commonly
used are rating scales, interview schedules,
observation forms, tally sheets, flowcharts,
performance checklists, anecdotal records,
and time-and-motion logs.
Þ Many types of instruments are completed by
the subjects of a study rather than the
researcher. Some of the more commonly used
of this type are questionnaires; self-checklists;
attitude scales; personality inventories;
achievement, aptitude, and performance tests;
and projective and sociometric devices.
Þ The types of items or questions used in subject-
completed instruments can take many forms, but
they all can be classified as either selection or
supply items.
• Examples of selection items include true-false
items, multiple-choice items, matching items,
and interpretive exercises.
• Examples of supply items include short-answer
items and essay questions.
Þ An excellent source for locating already available
tests is the ERIC database.
Þ Unobtrusive measures require no intrusion into the
normal course of affairs.

NORM-REFERENCED VERSUS CRITERION-REFERENCED INSTRUMENTS

➢ Instruments that provide scores that compare ➢ Instruments that are based on a specific target for
individual scores to the scores of an appropriate each learner to achieve are called criterion-
reference group are called norm-referenced referenced instruments.
instruments.

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Four types of measurement scales—nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio—are used in educational research.
• A nominal scale uses numbers to indicate • An interval scale uses numbers to represent equal
membership in one or more categories. intervals in different segments on a continuum.
• An ordinal scale uses numbers to rank or order • A ratio scale uses numbers to represent equal
scores from high to low. distances from a known zero point.

Some Tips about Developing Your Own Instrument

1. Be sure you are clear about what variables are to be assessed.
Much time and effort can be wasted by definitions that are too
ambiguous. If more than one variable is involved, be sure that
both the meaning and the items for each variable are kept
distinct. In general, a particular item or question should be used
for only one variable.
2. Review existing instruments that measure similar variables in
order to decide upon a format and to obtain ideas on specific
items.
3. Decide on a format for each variable. Although it is sometimes
appropriate to mix multiple-choice, true-false, matching, rating,
and open-ended items, doing so complicates scoring and is
usually undesirable. Remember: Different variables often require
different formats.
4. Begin compiling and/or writing items. Be sure that, in your
judgment, each is logically valid—that is, that the item is
consistent with the definition of the variable. Try to ensure that
the vocabulary is appropriate for the intended respondents.
5. Have colleagues review the items for
logical validity. Supply colleagues with a
copy of your definitions and a description
of the intended respondents. Be sure to
have them evaluate format as well as
content.
6. Revise items based on colleague
feedback. At this point, try to have about
twice as many items as you intend to use
in the final form (generally at least 20).
Remember that more items generally
provide higher reliability.
7. Locate a group of people with
experience appropriate to your study.
Have them review your items for logical
validity. Make any revisions needed, and
complete your items. You should have
half again as many items as intended in
the final form.
8. Try out your instrument with
a group of respondents who are
as similar as possible to your
study respondents. Have them
complete the instrument, and
then discuss it with them, to the
extent that this is feasible, given
their age, sophistication, and so
forth.
9. If feasible, conduct a statistical item analysis with your tryout data (at
least 20 respondents are necessary). Such analyses are not difficult to
carry out, especially if you have a computer. The information provided on
each item indicates how effective it is and sometimes even suggests how
to improve it. See, for example, K. R. Murphy and C. O. Davidshofer (1991).
Psychological testing: Principles and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
10. Select and revise items as necessary until you have the number you
want.

PREPARING DATA FOR ANALYSIS

➢ Collected data must be scored accurately and consistently.
➢ Once scored, data must be tabulated and coded.

Key Terms:
• Usability refers to the ease with which an instrument
can be administered, interpreted by the participant,
and scored/interpreted by the researcher.
• Validity is defined as the extent to which a concept is
accurately measured in a quantitative study. An
important consideration in the choice of a research
instrument is validity: the extent to which results from
it permit researchers to draw warranted conclusions
about the characteristics of the individuals studied.
• Reliability relates to the consistency of a
measure. A participant completing an instrument
meant to measure motivation should have
approximately the same responses each time the
test is completed. Although it is not possible to
give an exact calculation of reliability, an estimate
of reliability can be achieved through different
measures. Therefore, a reliable instrument is one
that gives consistent results.

Types of Validity
Content Validity This category looks at whether the
instrument adequately covers all the content that it
should with respect to the variable.
Construct Validity This refers to whether you can draw
inferences about test scores related to the concept being
studied. There are three types of evidence that can be
used to demonstrate that a research instrument has
construct validity:
a. Homogeneity—meaning that the instrument
measures one construct.
b. Convergence—this occurs when the instrument
measures concepts similar to that of other
instruments.
c. Theory evidence—this is evident when behaviour is
similar to theoretical propositions of the construct
measured in the instrument.
Criterion Validity A criterion is any other
instrument that measures the same variable.
Correlations can be conducted to determine the
extent to which the different instruments
measure the same variable. Criterion validity is
measured in three ways :
a. Convergent validity—shows that an
instrument is highly correlated with
instruments measuring similar variables.
b. Divergent validity—shows that an
instrument is poorly correlated to
instruments that measure different
variables.
c. Predictive validity—means that the
instrument should have high correlations
with future criterions.
Attributes of Reliability
Homogeneity (internal consistency) It is assessed using item-to-
total correlation, split-half reliability, Kuder Richardson
coefficient and Cronbach’sα.
Stability It is tested using test–retest and parallel oral ternate-
form reliability testing.
Equivalence This is assessed through inter-
rater reliability. This test includes a
process for qualitatively determining the
level of agreement between two or more
observers

Data Gathering Instrument

The instrument used to measure the effect of the teaching approach on the performance of students was a
researcher-made pretest/posttest. It was a 50-item multiple choice type of test based from the table of
specifications. The pretest/posttest was submitted for content validation of five licensed physics teachers at PSU
Bayambang campus who have been teaching Physics for at least four years in the college level and are at least
Master’s Degree holder, major in Science or Physics. the final form of the test.

Module #16: Planning Data Collection Procedures, Data Analysis using Statistics, and Testing the Hypothesis
(Writing of Chapter 3)

The purpose of data analysis • describe data sets;

plan is to gather useful • determine the degree of relationship of variables;
information to find solutions to • determine differences between variables;
research questions of interest. It • predict outcomes; and
may be used to: • compare variables.

Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation / Level of Measurement

Nominal Scale Used for labelling variables. It is
sometimes called categorical data. (ex. Yes or No
scale)
Ordinal Scale Assigns order on items on the
characteristics to be measured. Involves the ranking
of individual, attitudes and characteristics. (ex.
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
Interval Scale Has equal units of measurement,
thereby, making it possible to interpret the order
scale scores and the distance between them.
However, interval scales do not have a “true zero”.
Ratio Scale Considered the highest level of
measurement. It has the characteristics of an interval
scale but it has a zero point.

COMMON STATISTICAL TESTS / Type of Test

Correlational These tests look for an
association between variables
• Pearson Correlation Tests for the
strength of the association between
two continuous variables
• Spearman Correlation Tests for the
strength of the association between
two ordinal variables (does not rely
on the assumption of normal
distributed data)
• Chi-square Tests for the strength of
the association between two
categorical variables
Comparison of Means look for the difference between the means
of variables
• Paired T-Test Tests for difference between two related
variables
• Independent T-Test Tests for difference between two
independent variables
• ANOVA Tests the difference between group means after any
other variance in the outcome variable is accounted for.
Regression assess if change in one variable predicts change in
another variable
• Simple regression Tests how change in the predictor
variable predicts the level of change in the outcome
variable
 • Multiple regression Tests how or more predictor variables predict the level of change in
change in the combination of two the outcome variable.
PROCESS TO IDENTIFY RELEVANT STATISTICAL TESTS: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
There are 3 key questions to consider when selecting an appropriate inferential statistic for a study: What
is the research question? What is the study design? and What is the level of measurement? It is important for
investigators to carefully consider these questions when developing the study protocol and creating the analysis
plan. The figures that accompany these questions show decision trees that will help you to narrow down the list
of inferential statistics that would be relevant to a particular study.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
The following information shows the step-by-step process of When you are evaluating
hypothesis testing. Note that there are different statistical tests thus; the a hypothesis, you need to
following sample does not guarantee that you have to follow the account for both the variability
statistical tool used. in your sample and how large
Hypothesis testing is generally used when you are comparing two your sample is. Based on this
or more groups. For example, you might implement protocols for information, you'd like to make
performing intubation on pediatric patients in the pre-hospital setting. To an assessment of whether any
evaluate whether these protocols were successful in improving intubation differences you see are
rates, you could measure the intubation rate over time in one group meaningful, or if they are likely
randomly assigned to training in the new protocols, and compare this to just due to chance. This is
the intubation rate over time in another control group that did not formally done through a process
receive training in the new protocols. called hypothesis testing.

Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

1. Specify the Null Hypothesis
2. Specify the Alternative Hypothesis
3. Set the Significance Level (a)
4. Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-Value
5. Drawing a Conclusion

Step 1: Specify the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement
of no effect, relationship, or difference
between two or more groups or
factors. In research studies, a
researcher is usually interested in
disproving the null hypothesis.
Examples:
• There is no difference in intubation rates across ages 0 to 5
years.
• The intervention and control groups have the same survival
rate (or, the intervention does not improve survival rate).
• There is no association between injury type and whether or
not the patient received an IV in the prehospital setting.

Step 2: Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement
that there is an effect or difference. This is usually
the hypothesis the researcher is interested in
proving. The alternative hypothesis can be one-
sided (only provides one direction, e.g., lower) or
two-sided. We often use two-sided tests even
when our true hypothesis is one- sided because it
requires more evidence against the null hypothesis
to accept the alternative hypothesis.
Examples:
• The intubation success rate differs with the age of
the patient being treated (two-sided).
• The time to resuscitation from cardiac arrest is
lower for the intervention group than for the control
(one- sided).
• There is an association between injury type and prehospital setting (two sided).
whether or not the patient received an IV in the

Step 3: Set the Significance Level (a)

The significance level (denoted by the Greek letter alpha— a) is generally set at 0.05. This means that there is a
5% chance that you will accept your alternative hypothesis when your null hypothesis is actually true. The
smaller the significance level, the greater the burden of proof needed to reject the null hypothesis, or in other
words, to support the alternative hypothesis.

Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-Value

In another section we present some basic test statistics to evaluate a hypothesis. Hypothesis testing generally
uses a test statistic that compares groups or examines associations between variables. When describing a single
sample without establishing relationships between variables, a confidence interval is commonly used.
Example:
The p-value describes the probability of
• P-value = 0.01 This will happen 1 in 100 times by pure
obtaining a sample statistic as or more
chance if your null hypothesis is true. Not likely to happen
extreme by chance alone if your null
strictly by chance.
hypothesis is true. This p-value is
Example:
determined based on the result of your test
• P-value = 0.75 This will happen 75 in 100 times by pure
statistic. Your conclusions about the
chance if your null hypothesis is true. Very likely to occur
hypothesis are based on your p-value and
strictly by chance.
your significance level.

Cautions About P-Values

Your sample size directly impacts your p-value. Large sample Plan your sample size
sizes produce small p-values even when differences between groups ahead of time so that you have
are not meaningful. You should always verify the practical relevance enough information from your
of your results. On the other hand, a sample size that is too small can sample to show a meaningful
result in a failure to identify a difference when one truly exists. relationship or difference if one
exists.

Example: Example:
• Average ages were significantly different • Average ages were not significantly different between the
between the two groups (16.2 years vs. two groups (10.4 years vs. 16.7 years; p = 0.40, n=10). Is
16.7 years; p = 0.01; n=1,000). Is this an this an important difference? It could be, but because the
important difference? Probably not, but sample size is small, we can't determine for sure if this is a
the large sample size has resulted in a true difference or just happened due to the natural
small p-value. variability in age within these two groups.
If you do a large number of tests to evaluate a hypothesis (called multiple testing), then you need to control
for this in your designation of the significance level or calculation of the p-value. For example, if three outcomes
measure the effectiveness of a drug or other intervention, you will have to adjust for these three analyses.

Step 5: Drawing a Conclusion

1. P-value <= significance level (a) => Reject your 2. P-value > significance level (a) => Fail to
null hypothesis in favor of your alternative reject your null hypothesis. Your result is
hypothesis. Your result is statistically significant. not statistically significant.
Hypothesis testing is not set up so that you can absolutely prove a null hypothesis. Therefore, when you do not
find evidence against the null hypothesis, you fail to reject the null hypothesis. When you do find strong enough
evidence against the null hypothesis, you reject the null hypothesis. Your conclusions also translate into a
statement about your alternative hypothesis. When presenting the results of a hypothesis test, include the
descriptive statistics in your conclusions as well. Report exact p-values rather than a certain range. For example,
"The intubation rate differed significantly by patient age with younger patients have a lower rate of successful
intubation (p=0.02)." Here are two more examples with the conclusion stated in several different ways.
Example:
Example:
• H0: There is no difference in survival between
• H0: There is no difference in survival between
the intervention and control group.
the intervention and control group.
• H1: There is a difference in survival between the
• H1: There is a difference in survival between the
intervention and control group.
intervention and control group.
• a = 0.05; 5% increase in survival between the
• a = 0.05; 20% increase in survival for the
intervention and control group; p-value = 0.20
intervention group; p-value = 0.002
Conclusion:
Conclusion:
• Reject the null hypothesis in favor of the • Fail to reject the null hypothesis.
alternative hypothesis. • The difference in survival between the
• The difference in survival between the intervention and control group was not
intervention and control group was statistically statistically significant.
significant. • There was no significant increase in survival for
• There was a 20% increase in survival for the the intervention group compared to control
intervention group compared to control (p=0.20).
(p=0.001).

Module #17: Writing Request Letters and Finalizing Research Instrument (Output-based)

At this point, you are now have to write a letter to allow you to conduct your research. Follow these
instructions to make your letter of request more professional and persuasive.
PART 1 MAKE AN OUTLINE
• Brainstorm the big ideas. In order to write a clear, effective letter, it is crucial that you have a clear sense of
your goals and the letter's purpose.
• Consider your audience. Essential to setting the right tone in your letter is understanding the audience you
are writing for. After your initial brainstorm, on another piece of paper, write down what you know about
the recipient of your letter.
• Make an outline. Finally, before you begin actually composing the letter, create an outline to organize your
thoughts into a logical, coherent order.

PART 2 WRITE A DRAFT

• Use the proper format. Writing your
letter in the proper, professional
format of a business letter is a good
way to make positive first
impression.
• Start with a salutation. Begin the
main text of your letter with a
proper, respectful salutation. If you
know the person you are writing to, you can use their first
name, e.g. "Dear Tim." Otherwise, you should use the
person's last name and the proper title, (eg. Dr., Mr., Ms.
or Mrs.).
• Write an introductory paragraph. In the first paragraph of any
letter of request, you will need to introduce yourself and
clearly but briefly state the purpose of the letter, e.g. "We
would like to ask permission to conduct our study...”
• Write a body paragraph. Your body are asking for and make your case for why your request should
paragraph (or paragraphs) should be granted.
provide additional context and • Write a concluding paragraph. In your concluding paragraph,
information and more specific details you should make your recipient aware of any relevant time
about your request. This is your constraints you face, and also express your gratitude for their
opportunity to spell out exactly what you consideration of your request.
• Add a closing. Finally, your letter needs an appropriate and polite closing. Good options include
"Respectfully," "Sincerely," or "Best regards," followed by your name.

PART 3 FINALIZE THE LETTER

• Edit and rewrite the letter.
Give the letter a close
reading to make sure your
writing is clear, flows well,
and accomplishes the goals
you set out to accomplish in
part 1. Make any necessary
revisions.
• Proofread the final draft. After you've made any substantive edits,
give the letter one more look to catch any spelling and grammar
mistakes that you might have missed the first time.
• Send your letter. Send your letter to its recipient. If you are sending a
physical letter, be sure to include a current and professional-looking
stamp. In the top left of the envelope, put your name, title (if
applicable), and return address. In the bottom middle, include the
recipient's name and address. Make sure you keep a copy for your
records until the matter is settled.

Module #18: Gathering and Collecting of Data

In the age when “information is power,” how we gather that information should be one of our major concerns,
right? Also, which of the many data collection methods is the best for your particular needs?
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physical
and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring
accurate and honest collection remains the same.
The importance of ensuring accurate and Consequences from improperly collected data include
appropriate data collection • inability to answer research questions
Regardless of the field of study or accurately
preference for defining data (quantitative, • inability to repeat and validate the study
qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to • distorted findings resulting in wasted
maintaining the integrity of research. Both the resources
selection of appropriate data collection • misleading other researchers to pursue
instruments (existing, modified, or newly fruitless avenues of investigation
developed) and clearly delineated instructions for • compromising decisions for public policy
their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors • causing harm to human participants and
occurring. animal subjects

Depending on your research questions, you might need to collect quantitative or qualitative data:
• Quantitative data is expressed in numbers and graphs and is analyzed through statistical methods.
• Qualitative data is expressed in words and analyzed through interpretations and categorizations.

If your aim is to test a hypothesis, measure something quantitative data. If your aim is to explore
precisely, or gain large-scale statistical insights, collect ideas, understand experiences, or gain
detailed insights into a specific context, collect qualitative data. method you will use to gather data that
If you have several aims, you can use a mixed methods approach helps you directly answer your research
that collects both types of data. questions.

Based on the data you want to collect, decide which

method is best suited for your research. Carefully consider what

Data collection methods

Method When to use How to collect data

Experiment To test a causal relationship. Manipulate variables and measure their effects
on others
Survey To understand the general characteristics Distribute a list of questions to a sample online,
or opinions of a group of people. in person or over-the-phone.
Interview/focus To gain an in-depth understanding of Verbally ask participants open-ended questions in
group perceptions or opinions on a topic. individual interviews or focus group discussions.
Observation To understand something in its natural Measure or survey a sample without trying to
setting. affect them.
Ethnography To study the culture of a community or Join and participate in a community and record
organization first-hand. your observations and reflections.

Archival research To understand current or historical
events, conditions or practices.
Secondary data To analyze data from populations that
collection you can’t access first-hand.
Access manuscripts, documents or records from
libraries, depositories or the internet.
Find existing datasets that have already been
collected, from sources such as government
agencies or research organizations.

Plan your data collection procedures Collect the data

When you know which method(s) you are using, you Finally, you can implement your
need to plan exactly how you will implement them. What chosen methods to measure or observe
procedures will you follow to make accurate observations or the variables you are interested in. Use
measurements of the variables you are interested in? For this time to collect data among your
instance, if you’re conducting surveys or interviews, decide what respondents. After the data collection,
form the questions will take; if you’re conducting an answer the exercises on the pages
experiment, make decisions about your experimental design. following.

Module #19: Presenting and Interpreting Data in Tabular and Graphical Forms

Numerical information is imperative to be included in your study. Example of this data are figures and other
statistics from secondary sources (such as books, journal articles or newspaper reports); the results of
experiments; or data that you have collected and analyzed. Such information can be used to illustrate your
study’s argument or convey complex or detailed information in a concise manner.

There are three main methods of presenting such information:

1. Textual presentation
Your data can be presented using
phrases, paragraphs, or sentences with
numbers to describe the given data. It
highlights significant data and
supplements the tabular or graphical
presentation.
Did you know that researchers like you use tables in their textual
presentation due to the following reasons?
- Researchers need to give explanation since data in tables are
arranged and grouped systematically;
- Readers can comprehend and interpret information easily
because they can see relationships of data at once; and
- Tables can present ideas that are understood even without
reading the textual presentation.

2. Tabular presentation
Your data will be organized and presented through a table. Its common parts are the title, the heading, and the
data. .
• Tabulation i.e. Tabular Presentation of data is a method of - present data in a simple form
presentation of data. - economize (save) space
• It is a systematic and logical arrangement of data in the - facilitate comparison
form of rows and columns with respect to the - facilitate statistical analysis
characteristics of data. - reduce the chances of errors
• It is an orderly arrangement which is compact and self-
explanatory.
• Its objective is to:

Components of Tables
• Table Number: Each table should have a specific • Stubs: These are titles of the rows in a table.
table number for ease of access and locating. Thus a stub display information about the data
This number can be readily mentioned contained in a particular row.
anywhere. It serves as a reference and leads us • Caption: A caption is the title of a column in
directly to the data mentioned in that particular the data table.
table.
• Body or field: The body of a table is its content.
• Title: A table must contain a title that clearly tells Each item in a body is known as a ‘cell’.
the readers about the data it contains, time
• Footnotes: Footnotes are rarely used. In effect,
period of study, place of study and the nature of
they supplement the title of a table if required.
classification of data.
• Source: When using data obtained from a
• Headnotes: A headnote further aids in the
secondary source, this source has to be
purpose of a title and displays more information
mentioned below the footnote.
about the table. Generally, headnotes present
the units of data in brackets at the end of a table
title.

3. Graphical presentation
It shows visuals rather than in words or numbers
and can help your readers understand the
substance of your findings rather than the
technical details behind the numbers.
Examples: bar graph, multiple bar graph,line
chart, pie chart, pictograph
Graphical Representation is a way of analyzing numerical
data. It exhibits the relation between data, ideas,
information and concepts in a diagram. It is easy to
understand and it is one of the most important learning
strategies. It always depends on the type of information
in a particular domain. There are different types of
graphical representation. Some of them are as follows
 • Line Graphs – Linear graphs are used to display
the continuous data and it is useful for
predicting the future events over time.
• Bar Graphs – Bar Graph is used to display the
category of data and it compares the data
using solid bars to represent the quantities.
• Histograms – The graph that uses bars to
represent the frequency of numerical data that
are organised into intervals. Since all the
intervals are equal and continuous, all the bars
have the same width.
• Line Plot – It shows the frequency of data on a given
number line. ‘ x ‘ is placed above a number line each
time when that data occurs again.
• Frequency Table – The table shows the number of
pieces of data that falls within the given interval.
• Circle Graph – Also known as pie chart that shows
the relationships of the parts of the whole. The
circle is considered with 100% and the categories
occupied is represented with that specific
percentage like 15%, 56% , etc.

Determining which of these methods is the most appropriate depends upon the amount of data you are
dealing with and their complexity. The choice about whether to use text, tables or graphs requires careful
consideration if you are to ensure that your reader or audience understands your argument and is not left
struggling to interpret data that are poorly presented or in an inappropriate format. It is crucial to remember that
when using a table or graph the associated text should describe what the data reveal about the topic; you should
not need to describe the information again in words.

Module #20: Analyzing and Interpreting Data

According to Dillard (2017), to improve your data analysis skills and simplify your decisions, execute these five
steps in your data analysis process:

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and
illustrate, condense, and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003), various analytic
procedures “provide a way of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the
phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data”.

Steps in Data Analysis

Step 1: Define Your Questions
In your data analysis, you must begin with the right question(s). Questions should be measurable, clear
and concise. Design your questions to either qualify or disqualify potential solutions to your specific problem or
opportunity. Revisit your statement of the problem; this will guide you in analyzing your data.

Step 2: Set Clear Measurement Priorities

This step breaks down into two
sub-steps: A) Decide what to
measure, and B) Decide how to
measure it.
A) Decide What to Measure
B) Decide How to Measure it
Thinking about how you measure your data is just as important,
especially before the data collection phase, because your measuring
process either backs up or discredits your analysis later on. Key questions
to ask for this step include:
• What is your time frame?
• What is your unit of measure?
• What factors should be included?

Step 3: Collect Data

With your question clearly defined and your measurement priorities set, now, it is time to collect your data.
 • If you need to gather data via
observation or interviews, then
develop an interview template ahead
of time to ensure consistency and to
save time.
• Keep your collected data organized in a log with
collection dates and add any source notes as you
go (including any data normalization performed).
This practice validates your conclusions down the
road.

Step 4: Analyze Data

After you have collected the right data to answer your question During this step, data
from Step 1, it is time for deeper data analysis. Begin by manipulating analysis tools and software are
your data in a number of different ways, such as plotting it out and extremely helpful. Visio, Minitab
finding correlations or by creating a pivot table in Excel. A pivot table lets and Stata are all good software
you sort and filter data by different variables and lets you calculate the packages for advanced statistical
mean, maximum, minimum and standard deviation of your data. data analysis.

Here are the guidelines in analyzing data:

1. Compare and contrast research findings with that of related studies’ findings.
2. Report values obtained from statistical tests.
3. Prepare synthesis of research findings.

Step 5: Interpret Results

After analyzing your data and possibly conducting further research, it is now time to interpret your
results. As you interpret your analysis, keep in mind that you cannot ever prove a hypothesis true. You can only
fail to reject the hypothesis. Meaning that no matter how much data you collect, chance could always interfere
with your results.
As you interpret the results of your data, ask yourself these If your interpretation of the data holds up
key questions: under all of these questions and
• Does the data answer your original question? How? considerations, then you likely have come to a
• Does the data help you defend against any objections? productive conclusion. The only remaining
How? step is to use the results of your data analysis
• Are there any limitations on your conclusions, any process to decide your best course of action.
angles you haven’t considered?

Module #22: Finalizing Chapter 4 through Validity and Reliability Tests

Differences between Validity and Reliability

• There are two distinct criteria by which
researchers evaluate their measures:
reliability and validity. Reliability is
consistency across time (test-retest
reliability), across items (internal
consistency), and across researchers
(interrater reliability). Validity is the
extent to which the scores actually
represent the variable they are
intended to.
• Validity is a judgment based on various types of evidence.
The relevant evidence includes the measure’s reliability,
whether it covers the construct of interest, and whether the
scores it produces are correlated with other variables they
are expected to be correlated with and not correlated with
variables that are conceptually distinct.
• The reliability and validity of a measure is not established
by any single study but by the pattern of results across
multiple studies. The assessment of reliability and validity is
an ongoing process.
Quantitative research
Is the process of a systematic investigation, primarily
using numerical techniques (statistical,
mathematical, or computational), to test
hypothetical generalizations. As a way of measuring
the likelihood of the researcher’s result being
misleading, statisticians developed procedures for
expressing the likelihoods and accuracy of the
results. These procedures help demonstrate the
rigour and usefulness of the researcher’s work.
Rigour, in quantitative studies, refers to the extent
the researchers worked to enhance the quality of
the study; this is achieved through measurement of
reliability and validity.
Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of the
measurements or the degree to which an instrument
measures the same with every use under the exact
same conditions. Reliability is usually estimated using
internal consistency – the relationship/correlation
between different results of a test, or instrument.
These correlations are most commonly measured
using Cronbach’s α coefficient; a statistical test that
‘splits’ all the results in half and calculates the
correlations between the two sets. From this, a single
value between 0-1 is generated and the closer the
coefficient generated is to 1, the higher the reliability
estimate of your instrument/test.

Cronbach’s Alpha Formula Where:

The formula for Cronbach’s alpha is: • N = the number of items.
$ . c̄ • c̄ = average covariance between item-pairs.
!=
v̄ + (N − 1) . c̄ • v̄ = average variance.

Cronbach’s Alpha Internal consistency Rule of Thumb for Results

a ≥ 0.9 Excellent A rule of thumb for interpreting alpha for dichotomous
0.9 > a ≥ 0.8 Good questions (i.e. questions with two possible answers) or
0.8 > a ≥ 0.7 Acceptable Likert scale questions is:
0.7 > a ≥ 0.6 Questionable In general, a score of more than 0.7 is usually okay.
0.6 > a ≥ 0.5 Poor However, some authors suggest higher values of 0.90 to
0.5 > a Unacceptable 0.95.

Validity
Validity is defined as the extent to which a concept is accurately measured in a quantitative study. For example, a
survey designed to explore depression but which actually measures anxiety would not be considered valid. The
second measure of quality in a quantitative study is reliability, or the accuracy of an instrument. In other words,
the extent to which a research instrument consistently has the same results if it is used in the same situation on
repeated occasions. A simple example of validity and reliability is an alarm clock that rings at 7:00 each morning,
but is set for 6:30. It is very reliable (it consistently rings the same time each day), but is not valid (it is not ringing
at the desired time). It's important to consider validity and reliability of the data collection tools (instruments)
when either conducting or critiquing research. There are three major types of validity.

• The first category is content validity. This category looks at whether the instrument adequately covers all the
content that it should with respect to the variable. In other words, does the instrument cover the entire
domain related to the variable, or construct it was designed to measure?

• Construct validity refers to
whether you can draw inferences
about test scores related to the
concept being studied. For
example, if a person has a high
score on a survey that measures anxiety, does this person truly have
a high degree of anxiety? In another example, a test of knowledge
of medications that requires dosage calculations may instead be
testing math’s knowledge.
There are three types of evidence concepts similar to that of other instruments. Although if there
that can be used to demonstrate a are no similar instruments available this will not be possible to
research instrument has construct do.
validity: 3. Theory evidence—this is evident when behaviour is similar to
1. Homogeneity—meaning that theoretical propositions of the construct measured in the
the instrument measures one instrument. For example, when an instrument measures anxiety,
construct. one would expect to see that participants who score high on the
2. Convergence—this occurs when instrument for anxiety also demonstrate symptoms of anxiety in
the instrument measures their day-to-day lives.2

• The final measure of validity is criterion validity. A criterion is any other instrument that measures the same
variable. Correlations can be conducted to determine the extent to which the different instruments measure
the same variable. Criterion validity is measured in three ways:
1. Convergent validity—shows that an instrument is highly correlated with instruments measuring similar
variables.
2. Divergent validity—shows that an instrument is 3. Predictive validity—means that the instrument
poorly correlated to instruments that measure should have high correlations with future
different variables. In this case, for example, criterions.2 For example, a score of high self-
there should be a low correlation between an efficacy related to performing a task should
instrument that measures motivation and one predict the likelihood a participant completing
that measures self-efficacy. the task.

Module #23: Drawing Logical Conclusions from Research Findings

The conclusion section sums up the key points of your discussion, the essential features of your design, or the
significant outcomes of your investigation. As its function is to round off the story of your project, it should
• be written to relate directly to the aims of the • acknowledge limitations and make
project as stated in the Introduction recommendations for future work (where
• indicate the extent to which the aims have been applicable)
achieved • highlight the significance or usefulness of your
• summarize the key findings, outcomes or work
information in your report

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your
understanding of the research problem. These include:
1. Presenting the last word on the issues you
raised in your paper. Just as the introduction
gives a first impression to your reader, the
conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting
impression. Do this, for example, by
highlighting key findings in your analysis or
result section or by noting important or
unexpected implications applied to practice.
2. Summarizing your thoughts and conveying
the larger significance of your study. The
conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly
answer [or in some cases, to re-emphasize] the
"So What?" question by placing the study within
the context of how your research advances past
research about the topic.
3. Identifying how a gap in the literature has been
addressed. The conclusion can be where you
describe how a previously identified gap in the
literature [described in your literature review
section] has been filled by your research..
4. Demonstrating the importance of your ideas. Don't
be shy. The conclusion offers you the opportunity
 to elaborate on the impact and significance of
your findings.
5. Introducing possible new or expanded ways of
thinking about the research problem. This
does not refer to introducing new information
[which should be avoided], but to offer new insight
and creative approaches for framing or
contextualizing the research problem based on the
results of your study.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument. It reminds the reader of the strengths of
your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by
stating clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in
relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. Make sure, however, that your conclusion is not
simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in
your essay.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:
• State your conclusions in clear, simple • Do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion of your
language. Re-state the purpose of results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the
your study then state how your paper to show how these converge to address the research
findings differ or support those of problem and the overall objectives of your study
other studies and why [i.e., what were • Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't
the unique or new contributions your already done so in the discussion section of your paper.
study made to the overall research Highlighting the need for further research provides the
about your topic?]. reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of
the research problem.
Types of conclusions for research papers
Depending on your research topic and the style of your paper, you may choose to write your conclusion
according to specific types. The following information can help you determine which approach to take when you
write your conclusion.
1. Summarizing conclusion An externalizing conclusion presents points or ideas that may
A summarizing conclusion is not have been directly stated or relevant to the way you presented
typically used for giving a clear your research and thesis. However, these types of conclusions can be
summary of the main points of effective because they present new ideas that build off of the topic you
your topic and thesis. This is initially presented in your research. Externalizing conclusions get
considered the most common form readers thinking in new directions about the impacts of your topic.
of conclusion, though some 3. Editorial conclusion
research papers may require a In an editorial conclusion, you are presenting your own
different style of conclusion. concluding ideas or commentary. This type of conclusion connects your
Common types of research papers thoughts to the research you present. You might state how you feel
that call for this kind of conclusion about outcomes, results or the topic in general. The editorial
include persuasive essays, problem conclusion can work especially well in research papers that present
and solution research, opinions, take a humanistic approach to a topic or present
argumentative papers and scientific controversial information.
and historical topics.
2. Externalizing conclusion
Module #24: Formulating Research Implications and Recommendations

The final chapter of the research report must bring the research together and provide an interpretation of the
results, written in language that is commonly understood even by managers who may not be well versed in
statistical analysis, a summary of the critical conclusions of which the specific audience needs to be aware, the
importance of the findings stated in the implications, and strategic recommendations based on the findings of
the research.

IMPLICATIONS
Implications section is an important subsection at the end of the thesis or dissertations. Implications section is
typically a part of the conclusion in research. It examines the importance of the study and how the findings of
that particular study may be important for policy, practice, theory and ensuing research studies. This section
basically looks at the conclusions you draw from the results and explain the importance of these findings for
practice, theory or policy. However, you have to validate the implications with solid evidence. You also have to
explain the study’s parameters and take into account the limitations of the study in order to avoid over-
generalization of results. Basically, in this section, you will discuss the importance of your research study and the
difference it makes.
Implications are If you tested a theory in your study, then you want to discuss the theoretical
typically two-pronged: implications of your study. If your study supported the theory you tested, a
• Implications for theoretical implication would be that the theory is suitable for explaining and
research or theory; understanding the phenomenon you investigated. Or, the theory may be suitable
and for studying the specific population you studied. If researchers have not applied
• Implications for the theory to the population or setting you studied, a theoretical implication might
practice. be that your study may serve as a basis for modifying the theory. Theories may be
partially supported as well, suggesting further study of the theory is needed or that
modifications to it are necessary.

Drawing out Implications

As part of reflecting on what your findings mean,
you need to draw out the implications of your
findings for the field itself and/ or societies. In
longer theses, it is usual to situate findings in the
contexts of past and future research.
Contextualizing your findings within previous
research helps readers to grasp the significance of
your research – how your research builds on, and
contributes to knowledge
• To what extent do my findings align with those of
other scholars, in what precise ways, and if not why
not?
• If certain findings suggest a need for further research,
what might this consist of and how might such
research extend or improve the current state of
knowledge in my field?
• Are there any practical implications (e.g. policy
implications) that I need to specifically address?

RECOMMENDATION
Recommendations are arguably the most important part of the analysis phase—this is where you’ll suggest
specific interventions or strategies to address the issues and constraints identified in the assessment. The
recommendations that you introduce in your research paper are essential to the plans you have to move your
field of study forward. Recommendations are the added suggestions or proposed solutions that you want people
to follow when performing future studies. These are based off of what you have found or what you might be
interested in doing at some point in the future.
Here are the steps on formulating your a. Compile your research paper’s findings.
research paper’s conclusions and b. Formulate conclusions for each of the findings.
recommendations.
 c. Generate recommendations based the establish, fund, facilitate, coordinate, etc.). They should
conclusions. use a “SMART” format (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Recommendations should be one-sentence, Realistic, Timely). Each recommendation should be
succinct, and start with an action verb (create, followed by a few sentences of explanatory text.

Module #25: Preparing Bibliography (Reference List) and Appendices

Bibliography
• list of works on a subject or by an author
that were used or consulted to write a
research paper, book or article
• also referred to as a list of works cited
• usually found at the end of a book, article
or research paper

Appendices
• contains supplementary material that
is not an essential part of the text itself
but which may be helpful in providing a
more comprehensive understanding of
the research problem
• a separate appendix should be used
for each distinct topic or set of data and
always have a title descriptive of its
contents

A bibliography is a list of works on a subject or by an author that were used or consulted to write a
research paper, book or article. It can also be referred to as a list of works cited. A bibliography usually
appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web
sites, and non-text sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and
articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name. These references must include specific information
about the source so that your readers can identify precisely where the information came from. The citation
entries on a works cited page typically include the author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the
publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where it was published (for books), and when it was
published.
Regardless of what citation style is being used, there are key pieces of information that need to be
collected in order to create the citation.
For books and/or journals:
• Author’s name
• Title of publication
• Article title (if using a journal)
• Date of publication
• Place of publication
• Publisher
• Volume number of a journal, magazine or encyclopedia
• Page number(s)
For websites:
• Author and/or editor name
Module #25: Preparing Bibliography (Reference List) and Appendices

Bibliography
• list of works on a subject or by an author
that were used or consulted to write a
research paper, book or article
• also referred to as a list of works cited
• usually found at the end of a book, article
or research paper
Appendices
• contains supplementary material that is not an
essential part of the text itself but which may be
helpful in providing a more comprehensive
understanding of the research problem
• a separate appendix should be used for each
distinct topic or set of data and always have a title
descriptive of its contents

A bibliography is a list of works on a subject or by an author that were used or consulted to write a research paper,
book or article. It can also be referred to as a list of works cited. A bibliography usually appears at the end of a
paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and non-text sources such
radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s
last name. These references must include specific information about the source so that your readers can identify
precisely where the information came from. The citation entries on a works cited page typically include the
author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where
it was published (for books), and when it was published.

Regardless of what citation style is being used, there are key pieces of information that need to be collected in
order to create the citation.
For books and/or journals: For websites:
• Author’s name • Author and/or editor name•
• Title of publication Title of the website
• Article title (if using a journal) • Company or organization that
• Date of publication owns or posts to the website
• Place of publication • URL (website address)
• Publisher • Date of access
• Volume number of a journal, magazine or encyclopedia
• Page number(s)

Referencing Styles
Aspect APA Style MLA Style
Author’s name Full surname, iniWals of first and Full surname, full first name, middle
middle name iniWals(opWonal)
Title of the reading material Italicized Underlined or italicized
Copyright date WriYen aZer the author’s name WriYen aZer the publisher’s name
IndenWon Indent aZer the first line of each entry Indent aZer the first line of each entry
Order All the authors last name are Resource materials are arranged
alphabeWcally arrange according to their classificaWon (e.g.
books, unpublished materials, online
materials)
CitaWon appearance Reference Work Cited
APA Styles
One Author Flores. J.A. (2009). The Colds Virus. Quezon City: GB Press.
Gomez, B.M. (2014). The Philippine EducaWonal System. Manila: Adarna Publishing
House.
Two Authors Opresa, N.C., and Danes, J.L. (2015) Coron Islands. Baguio City. KLM Company.
Reynaldo, M.R., Sabanado, J.M. (2017). Academic InsWtuWons. Manila: NaWonal
Bookstore.
Three Authors (list down the names as they appear in the order they appear in the Wtle page)
Regala, M.R., BauWsta, C.C. and Laya, G.F. (2012). The Philippines’ Supreme Court
JusWce. Pasay City: ABC Press.
Three or More Authors (list down the first author that appears in the Wtle page)
Bora, E.N. et al (2016). BIR Regional Offices. Quezon city: Rex Bookstore
Anonymous Author (if the authorship of the work is known but not revealed on the Wtle page, the name
is given in the brackets.)
[Candelario, E] the Opium craze. (20160. Nowhere: Nonesuch Press
Editor, Translator, Compiler Parehas, G.F. (2016).ed. Folk’s Lucky Charm. Manila: PH Press.
Delarosa, L.F. (2015). comp. Philippine Banking System. Quezon city: Abiva
Publishing House.
Anahaw, J.S. (2011). Summer Illnesses. Trans. (MakaW city: Rex Press)
OrganizaWon, AssociaWon. InternaWonal Monetary Fund, 2001 Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6.New York:
Or CorporaWon as Author InternaWonal Monetary Fund.
Non Ascertainable Corona, L. The rise and fall of Roman empire. (n.p.,n.d.)
PublicaWon Facts
Magazines Almares,M.(March 2013). “The French cuisine”. Panorama. Pp.23-26.
Newspaper Tan, C.S. “Posh Subdivision in Pasay City.” (2016) Philippine Daily Inquirer. May7
Manila BulleWn. (2017). Editorial. 2 December. Malaya. (2016). Editorial, 18 July.
Interviews Corpuz, F.(April 2015). “QuanWtaWve research: interview with Felicitas Corpuz.’ April
2016. Interviewed by Anabelle Gomez. The Manila BulleWn.
Theses, DissertaWons, Paranyo, R.D. (2015). “Meta-cogniWve reading among basic learners.” Ph.D diss.,
Unpublished Works U.P. Diliman.
Mariano, D. G. (20170. “English plus textbook in college: discourse Analysis.” M.A.
UST.

Materials through Computer

Signed arWcle in a Alegre, R. (July 2016). “Social-media networks.” Personality growth. Retrieved from
Magazine hYp://www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/
Unsigned arWcle in a “Unstructured interview. (August 2016).” Business Trends Magazine. Retrieved from
magazine hYp://www.BusTRendscom/BusTrends/Trends/ctshoot.htmlz.
ArWcle in Newspaper Davalos,J. “The era of globalizaWon.” (21 December 2015). The Daily Life Star.
Retrieved from hYp://www.a-pinq.com/ed/2014/24/po4.htmlz/
Editorial “PoliWcs in the Philippines. (7 July 2014).” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer.
Retrieved from hYp://www.nyWmes.com/2016/26world/28MIDE.hymlz.
Online books Silverman, F.D. (2016). American PragmaWcs.Retrieved from
hYp:AMPRA2etext2014/14wo310txtz
Appendix
An appendix (one item) OR appendices (more than one item) contains informaWon that is NOT ESSENTIAL
to the essay or report that you have wriYen, but supports analysis and validates your conclusions. However,
someWmes an appendix may be used for ESSENTIAL tables and figures which are too large to fit into the text of an
essay/report. Appendices may be authored by yourself (no reference required) or copied from elsewhere
(reference required). Rules apply.
When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following:
1. It is usually good pracBce to include your raw 4. The appendix can be a good place to put
data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format maps, photographs, diagrams, and other
so the reader can re-check your results. Another images, if you feel that it will help the reader
opWon if you have a large amount of raw data is to understand the content of your paper,
to consider placing it online and note that this is while keeping in mind the study should be
the appendix to your research paper. understood without them.
2. Any tables and figures included in the appendix 5. An appendix should be streamlined and not
should be numbered as a separate sequence loaded with lot informaBon. If you have a
from the main paper. Remember that appendices very long and complex appendix, it is a good
contain non-essenWal informaWon that, if idea to break it down into separate
removed, would not diminish a reader's ability to appendices, allowing the reader to find
understand the research problem being relevant informaWon quickly as the
invesWgated. This is why non-textual elements informaWon is covered in the body of the
should not carry over the sequenWal numbering paper.
of non-textual elements in the body of your 6. Include used for leYers of endorsement or
paper. collaboraWon, and reprints of relevant arWcles
3. If you have more than three appendices, if they are not available electronically. Other
consider lisBng them on a separate page at the uses may be data tables, surveys,
beginning of your paper. This will help the reader quesWonnaires, data collecWon instruments,
know what informaWon is included in the clinical protocols, and informed consent
appendices [always list the appendix or documents, as allowed by the sponsor.
appendices in a table of contents].

Appendices may include some of the following:

• supporWng evidence (e.g. raw data that is referred to in the text)
• contributory facts, specialized data (raw data appear in the appendix, but summarized data appear in the
body of the text.)
• sample calculaWons (referred to in the text)
• technical figures, graphs, tables, staWsWcs (referred to in the text)
• detailed descripWon of research instruments (referred to in the text)
• maps, charts, photographs, drawings (referred to in the text)
• leYers, copies of emails (referred to in the text)
• quesWonnaires/surveys (quesWonnaire/survey results appear in the body of the text)
• transcripts of interviews (summarized in the text)
• specificaWon or data sheets (summarized in the text)
Module #26: Preparing the Research Abstract

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the enWre paper in a
prescribed sequence that includes:
1. the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you invesWgated.
2. the basic design of the study;
3. major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and
4. a brief summary of your interpretaWons and conclusions.

I. Types of Abstracts
To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general
types.

CriBcal Abstract InformaBve Abstract

A criWcal abstract provides, in addiWon to describing
main findings and informaWon, a judgment or
comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or
completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper
and oZen compares it with other works on the same
subject. CriWcal abstracts are generally 400-500
words in length due to the addiWonal interpreWve
commentary. These types of abstracts are used
infrequently.
DescripBve Abstract
A descripWve abstract indicates the type of
informaWon found in the work. It makes no
judgments about the work, nor does it provide
results or conclusions of the research. It does
incorporate key words found in the text and may
include the purpose, methods, and scope of the
research. EssenWally, the descripWve abstract only
describes the work being summarized. Some
researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather
than a summary. DescripWve abstracts are usually
very short, 100 words or less.
The majority of abstracts are informaWve. While they
sWll do not criWque or evaluate a work, they do more
than describe it. A good informaWve abstract acts as a
surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher
presents and explains all the main arguments and the
important results and evidence in the paper. An
informaWve abstract includes the informaWon that can
be found in a descripWve abstract [purpose, methods,
scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions
of the research and the recommendaWons of the
author. The length varies according to discipline, but an
informaWve abstract is usually no more than 300 words
in length.
Highlight Abstract
A highlight abstract is specifically wriYen to aYract the
reader’s aYenWon to the study. No pretense is made of
there being either a balanced or complete picture of
the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks
may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a
highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its
associated arWcle, it is not a true abstract and,
therefore, rarely used in academic wriWng.

A well-wriIen abstract serves mulBple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or arWcle quickly, in order to decide whether
to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed informaWon, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
and
• an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.
Process in WriBng an Abstract
• First re-read your paper/report for an
overview. Then read each secWon and
condense the informaWon in each down
to 1-2 sentences.
• Next read these sentences again to
ensure that they cover the major points
in your paper.
• Ensure you have wriYen something for
each of the key points outlined above for
either the descripWve, informaWve
abstract, criWcal or highlight.
• Check the word length and further
reduce your words if necessary by cutng
out unnecessary words or rewriWng
some of the sentences into a single, more
succinct sentence.
• Edit for flow and expression.
CharacterisBcs of a Good Abstract
• uses one well-developed paragraph that is coherent
and concise, and is able to stand alone as a unit of
informaWon
• covers all the essenWal academic elements of the full-
length paper, namely the background, purpose, focus,
methods, results and conclusions
• contains no informaWon not included in the paper
• is wriYen in plain English and is understandable to a
wider audience, as well as to your discipline-specific
audience
• oZen uses passive structures in order to report on
findings, focusing on the issues rather than people
• uses the language of the original paper, oZen in a more
simplified form for the more general reader
• usually does not include any referencing
• in publicaWons such as journals, it is found at the
beginning of the text, while in academic assignments,
it is placed on a separate preliminary page.