Chemistry Exam Notes:

Quantitative Chemistry:
UNIT 1: BALANCING CHEMISTRY EQUATIONS

Chemical Formulae and Polyatomic Ions:

Elements:
Metals:
o Lefts of dividing line.
o Example: Na, Mg, Zn, Ob.
Metalloids:
o On either side adjacent to the dividing line.
o Example: Si, Ge.
Non – Metals:
o Right of dividing line.
o Example: S, O2, Cl2, Br2, H2.

Periodic Table:
Period – horizontal.
Group – vertical.
Group 1 – Alkali Metals.
Group 2 – Alkaline Earth Metals.
Group 17 – Halogens.
Group 18 – Noble Gases.
More Information: https://youtu.be/t_f8bB1kf6M?si=RzxvJZBPwoTjIFSX
The following table applies to the naming of compounds and its revision of
Grade 10:
DESCRIPTION
Elements on the left of the Periodic
table are usually named first.
Names of element on the right of the
Periodic Table change by adding ide at
the end.
“Mono” – one.
“Di” – two.
“Tri” – three.
Showing the number of atoms of the
element.
These terms are used for covalent
molecules, not ionic compounds.
Some substances have common names
as well.
Polyatomic ions, which always consist
of the same ratio of elements (law of
constant composition).
EXAMPLE
NaCl – Sodium Chloride.
CO – carbon Monoxide.
Carbon Monoxide – oxygen changed to
oxide.
CO – Carbon Monoxide – 1O.
CO2 – Carbon dioxide – 2O.
SO3 – Sulphur Trioxide – 3O.
H2O – Hydrogen Oxide – Water.
HCI (aq) – Hydrogen Chloride -.
HCI (aq) – hydrochloric acid – Swimming
Pool Acid.
Na2SO4 – Sodium Sulfate.
CaSO4 – Calcium Sulfate.
MgSO4 – Magnesium Sulfate.

Balanced Chemical Reaction Equations Advice:

1. Write down the correct formula for every reactant and every product
separately.
o Make sure that the total of the positive charges in the compound is
balanced by the total of the negative charges in the compound.
o Numbers must be written as subscripts to indicate more than one atom
in the formula.
o Remember that certain elements are composed of molecules. These
elements must always be indicated using the correct formula as they
occur in the natural state.
2. Indicate the state of the reactants and products as follows:
o Gaseous State (g).
o Liquid State (l).
o Solid State (s).
o Aqueous State (aq).
3. Separate the reactants and product with an arrow.
4. Count the numbers of atoms of each element separately.
Interpretation of reaction equations:
A balanced equation illustrates that neither mass nor energy can be created or
destroyed. Everything that is represented before the arrow must be there after the
arrow.
The left – hand side (reactants) consists of just the same amount of matter as the
right – hand (product).
To determine the formulae of substances as well as balanced equations, it is
important to understand the following laws:
o Law of constant composition – a specific chemical always consists of the
same element in the same ratio:
https://youtu.be/2nAYSy8N_x0?si=lic4YknBaQtUiDb6
o Law of Conservation of Mass – The total mass of the particles before a
reaction and the total mass of the particles after a reaction remain constant:
https://youtu.be/eBTNzScLUg4?si=ILHkB98_ei1Ts7NE
o Law of Volume Ration – a specific number of particles of any gas occupies the
same volume at fixed temperature and pressure:
https://youtu.be/SXo13S_B9f4?si=Vq-78aSTLL8xHXbj

DO EXAM QUESTIONS PAGE 31.

Unit 2 – Quantitative Aspects:

Mol Concepts:
Mol:
The value of Avogadro’s constant was determined experimentally using electrolysis.
It is represented by the Symbol NA.
o 1 Mol of matter contains Avogadro’s number of particles, 6,02 X 10 23 mol-1
elementary units.
1 Mol is the number of particles contained in Avogadro’s number of formula units.
o When it is an element/metal, the particles are atoms.
o When it is a covalent compound, particles are molecules.
o When it is an ionic compound, the particles are ions.
Molar Mass:
The mass in gram of one mol of that substance.
Molar mass is measured in g.mol-1.
Relationship between mol, mass and molar mass
𝑚
• n=𝑀
o n – mol
o m – mass (g)
o M – molar mass (g.mol-1)
𝑁
• n = 𝑁(𝐴)
o n – mol
o N – number of particles
o NA – N(A) – 6,02*1023

Molar Gas Volume:

Avogadro’s Law:
o One mol – one mol of any gas has a volume of 22,4 dm3 at standard
temperature and pressure (STP).
o This volume is known as the molar gas volume, VM.
o Avogadro’s Law – Equal volume of all gases, measured at the same
temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules.
𝑉
o n=
22,4
o Know the conversion for cube meter.
Pull Image:
More Information:
Page 50.

Concentrations of Solutions:
o Solutions – a homogenous mixture of the solute and the solvent.
o Solute – the substance that is dissolved in the solution.
o Solvent – the substance in which another substance is dissolved to form a
solution.
o Concentration – the amount of solute per unit of volume of solution.

Calculations and more Information:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=njnA9Bj6n60&list=PLU_DCVXL8MyM9lotGw8_6GkZN8-
PHg4Er&pp=iAQB

Stoichiometric Calculations is inside the link.

Limiting Reactant is inside the link.
Percentage Yield:
Yield – a measure of the extant of a reaction, generally measured by comparing the
amount of product against the amount of product that is possible.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Percentage yield - 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑋 100

Followed by the link above.

Percentage Purity:
Defined as the mass of pure compound in the impure sample.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
Percentage Purity - 𝑋 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Followed by the link above.

DO EXAM QUESTIONS ON PAGE 97.

Chemical Bonding:
The mutual attraction between two atoms resulting from the simultaneous attraction
between their nuclei and outer electrons. The energy of the combined atoms is lower
than that of the individual atoms resulting in higher stability.

Unit 1 – Intramolecular Bonds:

Intramolecular Bonds – bonds occurring between atoms within molecules.
Bonding models:
Covalent bond – A sharing of at least one pair of electrons by two non-metals
atoms.
Non -Polar – A non-polar covalent bonds is an equal sharing of electrons.
Polar – An unequal sharing of electrons leading to a dipole forming (as a result of
electronegativity difference).
Ionic Bonding – A transfer of electrons and subsequent electrostatic attraction.
Metallic Bonding – A positive kernel and a sea of delocalized electrons.
Electronegativity – a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair
of electrons.
More Information:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4oEQGpfUv6I&pp=ygUUaW50cmFtb2xlY3VsYXIgYm9u
ZHM%3D

DO EXAM QUESTIONS ON PAGE 131.

Unit 2 – Intermolecular Forces:
Intermolecular Forces:
o In a liquid or solid state, there must be forces between the particles that will
hold the particles together. If there were no such forces, the molecules would
move apart and become a gas.
o Intermolecular Forces are weak forces of attraction between molecules, ions,
or atoms of noble gases.
More Information on the type of intermolecular forces:
https://youtu.be/QdwzMPwPA3I?si=Q_n2CSauM_qlkjwH

Difference between intermolecular forces and intramolecular bonds:

o Intermolecular bonds are those bonds that hold the different atoms together in
a molecule.
o Intermolecular forces are the forces that attract molecules to each other.
Boiling Point and Melting Point:
o The boiling point is the temperature where the vapour pressure of a
substance is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
o Melting point is the temperature where the solid state and liquid state of a
substance are in equilibrium.
DO EXAM QUESTIONS ON PAGE 153.

Energy change and Rate of Reactions:

Unit 1 – Energy change in reactions:
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:
o Thermodynamics includes the study of energy or heat transfer during
chemical reactions.
o Some reactions release energy and others use energy.
o Chemical Reactions are classified as exothermic or endothermic on the
grounds of energy changes that occur during the reaction.
o Exothermic Reaction – Reactions which transform chemical potential energy
into thermal energy,
o Endothermic Reaction – Reactions which transform thermal energy into
chemical potential energy.
o Enthalpy – The total amount of chemical potential energy in a chemical
system.
o It is presented by the symbol H and the change in enthalpy (heat of
reaction) for a reaction system that is indicated by the ΔH.
o ΔH = EPRODUCTS – EREACTANTS.
Heat of reaction – It is the net change of chemical potential energy of the system.
 o If the products in a reaction system have a greater enthalpy than the
reactants, then ΔH will be positive, meaning that the heat is absorbed.
o Endothermic Reaction: ΔH > 0.
o If the enthalpy of the product in a reaction system is less than that of the
reactant, then ΔH will be negative, meaning heat is released.
o Exothermic Reaction: ΔH < 0.

Breaking and Forming of Bonds:

To Break Bonds – to break bonds, the attractive force between particles must be
overcome, and energy is absorbed, and the reaction is endothermic.
Forming Of Bonds – When new bonds are formed, energy is released, and the
reaction is exothermic.
Bond Energy – The energy necessary to break one mol of molecules of a compound
into separate times.

Activation Energy:
Activation Energy – the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction; it is
the energy required to form the activated complex.
Activation Complex – A high energy, unstable, temporary, transition state between
reactants and products.
Energy:
o Exothermic
Reactants -> products + energy
Reactant -> products ΔH < 0
Reactants -> products ΔH = -20 kJ.mol-1
Reactants -> products + 20 kJ.mol-1
o Endothermic
Reactants -> energy + product
Reactant -> products ΔH > 0
Reactants -> products ΔH = 20 kJ.mol-1
Reactants + 20 kJ.mol-1 -> products
Catalyst:
Catalyst – A substance that increases the rate of a reaction but remains unchanged
at the end of the reaction.
If the activation energy for a reaction is to low, then a greater fraction of the reactant
molecules will have a greater energy that the activation energy, and the reaction will
take place quickly.
Positive Catalyst:
o Lowers the activation energy of a reaction.
o Does not permanently change during the reaction.
o Does not change the energy of the reactants or the products, therefore ΔH
stays the same.
The catalyst temporarily bonds with the reactant molecules, and in doing so
weakness the existing interatomic forces.
DO EXAM QUESTIONS ON PAGE 195.

Unit 2 – Rate Of Reactions:

What is rate of reaction?
o Reaction Rate – Expressed as the change in the concentration per unit time
of the reactant or the products.
More Information:
Look at Page 213 and 214.

Collision Theory:
The particle of the different reactants first has to collide with each other before they
can react with each other. Chemical Reactions can therefore only occur when the
reactant particles come into contact with each other.
Only effective collisions between reactants particles lead to chemical reactions.
For collision theory to be effective:
o The particles must have enough kinetic energy.
o This means that the collisions have to be strong enough to break existing
bonds.
o The particles must have enough kinetic energy so that the energy is the same
as, or greater than the activation energy of the reaction.
o Particles must have the correct orientation. They have to collide with the
correct orientation.
Reaction Rate is directly proportional to the number of effective collisions per unit
time.
Factors that influence rate of reaction:
[Pull temperature notes]
More Information: https://youtu.be/-4HXaUBbv04?si=mk9bU9uj0AEEupoq
Look at Page 245 – 246.
DO EXAM QUESTIONS PAGE 269.

Chemical Equilibrium:
Unit 1 – Equilibrium:
Different Systems:
o Open Systems – A system in which both energy and matter can exchange between
the system and its surroundings.
o Closed Systems – A system in which mass is conserved inside the system, but
energy can enter or leave the system freely.
o Isolated System – When there is no energy or any reactants or products (mass) enter
or escape from the reaction system during the process of the reaction, it is an
isolated system.

Acids & Bases:

Properties of Acids:
o Acids conduct electricity in aqueous solutions since ions can move freely in
the solution. It is therefore an electrolyte.
o Have an acidic taste.
o Influence the colour of indicators.
o Bond to water with a dative, covalent bonds to form hydronium ions:
H+ + H2O ˃ H3O+.
o React with metals which are stronger reducing agents than H2 (g), to produce
H2 (g) and a metal salt.
o React with carbonates to product CO2 (g) + H2O (I), as a metal salt.
o Increase the concentration of the H+ ions or H2O+ ions in solution, lowering
the Alkalinity (pH).
o Neutralize a base to produce metal salt and water.
Properties of Base:
o Bitter taste.
o Feel soapy.
o Influence the colour of indicators.
o Some bases, like CuO and CaCO3, are insoluble in water.
o A base that dissolves in H2O is called an alkali.
o Alkali conducts electricity in an aqueous solution since the ions can move
freely in the solution, this means that it is an electrolyte.
o An alkali increases the concentration of the hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution or
decreases the hydronium ion (H3O+) concentration in solution. It increases the
pH.
o Neutralize an acid to form a metal salt and water.

Acid – Base Theory:

Arrhenius – The Arrhenius Theory defines acids and bases according to the ions that
they release in aqueous solution.
o HCI > H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq).
Arrhenius Base – It is a substance that releases OH- ions in an aqueous solution.
o NaOH > OH- (aq).
Bronsted – Lowry Theory:
Bronsted-Lowry acid – a proton donor.
Therefore: HCl -> H+ + Cl-
Bronsted-Lowry base – a proton acceptor.
o NH3 + H+ -> and <- NH4+
o OH- + H+ -> H2O.
Ionisation – The reaction of a molecular substance with to produce ions.
Hydrochloric acid in water:
o HCl(g) + H2O(l) -> H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (ionisation of a strong acid
Sulfuric acid in water:
o H2SO4(l) + 2H2O(l) -> 2H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq) (ionisation of a strong acid)
Ethanoic acid in water:
o CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) -> and <- CH3COO- (aq) + H3O+(aq) (ionisation of a
weak acid)
Dissociation – The splitting of an ionic compound into its ions.
Sodium hydroxide (an ionic salt) dissociates in water:
o NaOH(s) -> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ammonia – (a covalent molecule) ionizes in water:
o NH3(g) + H2O(l) -> and <- NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq).

Monoprotic and Polyprotic Acids:

Acids can be classified as monoprotic or polyprotic according to the number of protons (H+)
that they donate.
Monoprotic acids can only donate one proton (H+).
o HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH, HF
Polyprotic acids donate more than one proton (H+)
Diprotic acids can donate two protons (H+).
o H2SO4, H2CO3, (COOH)2, H2SO3
Triprotic acids can donate three protons (H+).
o H3PO4
Acid – Base Reactions:
Involves the transfer of a proton (H+) from an acid to a base and is called a
proteolytic reaction.

Conjugate Bases:
When an acid donates a proton (H+), a conjugate base is formed. Acid > and <
conjugate base + H+.
The acid and the conjugate base that forms, are a called a conjugate acid base pair.

Conjugate Acids:
When a base receives a proton (H+), a conjugate acid form. Base + H+ > and <
conjugate acid.
The base and the conjugate acid are called a conjugate acid – base pair.

Conjugate Acid – Base Pair:

A pair of substance that can act either as an acid or as a base and is called
amphiprotic.
o In the presence of a strong acid, the amphoteric is a base.
o In the presence of a strong base, the amphoteric is an acid.
o The substance can donate or accept a proton and is therefore amphiprotic.

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases:

o A strong acid ionizes completely in an aqueous solution.
o A weak acid ionizes partially in an aqueous solution.
o A strong base dissociates completely in an aqueous solution and a weak base
only dissociates partially in an aqueous solution.
More Information:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HyKNyV0dfTI&pp=ygUfU3Ryb25nIGFuZCB3ZWFrIGFja
WRzIGFuZCBiYXNlcw%3D%3D

Concentrated and Dilute Acids and Bases:

A concentrated acid or base contains a large quantity of mol of dissolved substance
per unit of volume (the acid or base molecule or ions) of solution.
A dilute acid or base contains a small quantity of mol of dissolved substance (the
acid or base molecule or ions) per unit volume of solution.
More Information: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6-
mlh9xRjg&pp=ygUnQ29uY2VudHJhdGVkIGFuZCBkaWx1dGUgYWNpZHMgYW5kIGJhc2V
z
Distinction between Strong and Weak Acids and Bases:
o Ka values
o Kb values
o Relationship between Ka and Kb values
o pH

Conductivity:
Electrolyte – it is a substance that can conduct electricity by forming free ions when
molten or dissolved in solution.
The electrical conductivity of an electrolyte is determined by the number of ions in
the solution. The more ions in the solution, the better it conducts an electrical
current.

Reaction Rate:
o A strong acid readily releases H+ ions, therefore it has high (H3O+) in solution.
The reactant concentration is high, and the reaction rate is therefore high. The
H2 (g) is therefore released faster, and the reaction system bubbles
vigorously.
o A weak acid has a low percentage ionization, and therefore releases few H +
ions so that the (H3O+) is low. The reactant concentration is therefore low, and
the reaction rate is low.

Water:
Autoionization:
o Water acts as an acid in the presence of strong base and donates a proton
(H+) to the base. However, when water is in the presence of a strong acid like
HCl, water acts as a base and receives a proton (H+) from the acid. As
defined earlier, water is therefore amphoteric.
Ion Product (KW):
The ion product for water KW = H3O+] [OH-] = 1X10-14 at 25 degrees.
pH Scale:
The measure of the hydronium ion concentration [H2O+] in water at 25 degrees.
More Information:
Look at Page 27 & 28.
Indicators:
Indicator – it is a weak acid in equilibrium with its conjugate base of which the colour
changes if it added to an acid or base.
Neutralization – takes place when the acid and base properties of the respective
solutions ware neutralized. The point at which neutralization occurs, which is called
the equivalence point.

Reactions Of Acids:
More Information:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QlSsle_jSQ8&pp=ygUSUmVhY3Rpb25zIG9mIGFjaWRz

Look at your Textbook, I have no clue what page.

Neutralization Reactions:
Neutralization is the point where an acid base has reached so neither is in excess.
Also known as the equivalence post.

Hydrolysis:
More Information:
Look at page 51 & 52 (I got lazy).

Titrations:
More Information:
Look at page 59 – 62 (Same excuse follows here.)
DO EXAM QUESTIONS PAGE 91.
Electrochemistry:
Unit 1 – Redox Reaction:
Oxidation and Reduction:
Redox reaction – is a reaction involving the transfer of electrons.
Oxidation – is the loss of electrons.
o Is presented by an oxidation half-reaction, e.g.:
ZN(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
o The oxidation number of the reducing agent (Zn) increases.
o Reducing agent – the substance that donates electrons.
o Anode – the electrode where oxidation takes place.
Reduction – the gain of electrons
o Is presented by a reduction half-reaction, e.g.:
Cl2(g) + 2e- -> 2Cl-(aq)
o The oxidation number of the oxidizing agent (Cl2) decreases.
o Oxidizing agent – the substance that accepts electrons.
o Cathode – the electrode where reduction takes place.

Half – Reaction Table:

More Information: https://youtu.be/V6aul5zYWJ8?si=uHcLzbdg3FidXTjE
DO EXAM QUESTIONS PAGE 129.

Unit 2 – Electrochemical Cells:

Types of Electrochemical Cells:
Electrolytic Cells:
o Non-spontaneous redox reaction.
o E0cell < 0V.
o Electrical > chemical energy.
Voltaic/Galvanic Cells:
o Spontaneous redox reaction.
o E0cell > 0V.
o Chemical -> electrical energy.
More Information:
DO EXAM QUESTIONS PAGE 215. (Harold say’s don’t do everything).
Organic Chemistry:
Best to study from the notes from the school.
More Information:
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kniu96bu1y8&list=PLU_DCVXL8MyO-
V2pRjaZUNplUYnvOoUa9
o https://youtu.be/B_ketdzJtY8?si=pVz4NKAhbwqDzYOl

PLEASE NOTE: If you study these notes the day before, you might be
screwed if you are smart enough. But still you are going to look like a
cutfowl in the KFC Line.
Okay, enough of reading this, I wasted your time reading this.
You owe Makailen & Harold a chocolate for these notes.