Communication is a basic human need that is equal parts pure joy and endless opportunity for mishap or

even conflict. We use language to accomplish a wide range of social purposes, from expressing
friendship or thanks, giving advice or solace, teasing or flirting, debating issues of policy, establishing
social identity or creating, maintaining or deconstructing power and authority (Monaghan & Goodman,
2007). As infants, our instinctive cries are soon recognized as a cue to get fed or soothed, and we notice
that babbling makes others interact with us (Clark, 2016). Soon, toddlers drastically increase their
vocabulary and use it to demand, cajole, express affection, and comment verbally on their expanding
world, using short utterances.

They learn how to ask and answer questions, and often how to play different roles (parents, children,
favorite characters in books or movies, etc.) by adopting distinct voices, expressions, or speech patterns.
Byram (1997) and Risager (2007) refer to these types of processes as primary socialization. They are
followed by secondary socialization, when children enter the educational system, although many kids
around the world lack access to a formal education. During our teenage years and throughout our lives,
we encounter new cultural groups and continue to grow our communicative skills, learning to participate
in increasingly more diverse communicative events effectively, such as celebrating graduation, giving a
talk, participating in a friend’s wedding, or giving a eulogy at a funeral (Duff & Hornberger, 2010; Ochs &
Schieffelin, 2008; Saville-Troike, 2003).

Socialization teaches in-group members how these events might be celebrated, how they are organized,
who may speak, and when or what is appropriate to say. Expectations are rarely articulated and instead
reflect implicit rules for the “ways in which information, ideas, and attitudes pass among individuals,
groups, nations, and generations” (Barnouw, 1989, p. 25). Constituted in infinite ways – a family, siblings,
a sports team, a village, a nation, or a group of people sharing the same gender, political view, or
religious affiliation – the communities to which we belong impact how we view ourselves and others
who belong to the same community – i.e., members of the in-group – and, conversely, how we view and
communicate with ‘outsiders,’ who are members of the out-group. As Baumann (2007) notes,

Communication is socially constituted, rooted in social relationships and produced in the conduct of
social life … not only is communication socially constituted but society is communicatively constituted,
produced and reproduced by communicative acts … the communicative forms and practices of a society
~ its ways of speaking, dressing, dancing, playing music, and so on – are social means that are available
to members for the accomplishment of social ends. (pp. 25–26)