INTRODUCTION

Metal and Non-metals of Class 8

METALS
In the periodic table, you can see a stair-stepped line starting at Boron (B), atomic
number 5, and going all the way down to Polonium (Po), atomic number 84. Except for
Germanium (Ge) and Antimony (Sb), all the elements to the left of that line can be
classified as metals.

NON METALS:
Except for the elements that border the stair-stepped line, the elements to the right of
the line are classified as non-metals (along with hydrogen). Non-metals have properties
opposite those of the metals.

METALLOIDS:
The elements that border the stair-stepped line are classified as metalloids. The
metalloids, or semimetals, have properties that are somewhat of a cross between
metals and non-metals.
OCCURANCE OF METALS AND NON-METALS
The upper surface of Earth’s crust is made of sand and silicates. The most abundant
metal in the Earth’s crust is aluminum and the second most abundant metal is iron. The
most abundant non – metal in the earth’s crust is oxygen followed by silicon.

Metals are found in the earth’s crust as well as in sea water. With the notable exception
of gold which exists as an element, most metals occur naturally as compounds in the
form of metal oxides, metal sulphides and metal carbonates. These compounds are
called minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that has a definite
composition and crystalline structure.

Non-Metals occur in the free (native) state as well as in combined state.

Non-
Free State Combined State
Metal

78% of air by In living organisms as

Nitrogen volume is proteins and in soil as
nitrogen nitrogen compounds

Metal carbonates, natural

gas, petroleum,
As graphite,
Carbon
and Diamond proteins, carbohydrates,
fats and in air as carbon
dioxide
 Present inside
Metal sulphides and metal
Sulphur the Earth’s
sulphates
crust

ABOUT METALS AND NON METALS

At present, more than 114 chemical elements are known. Many of them are found to
occur in nature whereas some of them have been made by artificial methods and are
called synthetic elements.

Each element has a set of characteristic properties. To make the study of these
elements easier, they are grouped on the basis of their common properties into two
classes––metals and non-metals.

Different metals and non-metals have different physical and chemical properties.
Therefore, they are used also in a different manner.

We will read about this in detail in the following chapter.

ELEMENT
An element is a pure substance which cannot be subdivided into two or more new
substances by any means. Chemists have found 114 elements which exits in nature.
Example: Silver, Iron, Oxygen, Nitrogen, etc

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION

It was found that there was a wide variation in the properties of elements. Hence these
were further classified into three categories, i.e. metals, non-metals, metalloids based
on the properties they exhibit.

Elements can be classified as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.

The elements of the periodic table were placed into various divisions based on their
chemical and physical properties.

METALS:
Metals are located to the left of the "staircase" on the periodic table and are shown in
blue in the table above.

Their properties include:

 Malleable
 Ductile
 Lustrous
 Good conductors of heat and electricity
 Solid at room temperature (except Hg)

NON METALS:
Nonmetals are located to the right of the "staircase" on the periodic table and are shown
in yellow on the table above.
Their properties include:

 Not generally solids at room temperature. Most are gasses, some are solids, Br is a
liquid.
 Not malleable
 Not Ductile
 Low luster
 Bad conductors of heat and electricity

METALLOIDS:
Metalloids are located along the "staircase" on the periodic table and are shown in pink
on the table above.

Their properties include those of both metals and nonmetals. For example, Germanium
is lustrous like a metal, but not malleable like a nonmetal.

Another way an element can be a metalloid is if under some conditions it behaves as a

metal, but under other conditions the same metalloid behaves as a nonmetal. For
example, at room temperatures Boron is a poor electrical conductor (like nonmetals) but
is a good conductor (like metals) at high temperatures.

Some common metalloids are arsenic, antimony and silicon. The noble (inert) gases
from the fourth category of elements.

USES OF SOME COMMON METALS

Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
USES OF SOME COMMON METALS
COPPER:
Copper was among the first metals discovered by man along with gold and silver. It is
reddish brown in colour.

It is highly ductile , i.e., capable of being drawn into wires, and also a very good
conductor of heat and electricity.

It is used in making:

 electric wires and cables, utensils and semi-precious ornaments.

 coins and statues (in the form of its two alloys, brass and bronze).
 electronic devices.
 several electroplating operations.
The use of copper in the electrical goods industry has declined due to the increasing
use of aluminium as its substitute. Also copper is costly.

But the most important reason from its decline is its scarcity.

IRON:
Iron is definitely the most useful of all metals. It is among the most ancient metals
known to man.

There are three different varieties of manufactured iron, depending mainly on the
proportion of carbon present in it.

These are:

 pig iron (or cast iron)

 wrought iron
 steel

Wrought iron is the purest form of iron, since it has the least proportion of carbon
present in it, while pig iron is the most impure form of iron, since it has the highest
proportion of carbon present in it.

Steel is the most widely used form of impure iron, to the extent of being the very basis
of modern life.

Iron is used in the manufacture of:

 radiators, railings, manhole lids, drain pipes [in the form of pig iron].
 tanks, cylinders, smaller pipes, agricultural tools, nails and bolts, furniture, gates, etc. [in
the form of wrought iron].
 bridges, ships, machine parts, automobiles, buildings and utensils [in the form of steel].
 power transmission towers.

ALUMINIUM:
Aluminum is definitely the second most useful metal today, after iron.

It is silvery white in colour, malleable, ductile, light and strong, and it is a very good
conductor of heat and electricity as well.

Also it is resistant to corrosion. Therefore aluminum finds wide range applications.

It is used

 to make utensils, cans for drinks, furniture, window frames, etc.

 in making electric wires.
 for packaging of foodstuffs (in the form of aluminum foil).
  as a paint ingredient (in the form of its powder mixed with linseed oil, which protects
against rusting when applied to the surface of iron).
 to make the bodies of aircraft and automobiles, and a machine parts and tools. This is
because, in the form of its alloys duralumin and magnesium, it is light and very strong.
 in making mirrors (as reflector material).

Cheap and abundant power is a must for the extraction of aluminium from its ore.

Therefore, aluminium plants are located near big hydropower stations.

ZINC:
Zinc is a bluish white metal. It is neither malleable nor ductile, rather it is brittle. It is a
good conductor of electricity.

Zinc is used

 to make dry cells and electrodes.

 to make alloys like brass and bronze that are used to make utensils, statues, decoration
pieces, etc.
 to coat (galvanization) iron sheets so as to prevent them from rusting.
 in the extraction of silver and gold from their ores.

LEAD:
Lead is a heavy, silver grey metal. It stays unaffected by impure water, steam and dilute
acids.

It has low melting point.

It is used for:

 making pipes and other sanitary fittings, bullet tips and tin roofs.
 covering underground electric and telephone cables.
 making solder and type metal.
 the preparation of compounds like lead sulphate, red lead and litharge, which are used
in paint and emulsion products.
 making screens that protect against X-rays and other radioactive radiations.

MAGNESIUM:
Magnesium is a silvery white metal. It is available in the shape of ribbons.

It is used:

 in preparing fireworks, since it burns with a dazzling light.

 in the preparation of alloys like duralumin and magnalium.
 for making fuse wire.
 in nuclear reactors for the absorption of neutrons.
TIN:
Tin is a silvery white metal. It is highly malleable and ductile. It does not rust.

It is used:

 to make cans for storage of foodstuffs.

 for coating of utensils made of other metals so as to prevent them from corroding.

CALCIUM:
Calcium is a white lustrous metal that slowly dulls down on exposure to air.

It rarely occurs in free state, but in combined state it is found in the earth’s crust as
phosphates, sulphates, carbonates, etc.

The sulphate and chloride salts of calcium are present in hard water.

In its various combined states, calcium has wide applications

 Calcium chloride is used as a drying agent, i.e., for physical removal of water.
 Calcium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass, cement, lime, washing soda etc.
 Marble, a non-crystalline form of calcium carbonate, is used for building and laboratory
purposes. It is used also to make statues.
 Chalk, another form of calcium carbonate, is used for distempering of walls, in
toothpastes and talcum powder, and in medicines for indigestion etc.

GOLD:
Gold is a shiny yellow metal. It is extremely precious owing to its beauty, scarcity and
chemical and physical stability.

Gold is highly malleable and it is resistant to corrosion. It is a very good conductor of

heat and electricity as well.

Therefore it is used in

 the manufacture of electronic devices like telephones, computers, etc.

 making ornaments and coins.
 dentistry to fill into teeth cavities (in the form of amalgam, an alloy made of gold, silver
and mercury).

SILVER:
Silver is an half white, lustrous metal. It is the most ductile metal known to man.

It is also the best known of all metallic conductors of electricity.

It is used

 for making jewellery, since it is fairly scarce and therefore semi-precious.

  for filling into teeth cavities (in the form of amalgam, an alloy made of gold, silver and
mercury).
 as a water purifier
 for making electrodes and in several electroplating operations.
 in photography (in the form of silver nitrate and silver bromide).
 in the form of silver iodide to seed clouds in order to create “artificial rain”.

Though silver is the best known metallic conductor of electricity and the most ductile metal, it
is not used for making electric wires. This is because it is rather costly and not a chemically
stable as is required for transmission of electricity.
MERCURY:
Mercury is a silvery white, liquid metal. It does not moisten glass and it expands a lost
on heating.

Therefore it is used in

 Thermometers (as thermometric liquid):

 barometers and other scientific apparatus.
 dentistry, for filling into teeth cavities in the form of alloys known as silver amalgam and
gold amalgam.

PLATINUM:
Platinum is a lustrous and a very precious metal. It is not reactive, just as is god,
Platinum is an excellent catalyst.

It is used

 for making electrodes and electrolytic cells.

 for making expensive ornaments and watches.
USES OF SOME COMMON NON METALS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
USES OF SOME COMMON NON METALS
Non-metals too play a vital role in everyday life.

Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are made mostly of the non-metals carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen.

We need oxygen to breathe and plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

Non-metals are also important for the manufacture of a number of industrial

substances.

The uses of some commonly known non-metals are discussed below:—

OXYGEN:
Oxygen is a life supporting gaseous non-metal. No living thing can survive without
oxygen.

About 21% by volume and 23% by weight of air is oxygen 88.8% of pure water by
weight is oxygen.
In combined state, it is present in the earth’s crust as oxides, carbonates, sulphates,
etc.

Oxygen is used

 For respiration and combustion.

 For artificial respiration for patients suffering from breathing problems (in the form of
carbogen, a mixture of 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide).
 For artificial respiration by people in special occupations. Deep sea divers,
mountaineers, astronauts, miners and firemen carry oxygen cylinders with them.
 To weld and cut metals.
 In the extraction of iron and manufacture of steel. Oxygen reacts with the impurities of
the crude iron ores to form ferrous oxides.
 In the manufacture of sulphuric and nitric acids.
 For blasting of rocks in the mining industry; carbon dust (carbon mixed with liquid
oxygen) is used as an explosive, a substitute for dynamite.
 As a propellant for spacecraft; liquid oxygen (LOX) helps to burn hydrogen. Oxygen is
carried in containers attached to the spaceships. Since, in space there is no oxygen.

NITROGEN:
Nitrogen constitutes about 78% of air by volume. It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless
gas.

It is slightly lighter than air. It is neither combustible nor supporter of combustion.

Nitrogen is an important component of human food nutrients.

 Nitrogen plays an important role in controlling the rate of combustion. It dilutes the
oxygen present in the air that we breathe, otherwise, pure oxygen would burn our lungs.
 It is an important constituent of proteins, which are necessary for the growth of animals,
plants and human beings. Plants convert nitrogen into proteins.
 It is used in the manufacture of compounds like ammonia and nitrIt is used to make
fertilizers like ammonium salts, urea, potassium nitrate, etc.
 It is used to prepare explosives like T.N.T. (Trinitro toluene)
 Because of its inert nature, nitrogen is used for preservation of food. The containers
used for storing foodstuffs are flushed with nitrogen (to remove oxygen) before they are
packed and sealed. The absence of oxygen does not allow for bacterial growth. Thus
food remains fresh for a long time.

During a thunderstorm, when lightning occurs, nitrogen and oxygen in the

atmosphere combine to form oxides of nitrogen, which are washed away with
rain (in the form of nitric acid) into the soil.

CHLORINE:
It is a greenish yellow gas, with a pungent suffocating smell. It is fairly soluble in water,
forming a pale yellow solution called chlorine water.
Chlorine is used

 As a bleaching agent for rough and hand fibres like jute and cotton.
 As a disinfectant for sterilizing both drinking water and swimming pool water.
 In the manufacture of mineral acids like hydrogen chloride.
 In the manufacture of chemicals like D.D.T. (Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane), B.H.C
(Benzene hexachloride) and bleaching powder (CaOCl2), which are used as an
insecticide, a pesticide and a disinfectant, respectively.

SULPHUR:
Sulphur is yellow solid. It is brittle in nature. In free state in occurs in volcanic regions,
while in combined state it occurs as sulphates, sulphides, etc.

Substances like garlic, onion, eggs, hair and wool contain sulphur. Sulphur in small
amounts is a vital ingredient for the human body.

Sulphur has wide applications

 It is used in the chemical industry for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sodium
thiosulphate (used in photography), gunpowder, dyes, matches and fireworks.
 It is used in the medical industry:
 to prepare skin ointments, since it has excellent fungicidal properties.
 to fumigate disease-infected areas (in the form of sulphur vapour)
 to purify blood (in the form of a colloidal solution).
 to prepare homeopathic and ayurvedic medicines.
 to prepare a range of other medicinal drugs.
 Sulphur powder is used as an insecticide and as a fungicide.
 In the form of sulphur dioxide it is used for fumigation of factories, godowns and cold
storages.

PHOSPHORUS:
Phosphorus is found in red or yellow or white or black or scarlet colours. It does not
occur in free state, since it readily combines with oxygen.

In combined state phosphorus occurs as phosphates. It is present in the brain, the

bones and the teeth of animals [in the form of calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2] and in
plant cells.

 White phosphorus is used as rat poison. It is used also in fireworks because of its
inflammable nature.
 Phosphorus is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, detergents and fine chinaware.
 Phosphorus sulphide is used on the sides of safety match boxes.

SILICON:
Silicon is one of the most useful elements available to modern man. It does not occur
free in nature.
In combined state however it ranks next only to oxygen in abundance i.e., as sand. [The
chemical name of sand is silica (SiO2)].

Applications of Silicon:

 Highly purified silicon is used in making microchips for computers, transistors, solar
cells, rectifiers and other solid state devices that are used extensively in the electronic
and the space age industries.
 Silicon is used in the manufacture of “silicone”, a waterproof material.
 It is used also to prepare silicon carbide, which is the hardest substance prepared by
man. It is used as the grinding agent in various kinds of grinding tools.
 In the form of sand to prepare concrete, bricks and cement. Sand is the principal
ingredient of glass.
 In the form of silicates, silicon is used in enamel, pottery, etc., and for preserving eggs.
 Silicon is an important ingredient in steel, an alloy of iron.

IODINE:
Iodine is a dark grey, crystalline solid, with a metallic lustre. It is insoluble in water but
soluble in water but soluble in both alcohol and potassium iodide solutions.

It is used

 In the form of iodized slat for the healthy growth of the human body. Iodine deficiency
causes goiter and other thyroid based diseases.
 In Photographic films (in the form of potassium iodide).
 to make tincture of iodine and iodex, which are used as disinfectant and pain reliever
respectively.

FLUORINE:
Pure fluorine is a greenish yellow gas with a suffocating odour.

 Fluorine is used mainly in the production of fluorides and fluorocarbon compounds.

 In the form of stannous fluoride it is used in toothpastes to prevent dental decay,
especially in children.
 Fluorine is used to prepare a type of plastic known as teflon. Teflon is thermally stable
and chemically resistant. Therefore, it is widely used as an insulator and as a lubricant.
 Fluorine is potentially a rocket fuel, through it is rarely used for this purpose.
ELECTROPOSITIVE OR
ELECTRONEGATIVE NATURE OF
ELEMENTS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
METALS:
From the electronic viewpoint, metals are defined as elements which form positive ions
by losing electrons. They contain 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons. For example, a sodium
atom loses 1 electron, a calcium atom loses 2 electrons and an aluminum atom loses 3
electrons, to form the respective positively charged ions (Na+1, Ca+2, Al+3).

NON-METALS:
They are defined as elements which form negative ions by gaining electrons. They
contain 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. For example, chlorine contains 7 valence electrons
and gains 1 electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl–1). Oxygen contains 6
valence electrons and gains 2 electrons to form the negatively charged oxide ion (O–2).

METALLOIDS:
Elements with 4 valence electrons are normally metalloids. The noble gases with 8
valence electrons do not form ions and cannot really be classified as metals or non-
metals. However, since they are gases they show the physical characteristics of gases.

OCCURANCE OF METALS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
ORES OF REACTIVE METALS:
The ores of very reactive metals, such as sodium or calcium, contain chlorides or
carbonates of the metals, for example, rock salt (NaCl), dolomite (CaCO3 · MgCO3).

ORES OF LESS REACTIVE METALS:

The ores of other metals, such as aluminum, iron, copper or zinc, contain mostly oxides
or sulphides, for example, bauxite (Al2O3), iron pyrite (FeS2), hematite (Fe2O3), copper
glance (CuS), and zinc blende (ZnS).

METALLURGY:
The series of processes carried out to extract pure metals from their ores is called
metallurgy.
SOME METALS:
S.No
Compounds Minerals
.
1. Oxides Bauxite (AI2O3. 2H2O), Magnetite (Fe3O4)
2. Sulphides Copper Pyrites (CuFeS2), Cinnabar (HgS)
3. Carbonates Magnesite (MgCO3), Limestone (CaCO3), Calamine (ZnCO3)
4. Halides Common salt (NaCI), Horn silver (AgCl)
5. Sulphates Gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O), Epsom Salt (MgSO4. 7H2O)
6. Phosphates Rock Phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2]
7. Silicates China clay (AIzO3 . 2SiO2 . 2H2O)

OCCURANCE OF NON-METALS
HYDROGEN:
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. It is the chief element that
makes up the sun and other stars. On earth, hydrogen, mainly occurs in combined form
as a constituent of water (about 11% by weight of water is hydrogen), petroleum, natural
gas, coal, clay, and all animals and plants.

NITROGEN:
Nitrogen mainly occurs in the free state in the atmosphere. About 76% by mass of air is
nitrogen. In the combined state, it is a constituent of minerals such as Chile saltpeter
(NaNO3) and nitre (KNO3).

OXYGEN:
Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth's crust. It occurs in the free state in
the atmosphere, forming about 23% by mass of the atmosphere. In the combined state,
it constitutes about 80% by mass of water. It is also present in the combined state in the
earth's crust as oxides, carbonates and silicates of metals.

CARBON:
In the free state, carbon occurs as graphite, diamond and coal. Diamond and graphite
are pure forms of carbon. Coal contains 60-90% of carbon. In the combined state it
occurs in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In the earth's crust, it occurs as carbonates
of metals and as fossil fuels. Carbon is the central element of all living matter.
SILICON:
Silicon is the second most abundant element in the earth's crust. It does not occur in the
free state. In the combined state, it occurs as silica (SiO2) and silicates. The most
common form of silica is sand.

SULPHUR:
Sulphur occurs in the free state in the earth's crust. In the combined state, it occurs in
rocks as metal sulphates and sulphides. It also occurs as hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
which is present in petroleum and natural gas.

Noble gases such as helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon occur in elemental form in
air.

Extraction of non-metals from their sources is equally important. Non-metals so

obtained help in the production of many useful chemicals.

S. Non -
Free State Combined state
No. metals
1. Oxygen Air (21%) Water, earth's crust
2. Nitrogen Air (78%) Animal kingdom, nitre, chile salt petre.
Water, cells of plants and animals, natural gas,
3. Hydrogen Coal gas
petroleum, coal
4. Phosphorus - Rocks, bones, teeth, blood.
Diamond, graphite,
5. Carbon Air (0.03%), natural gas, marsh gas, rocks.
coal
Rocks near active
and
6. Sulphur Metallic ores
dormant volcanoes
7. Silicon - Sand, flint, quartz, opal, mica, feldspar

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
PHYSICAL STATE:
All metals (except mercury and gallium) are solids at room temperature. Mercury,
gallium (at 300C), caesium and francium occur in liquid state in nature.
Liquid Metal : Mercury

METALS ARE MALLEABLE:

Metals are generally malleable. This means that the metals can be beaten with a
hammer into very thin sheets without breaking. This property of metals is called
malleability. Gold and silver are among the best malleable metals. Aluminium and
copper are also highly malleable metals. All metals are not malleable. e.g. sodium,
potassium & calcium are not malleable.

Sodium can be easily cut with a knife

METALS ARE DUCTILE:
It means that metals can be drawn (stretched) into thin wires. This property of metals is
called ductility. Gold and silver are the most ductile metals. Copper, aluminium and
tungsten are also very ductile, and therefore, these can be drawn into thin wires which
are used in electrical wiring. Metals like Na, K, Ca etc. are not ductile, while metals like
Sn. Pb etc. are less ductile.

METALS ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY:

All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. The ability of metals due to which
they allow electric current and heat to pass through them is called electrical and thermal
conductivity respectively. Silver is the best conductor of heat. Copper and aluminium
are also good conductors of heat and therefore, they are used for making household
utensils. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat. Mercury metal is also a poor conductor
of heat.

The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals are due to the presence of free
electrons in them. Among all the metals, silver is the best conductor of electricity.
Copper and aluminium are the next best conductors of electricity. Since silver is
expensive, therefore, copper and aluminium are commonly used for making electric
wires.

METALS ARE LUSTROUS AND CAN BE POLISHED :

Most of the metals have metallic lustre (shine) and they can be polished. The shining
appearance of metals is also known as metallic lustre. For example, gold, silver and
copper metals have metallic lustre.

METALS HAVE HIGH DENSITIES:

Most of the metals are heavy and have high densities. For example, the density of
mercury metal is very high (13.6 g cm-3). However, there are some exception. Sodium,
potassium, magnesium and aluminium have low densities. Densities of metals are
generally proportional to their atomic masses.

The smaller the metal atom, the lesser is its density. OSMIUM has maximum density (22 g
cm-3) among all elements.

METALS ARE HARD:

Most of the metals are hard, but all metals are not equally hard.Metals like iron, copper,
aluminium etc. are quite hard. They cannot be cut with a knife. Sodium and potassium
are common exceptions which are soft and can be easily cut with a knife.

METALS HAVE HIGH MELTING AND BOILING POINTS:

Most of the metals (except sodium and potassium) have high melting and boiling points.

METALS ARE RIGID: Most of the metals are rigid and they have high tensile strength.
METALS ARE SONOROUS: Most of the metals are sonorous i.e., they make sound
when hit with an object.

COLOUR: Most metals are white or silvery-grey in colour. Exceptionally, gold is yellow
(yellow metal) and copper is reddish-brown.

NON-METALS AND THEIR GENERAL

PROPERTIES
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
NON-METALS AND THEIR GENERAL PROPERTIES
Non-metals are present on the right hand side of the periodic table (except Hydrogen).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS:

The important physical properties of non-metals are listed below:

 Non-metals are brittle.

 Non-metals are not ductile.
 Non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.

Graphite is a good conductor because of the presence of a free electron. It is used as positive
electrode in dry cells.

 Non-metals are not lustrous and-cannot be polished.

Graphite and Iodine are lustrous non-metals.

 Non-metals may be solid, liquid, or gases at room temperature. Solid: Carbon, sulphur
and iodine.

Gases : Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen etc.

Bromine is the only non-metal which exists as a liquid at room temperature.

 Liquid non-metal : Bromine

 Non-metals are generally soft.

Diamond (in allotropic form of non-metal

Carbon) is the HARDEST NATURAL
substance known .

Diamond is lustrous and hard non-metal

Non-metals have generally low melting and boiling points.

Exception: Graphite, another allotropic form of Carbon, has a melting point of about
3730°C. Other exceptions are C, B, Si which have high melting and boiling points.
Non-metals have low densities.

Exception: Iodine has high density and diamond which is almost as heavy as AI.

Malleability : Non-metals are not malleable i.e. sheets cannot be made from non-
metals.

Tensile strength : Non-metals do not have the property of tensile strength.

Exception: Carbon fibre is as tensile as steel.

Sonorous : Non-metals are non-sonorous, i.e., when struck with a hammer they do not
produce sound.

Colour : Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas, while bromine is brown in colour. Iodine is
violet in colour, while oxygen and nitrogen are colourless gases.

DIFFERENCES IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS:

PROPERTY METALS NON-METALS

Mostly gases

Solids at room Exception: Some of

temperature. the solid non-
State: metals are C, S, P,
Exceptions: Hg and I2
Ga are liquids
and bromine is a
liquid non-metal.
Very high melting point
and boiling point.
Low melting points
Exceptions: Na, K, Hg and boiling points.
Melting point have low melting
Exceptions: C, Si
points and boiling
and boiling and B have high
points.
point: melting points and
Ga has low melting
boiling points.
point but high boiling
point.
Solid non-metals are
brittle. Exception:
Generally hard.
Diamond is the
Hardness:
Exceptions: Na and K
hardest naturally
are soft.
occurring
substance.
 Have high density.
Have low density.
Density: Exception: Li, Na and
Exception:
K have density lower
Diamond
than water (1gm/cm3)
Bad Conductors of
heat and electricity.
Good conductors of
heat and electricity. Exception:
Conductivity: Graphite and gas
Exceptions: Bi and W
carbon are good
are poor conductors of
electricity.
conductors of
electricity.
No luster.
Luster: Have luster
Exceptions: I2 and
graphite
Do not have tensile
High tensile strength strength. Exception:
Tensile Carbon fibre,
strength; Exception: Zn has
very less tensile a recently
strength. developed allotrope
of carbon.
Generally malleable and Non-malleable and
Malleability
ductile. Exception: Zinc non-ductile.
and
is not malleable Exception: Carbon
ductility:
and ductile fibres are ductile
Sonority Sonorous Non-sonorous
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
The atoms of the metals have usually 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outermost shells.
These outermost electrons are loosely held by their nuclei. Therefore, the metal atoms
can easily lose their outermost electrons to form positively charged ions. For example,
sodium metal can lose one electron from its outermost shell to form positively charged
ion, Na+. After losing the outermost electron, it gets stable electronic configuration of
the noble gas (Ne : 2, 8). Similarly, magnesium can lose two electrons from its
outermost shell to form Mg2+ ion and aluminium can lose its three outermost electrons
to form AI3+ ion.

Na Na+ + e-

(2, 8, 1) (2,8)

Mg Mg2+ + 2e-

(2, 8, 2) (2, 8)

Al Al3+ + 3e-
(2, 8, 3) (2, 8)

Since the metal atoms lose electrons and form positively charged ions, therefore, the
metals are called electropositive elements.

Some of the important chemical properties of metals are discussed below :

REACTION WITH AIR:

Oxygen : Metals react with oxygen to form oxides.These oxides are basic in nature.
When these oxides are dissolved in water, they give alkaline solutions. For example,
sodium metal reacts with oxygen of the air and form sodium oxide.

4 Na + O2 2 Na2O

Sodium oxide Sodium oxide reacts with water to form, an alkali called sodium
hydroxide. Therefore, sodium oxide is a basic oxide.

Na2O + H2O 2NaOH

Sodium hydroxide

Due to the formation of sodium hydroxide (which is an alkali), the solution of sodium
oxide in water turns red litmus blue (common property of all alkaline solutions).

Similarly, magnesium is a metal and it reacts on heating with oxygen, catches fire and
burns with a brilliant white flame to form magnesium oxide.

2 Mg + O 2 MgO

Magnesium oxide

The magnesium oxide reacts with acids (say sulphuric acid) to form magnesium
sulphate (a salt) and water as the only products. Thus, magnesium oxide is a basic
oxide in nature.

MgO + H2SO4 (dil.) MgSO4 + H2O

Magnesium oxide Sulphuric acid Magnesium sulphate Water

Metals act as reducing agents-i.e they donate electrons.

Test for basic oxides is that they turn red litmus blue.
REACTION WITH WATER:
Different metals behave differently in their chemical reaction with water.

(i) Metals like sodium and potassium react with water as follows -

When a small piece of sodium or potassium is dropped in cold water -

 (A) It floats and at the same time melts to form a silvery ball of metal.
 (B) The silvery ball of the metal darts over the surface of water with a hissing noise
producing tiny bubbles of the hydrogen gas.
 (C) The silvery ball becomes smaller in size and catches fire.

In case of sodium, it burns with a golden yellow flame, whereas in case of potassium, it
burns with a lilac flame.

2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2

Sodium Cold water Sodium hydraoxide Hydrogen

2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2

Potassium Water Potassium hydroxide Hydrogen

When calcium metal is dropped in water, the following observations are made :

 It sinks in water and reacts vigourously to liberate tiny bubbles of hydrogen.

 It gradually dissolves in water and the colour of water becomes milky due to the
formation of partially soluble calcium hydroxide.

Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2

Calcium Water Calcium hydroxide Hydrogen

(ii) Magnesium reacts mildly with cold water, but reacts vigorously with boiling water or
steam so as to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Mg + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + H2

Magnesium boiling water Magnesium hydroxide Hydrogen

(iii) Hot zinc and iron, mildly react with steam to form their respective oxides and
hydrogen gas.
Zn + H2O ZnO + H2

Zinc Water Zinc oxide Hydrogen

3 Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4 H2

Iron Steam ← Ferro-ferric oxide Hydrogen

Or iron (II, III) oxide

REDUCTION WITH DILUTE ACIDS (DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS):

Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid are called mineral acids. These acids in
dilute form react with metals to form their respective salts and hydrogen gas. Many
metals react with dilute acids and liberate hydrogen gas. Only less reactive metals such
as copper, silver, gold etc. do not liberate hydrogen from dilute acids. The reactions of
metals with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCI) and dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) are similar.
With dil. HCI, they give metal chlorides and hydrogen, whereas with dil. H2SO4, they
give metal sulphates and hydrogen.

Copper, silver, mercury, goid,nickel and platinum do not react with water or
steam.

For example :

(i) Sodium, magnesium and calcium. react violently with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCI) or
dilute sulphuric acid liberating hydrogen gas and corresponding metal salt.

2Na (s) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)

Sodium Sodium Chloride

2Na (s) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Sodium Sodium sulphate

Similarly,

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Magnesium Magnesium chloride

Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2

Magnesium Sulphate

Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2

Zinc Zinc Chloride

Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2

Zinc Sulphate

Similarly,

2Al (s) + 6HCl (aq) 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2

Aluminium Aluminium chloride

Al (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) Al2(SO)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

Aluminium Aluminium Sulphate

(ii) Iron reacts slowly with dilute HCI or dil. H2SO4 and therefore, it is less reactive than
zinc and aluminium.

Fe(s) + 2HCI(aq) FeCI2(aq) + H2(g)

Iron Ferrous chloride

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Ferrous sulphate

Copper does not react with dil. HCl or dil H2SO4 .

Cu(s) + HCl (aq) No reaction Cu(s) + H2SO4(aq) No reaction

Therefore copper is even less reactive than iron.

Dilute nitric acid (HNO3) is an oxidising agent. Although it oxidises metals, but does not
produce hydrogen gas.
(d) Reactions of Metals with Bases : Some metals react with alkalies -

2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O 2NaAlO2 + 3H2

Aluminium Sodium Water Sodium Hydrogen

Hydroxide meta aluminate

Zn + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2

Sodium Sodium Hydrogen

Hydroxide zincate

Sn + 2NaOH + H2O Na2SnO3 + 2H2

Sodium Water Sodium Hydrogen

Hydroxidestannate

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH SALT SOLUTIONS :

When a more reactive metal is placed in a salt solution of less reactive metal, then the
more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its salt solution.

e.g. When a strip of zinc metal is put in the blue colour solution of copper sulphate, it is
observed that the blue colour of the solution fades gradually and copper metal is
deposited on the zinc strip. This means that the following reaction occurs:

Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate

(Blue solution) (Colourless solution)

In other words, we can say that zinc displaces copper from its solution.

However, if we take zinc sulphate solution and put a strip of copper metal in this
solution, no reaction occurs.

ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) No reaction

Zinc sulphate
This means that copper cannot displace zinc metal from its solution. Thus, we can
conclude that zinc is more reactive than copper. However, if we put gold or platinum
strip in the copper sulphate solution, then copper is not displaced by gold or platinum.
Thus, gold and platinum are less reactive than copper.

REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
Table of Content

 What is reactivity series?

 Utility of Reactivity Series
 Salient Features
 Reaction Between Metals and Water
 Reaction Between Metals and Acids
 Important Uses of Reactivity Series
 Frequently Asked Question (FAQs)

What is reactivity series?

A reactivity series is a series of metals based on their reactivity from highest to lowest.
Thus, a metal reactivity series can be defined as a series of metals in order of reactivity
from highest to lowest. It is also known as a series of activities. The reactivity of metals
is due to their incomplete outer orbitals or their electron configuration. Metals form
positively charged ions because they tend to lose electrons. Metals with high atomic
numbers are more reactive because their electrons are far from the positively charged
nucleus; thus, they can be easily removed.

Reactivity Series of Metal chart are given below:

Utility of Reactivity Series

The reactivity series is very useful as it gives the following information:

 The metal which is higher in the activity series is more reactive than the other.
Lithium is the most reactive and platinum is the least reactive metal.

 The metals which have been placed above hydrogen are more reactive than
hydrogen and can displace hydrogen from its compounds like water and acids to
liberate hydrogen gas.

 The metals which are placed below hydrogen are less reactive than hydrogen
and cannot displace hydrogen from its compounds like water and acids.
  A more reactive metal (placed higher in the reactivity series) can displace the
less reactive metal from the solution of its salt.

 Metals at the top of the series are very reactive and, therefore, they do not occur
free in nature, while the metals at the bottom of the series are least reactive and,
therefore, they normally occur free in nature.

Salient Features

 Metals at the top of the series of reactivity are strong reducing agents because they
oxidize quickly. These metals tarnish/corrode very easily.
 The reducing power of metals weakens as you go through the series.
 Electropositivity of elements also decreases as one moves down the metal reactivity
series.
 All metals above hydrogen in the activity range release hydrogen gas when reacted with
dilute HCl or dilute H2SO4.
 Metals placed high in the reactivity series can displace metals lower in their salt
solutions.
 Higher category metals require more energy to isolate from ores and other compounds.

Reaction Between Metals and Water

Calcium and metals that are more reactive than calcium in the reactivity series can react
with cold water to form the corresponding hydroxide, releasing hydrogen gas. For
example, the reaction between potassium and water yields potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas as described by the chemical equation below.

2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2

Reaction Between Metals and Acids

Lead and the metals are on high lead on the activity series form salts when reacted with
sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid. These reactions also contain the liberation of
hydrogen gas. The reaction between sulphuric acid and zinc is an example of such a
reaction. Here, zinc sulfate and H2 gas are formed as products. The chemical equation
is:

Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

Important Uses of Reactivity Series

 In displacement reaction - Displacement reactions are that reactions in which
more reactive metal displaces less reactive metal from its salt. So, by reactivity
series, you can also tell that which metal will displace another metal.

 The reaction between metals and water - Metals from potassium to calcium will react
with cold water to release hydrogen gas.

Chemical Equations for the reaction of K and Ca with cold water are:
K (s) + H2O (l) → KOH (aq) + ½ H2 (g) [Potassium Cold Water Potassium Hydroxide
Hydrogen]

Note: Potassium reacts extremely violently with water to form a colorless aqueous
solution of KOH with a release of12 mole of H2 gas. The resultant solution is basic
because of the dissolved hydroxide.

 The reaction between metals and acids - Lead and other different metals that are
more reactive than lead in the reactivity series can react with hydrochloric acid and
sulphuric acid to form salts. Thus, we are able to predict the reactions by reactivity
series. Chemical Equations for the reaction of Pb with HCl and HSO4 to form salts are:

Pb (s) + 2HCl (aq) → PbCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) [Lead Hydrochloric Acid Lead Chloride
Hydrogen]

Note: Pb reacts slowly with acids like HCl and HNO3 and releases bubbles of Hydrogen
gas on reaction.

 Single displacement reaction between metals The high-ranking metals on the

reactivity series usually reduce the ions of the low-ranking metals. Thus the high-ranking
metal simply displaces the low-ranking metal in a single displacement reaction which
occurs b/w them. One of the common displacement reactions is the displacement of
copper from copper sulfate by zinc the chemical equation for this reaction is given by:

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

This concept is also used in various applications, mostly for the extraction of metals. For
example, with the help of the single displacement reaction with magnesium titanium can
be extracted from titanium tetrachloride. Thus to predict the result of the single
displacement reaction, the reactivity series becomes very helpful.

Frequently Asked Question (FAQs)

Q1. What does reactivity series depend on?

Ans. The reactivity series of metals totally depends on the reactivity of metals which is
dependent on the atomic radius, nuclear charge, sublevel electrons arrangement, and
shielding effect.

Q2. What is meant by reactivity series of metals?

Ans. A reactivity series of metals is a table listing metals to decrease reactivity. Usually,
the more reactive a metal is:, the more vigorously it reacts with different substances. It
quickly loses electrons to form positive ions (cations).

Q3. How is reactivity series formed?

Ans. In a reactivity series, the most reactive element is placed at the top and the least
reactive element at the bottom. The more reactive metals tend to lose electrons and
form positive ions.

Q4. Which metal is most reactive?

Ans. According to the reactivity series, sodium is the most reactive metal.

Q5. Which is the least reactive metal?

Ans. The least reactive metal is Platinum. It has corrosion resistance, even at high
temperatures, and is considered a noble metal. Therefore, Platinum is often found
chemically combined as native Platinum.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS

The chemical properties of non-metals are determined by:

 Electronic configuration.
 Valency.
 Oxidising nature.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:
Non-metals have 4 or 5 or 6 or 7 electrons in their valence shells. [Exception: Hydrogen
and helium are non-metals but they have just one and two electrons in their valence
shells respectively].

VALENCY:
Non-metals have valencies –3 or –2 or – 1. They accept electrons in their valence shells
to complete their octets, i.e., they form anions during chemical combination.

OXIDISING NATURE:

Non-metals tend to gain electrons from metals during chemical combination i.e., they
oxidize the metals during chemical combination and themselves get reduced in the
process.
 Non-metals share electrons during chemical combination with one
another as well.

Reaction of non-metals with oxygen

 Non-metals react with oxygen (air) on heating to form their respective oxides. Most of
these oxides are acidic in nature and they turn moist red litmus paper blue.

Non – metal + Oxygen Non-metallic oxide

(i) Carbon burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide.

(ii) Sulphur burns in oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide

 Some non-metallic oxides are natural e.g., water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N2O).

(iii) Hydrogen burns in oxygen to produce water, which is a neutral oxide i.e., it does not
change the colour of indicators.

Reaction of acidic oxides and acids with bases / alkalis

Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide react with sodium hydroxide to produce the salts
sodium carbonate and sodium sulphite respectively, along with water.

Acidic oxide + Base Salt + Water

Reaction with water
(i) Carbon dioxide dissolves in water and forms carbonic acid.

(ii) Sulphur dioxide gives sulphurous acid with water.

Reaction of non-metals with acids

 Non-metals do not react with dil. HCl or H2SO4. But they react with concentrated acids.

Some of the reactions are as follows:

 1.

ELECTRON REDISTRIBUTION IN
CHEMICAL BONDS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
ELECTRON REDISTRIBUTION IN CHEMICAL BONDS
Chemical Bonds can be classified in a very broad way based on whether electrons are
transferred or shared into

 Ionic Bond and

 Covalent Bonds.

IONIC BONDS OR ELECTROVALENT BOND:

An Ionic Bond is a chemical bond formed between two atoms (usually a metal and a
non-metal) by transfer of electrons from valence shell or one atom to valence shell of
another atom.

The transfer of electron takes place in such a way that both the atoms attain inert gas
configurations.

The actual bond is formed due to electrostatic force of attraction between the resulting
two oppositely charged ions.

e.g. Ionic bond formation in NaCl

Consider Na and Cl atoms

Na has a configuration (2, 8, 1), it has a tendency to loose one electron (oxidation)to
form Na+ ion. On loosing the electron the Na+ ion that is formed has the stable
configuration of Neon-an inert gas. Hence the ion of sodium is more stable than the
atom of sodium. This is also the reason why sodium does not occur in the free state as
sodium but occurs as compounds of sodium only.

Cl has a configuration (2, 8, 7). It has a tendency to accept one electron (reduction) to
form Cl– ion. On gaining one electron the Cl- ion that is formed has the stable
configuration of Argon an inert gas. Hence the ion of Chlorine is more stable than the
atom of chlorine. This is also the reason why chlorine will not occur in the free state but
occurs as compounds of chlorine only.

The actual bond is formed by attraction of Na+ ion and Cl- ion – opposite ions attract
each other.

Examples:

Cation formation Anion formation configuration Ionic bond

configuration changes changes formation
– +
K – 1e → K
Ion Cl + 1e– → Cl–
1 (2, 8, 8, 1) → (2, 8, 8, - K+ + Cl– → KCl
formation (2, 8, 7) → (2, 8, 8 – Argon)
Argon)
Ion Mg – 2e– → Mg2+ O + 2e– → O2– Mg2+ + O2– →
2
formation (2, 8, 2) → (2, 8 – Neon) (2, 6 → (2, 8 – Neon) MgO
– 3+ – 2–
Ion 2Al – 6e → 2Al 3O + 6e → 3O 2Al3+ + 3O2– →
3
formation (2, 8, 3) → (2, 8 – Neon) (2, 6) → (2, 8 – Neon) Al2O3
– 2+ – –
Ion Ca – 2e → Ca 2Cl + 2e → 2Cl Ca2+ + 2Cl– →
4
formation (2, 8, 8, 2) → (2, 8, 8 – Argon) (2, 8, 7) → (2, 8, 8 – Argon) CaCl2
COVALENT BOND, 1916, LEWIS (AMERICA):
Sharing of electrons such that each atom donates an electron to the shared pair forms
Covalent Bonds. On sharing both atoms get either a duplet or octet configuration. They
are also known as Atomic Bond or Electron Pair Bond.

Lewis Dot diagram

To denote the valence shell electrons, dots or crosses around the symbol of the atom
are used. This is called Lewis diagram. It is used to represent the bond formation
between atoms.

eg. H2, Cl2, HCl, N2, O2, F2, H2O, NH3, CO2, CH4

or
H2 molecule : or H – H
H2

or
Cl2 molecule : or Cl – Cl
Cl2

HCl or
: or H – Cl
molecule HCl

or
N2 molecule : or N ≡ N
N2
 H2O or
:
molecule H2O

CO2 molecul or
:
e CO2

NH3 molecul or
:
e NH3

Based on covalency
Covalency is the number of shared Pairs of electrons between atoms in a covalent
bond. It is never greater than 3

Single Covalent Bond molecules have one shared pair of electrons. Their Covalency is
1.

eg. H2, Cl2 etc.

Double Covalent Bond molecules have two shared pairs of electrons. Their covalency is
2.

eg. O2

Triple Covalent Bond molecules have three shared pairs of electrons. Their covalency is
3.

eg. N2

DIFFERENCES IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS:

PROPERTY METAL NON-METAL
Have 4 to 7 electrons in their valence
Number of electrons shells. Exceptions: Hydrogen has
Have 1 to 3 electrons in their
one electron in its valence shell
valence shells.
in the valence shell: because the first shell is its valence
shell.
Lose electrons from their valence
Accept electrons to attain stable
Formation of ions: shells to attain stable structures and
structures and form Anions.
form Cations
Reaction with Metals on heating in air or oxygen Non-metals on heating in air or
oxygen react to form their respective oxygen form their respective
oxides. oxides.
 Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
Non-Metal + O2 Non-Metal Oxide
The oxides are either basic or
amphoteric in nature.
The oxides are either acidic or
neutral in nature.
Exceptions: Metals like Au and Pt
do not form oxides.
Examples
Examples
C + O2 CO2
4Na + O2 -------- 2Na2O
S + O2 SO2
4K + O2 ------- 2K2O
P4 + 5O2 2P2O5
2Ca + O2 ------ 2CaO
Metals, which are more reactive
than hydrogen, replace hydrogen
The majority of non-metals do not
Reaction with Acid from the acid.
react with acids.
Metal + Dil. Acid Salt + H2
Metals, which are more reactive
than hydrogen, reacts with water
and removes hydrogen and forms
metal hydroxide or Metals Oxide. Non-metals react with water in
Reaction with Water
various ways.
Metal + H2O Metal Oxide + H2

Metal+H2O Metal hydroxide H2

Non-metals react with chlorine to
Metals react with chlorine to form
form compounds which are either
metal chloride salts.
volatile liquids or gases.
Example:
Reaction With Cl2 Example:
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Mg + Cl2 MgCl2
P4 + 10Cl2 4PCl5
Metals are generally liberated at Non-metals are generally liberated at
Electrolysis
cathode during electrolysis. anode during electrolysis.
Metals are good reducing agents as Non-metals are good oxidising
Oxidation/Reduction
they readily lose electrons. agents as they readily gain electrons.
CORROSION OF METALS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
CORROSION OF METALS
Corrosion is a process of deterioration of metal as a result of its reaction with air or
water (present in environment) surrounding it.

RUSTING OF IRON:
The slow conversion of iron into its hydrated oxide, in the presence of moisture and air
is called rusting, whereas the hydrated oxide of iron is called rust.
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3

Iron Oxygen Ferric oxide

Fe2O3 + xH2O Fe2O3.xH2O

Ferric Oxide Water Hydrated ferric oxide

The brownish residue (Fe2O3.xH2O) is commonly called rust and the phenomenon is
called rusting. The rust so formed is flaky and easily crumbles from the surface of
metal. Thus, fresh iron is exposed to the attack of moist air, to form more rust.

PREVENTION OF CORROSION:
Rusting of iron and corrosion of other metals can be prevented by not allowing air to
come in contact with metal. Some methods for doing this are as given below.

 Painting or applying oil: Painting the surface of the metal after cleaning it thoroughly is
the most common method of preventing corrosion. The paint keeps air away from the
metal surface. Applying grease or oil on the surface has a similar effect. However, if
there is a break in the layer of paint, grease or oil, the metal starts corroding at that
point.
  Covering with another metal: Depositing a layer of another metal which is more resistant
to corrosion is another commonly used method for the prevention of corrosion of metals.
The metals mostly used are tin and zinc. Covering a metal with another metal can be
done by the following ways:

Galvanizing: Clean iron sheets are dipped in molten zinc to deposit a layer of zinc on
it. This process is called galvanization. The G.I. water pipes available in the market are
made of galvanized iron. Galvanized iron does not rust even if there is a scratch on the
zinc layer.

Electroplating: The process of electroplating is also used to deposit a metallic layer to

prevent corrosion. Tin is electroplated on iron to make food containers commonly called
tin cans. However, if the tin layer gets scratched, the iron starts rusting at that place.
The tin can is then no longer suitable for storing food. Chromium is electroplated on
steel furniture and bicycle handles to prevent rusting. In addition, the chromium layer
also gives steel an attractive shine.

Anodizing of aluminum: A layer of aluminium oxide is formed on aluminium upon

exposure to air. This prevents further corrosion of aluminium. If this layer is made more
uniform, it protects the aluminium underneath more effectively. This is done by a
process called anodizing. It consists of passing an electric current through sulphuric
acid using aluminium as anode. Oxygen is evolved at the anode which reacts with
aluminium to form a uniform protective layer of aluminium oxide.

 Alloying: Some metals become corrosion resistant when alloyed with other metals. For
example, stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, chromium and nickel, does not rust
easily.

METALLOIDS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
An element that has a property of metal and non-metal both are known as Amphoteric
elements or Metalloids.

Element Metallic Property Non-Metallic Property

Germaniu It acts as a semiconductor with rise in
GeO2 is acidic in nature.
m temperature.
Metallic grey arsenic is a fair conductor of Yellow arsenic forms hydride. (AsH3), a
Arsenic
electricity. weak base.
Grey coloured antimony conducts Yellow antimony forms stibine. (SbH3),
Antimony
electricity a weak base.
It exists in one non-metallic allotropic
Selenium Good conductor of electricity at 475K.
form.
Tellurium resembles sulphur in chemical
Tellurium Low electrical conductivity.
properties.
ALLOYS
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
ALLOYS
A homogeneous mixture of two or more molten metal ( or a non – metal) is called alloy.
Pure metals generally do not have all the properties of a good metal, such as
malleability, ductility, tensile strength, hardness, resistance to corrosion, conduction of
heat and electricity, etc.

However, one or more of these properties can be improved by melting two or more
metals (or non – metal) in some fixed proportion and then allowing the molten product to
cool at room temperature. Such a product is called an alloy.

OBJECTIVE OF ALLOY MAKING:

Alloys are generally prepared to have certain specific properties which are not
possessed by the constituent metals. The main objects of alloy-making are:

 To increase chemical reactivity.

 To modify chemical reactivity.

 To increase the hardness.

 To increase tensile strength.

 To produce good casting.

 To lower the melting point.

Name of Principal
Composition Properties Uses
alloy Metal
Al = 95%

Cu = 4%
Light weight and as Aircraft frames, rockets, speed
Duralumin Aluminium
strong as steel. boats, automobiles.
Mn = 0.5%,

Mg = 0.5%
Al = 95% Used for making aeroplanes,
Light weight, strong
Magnalium Aluminium household appliances, mirrors
resists corrosion.
Mg = 5% and scientific instruments.
Stainless Iron Fe = 83% Resists corrosion For making utensils, cutlery,
surgical instruments and
 C = 1%

Steel Cr = 15% ornamental pieces.

Ni = 1%
Fe = 84%
Manganese
Used for making safes, amour
Iron Mn = 15% Very tough and hard.
rock cutters etc.
steel
C = 1%
Fe = 79-84%
Tungsten
Used for making high speed
Iron W = 15-20% Very-very hard.
tools.
Steel
C = 1%
Aluminum Cu = 90% Golden yellow in Used for making artificial
Copper colour. Durable and jewellery, coins, picture frames
Bronze Al = 10% resistant to corrosion. etc.
Zn = 20-40% Lustrous, more Used for making shells of
Brass Copper malleable and ductile ammunition rounds, utensils,
Cu = 60-80% than copper. electric switches, statues, etc.
Cu = 80%
Hard but brittle,
Used for making shells, statues,
Bronze Copper Zn = 10% resistant to corrosion.
coins and utensils.
Takes very high polish.
Sn = 10%
Cu = 88%

Sn = 10%
Very hard, gives a very Used for making barrels of
Gun Metal Copper
good cast. guns, gears and bearings.
Zn = 1%

Pb = 1%
Cu = 60%
German
As white as silver, Used for making imitation
Copper Zn = 30%
malleable and ductile. silver jewellery, utensils, etc.
Silver
Ni = 10%
Cu = 80% Hard and brittle,
Used for making bells and
Bell Metal Copper produces with sonorous
gongs.
Sn = 20% sound.
Monel Nickel Cu = 28% Resistant to corrosion, Used for making sinks, doors
Metal malleable and ductile. and windows screws.
Ni = 67%
 Fe = 5%
AMALGAM:

Amalgams are homogeneous mixtures of a metal and mercury. Example: Sodium

amalgam contains sodium and mercury. Different amalgams are prepared according to
their uses. For example, Sodium amalgam is produced to decrease the chemical
reactivity of sodium metal. It is also used as a good reducing agent. Tin amalgam is
used for silvering cheap mirrors.

METALLURGY
Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
METALLURGY
The process of extracting metals from their ores and then refining them for use is called
metallurgy. The process of metallurgy depends upon the nature of the ore, nature of the
metal and the types of impurities present. Therefore, there is not a single method for the
extraction of all metals. However, most of the metals can be extracted by a general
procedure which involves the following steps.

 Crushing and grinding of the ore.

 Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore.
 Conversion of ore into metal oxide
 Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore.
 Refining or purification of the impure metal.

These steps are briefly discussed below-

CRUSHING AND GRINDING OF THE ORE:

Most of the ores occur as big rocks in nature. They are broken into small pieces with
the help of crushers. These pieces are then reduced to fine powder with the help of a
ball mill or a stamp mill.

CONCENTRATION OF THE ORE OR ENRICHMENT OF THE ORE:

The process of removal of unwanted impurities (gangue) from the ore is called ore
concentration or ore enrichment. Various methods used for concentration of an ore are-

Hydraulic washing (washing with water):

It is generally used for the enrichment of oxide ores, it is based on the difference in
densities of ore and gangue particles. The ore particles are very heavy, they can be
separated from lighter gangue particles by washing in stream of water. In this process
crushed and finely powdered ore is washed with stream of water. The lighter gangue
particles are washed away leaving behind the heavier ore particles. Ore of Sn and Pb
are concentrated by this method. Ores of iron, tin and lead are very heavy and,
therefore, they are concentrated by this method.

Froth floatation process:

It is used for the concentration of sulphide ores. It is based on the different wetting
characteristic of ore and gangue particles with water and oil. Finely powdered ore is
mixed with water in a large tank to form a slurry then some pine oil is added to it. The
sulphide ores are preferentially wetted by the pine oil, the gangue particles are wetted
by the water. When air is blown through the mixture froth carrying metal sulphides rises
to the top of the tank and floats as scum, then it is removed and dried. The gangue
particles being heavier, sink to the bottom of the tank.
Magnetic separation:
It is based on the difference in the magnetic properties of ores and gangue. It is done by
using a magnetic separator it consists of leather belt that moves over two rollers out of
which ion is an electromagnetic. The powdered ore is dropped on the moving belt at
one end through a hopper. When the ore falls down from the belt at the other end
having a magnetic roller, the magnetic ore particles are attracted by the magnet and
form and separate heap from the non magnetic impurities.

Chemical Separation:

1. The method is based on the chemical properties of gangue and the ore. One of the best
example is purification of bauxite by the Bayer’s Process.

Bauxite is an important form of Al2O3, it consists impurities (i) Fe2O3 (ii) SiO2. Bayer
method is used to obtain pure aluminium oxide from bauxite ore. In this method finely
powdered ore is treated with hot NaOH solution, the Al2O3 present in bauxite ore reacts
with NaOH to form water soluble sodium meta aluminate.

Fe2O3 does not dissolve in NaOH solution , it is thus separated by filtration. Silica reacts
with NaOH to form water soluble sodium silicate

The filtrate containing sodium aluminate/sodium silicate solution is stirred with some
freshly prepared Al(OH)3 to induce the precipitation of Al(OH)3. Under these conditions
sodium meta aluminate get hydrolysed to form a precipitate of Al(OH)3.

Al(OH)3 is then filtered, washed, dried and ignited to get pure Al2O3 which is called
alumina.

CONVERSION OF METAL ORE INTO METAL OXIDE

Calcination:
This process is carried out specifically for carbonate ores. The main purpose of this
process is the removal of CO2 form the ore. Hence the ore is heated to its
decomposition and temperature and gets converted to the oxide form. Along with
CO2, volatile impurities are also removed in this process. Apart from the carbonate ores,
hydrated ores are also subjected to calcinations for the removal of water of
crystallization

Example:

ZnCO3(s) ZnO(S) + CO2(g)

Zinc carbonate Zinc oxide Carbon dioxide

FeCO3(s) FeO(s) + CO2(g)

Siderite Iron (II) Oxide Carbon dioxide

Roasting:
This is generally carried out for sulphide ores. The ore is heated to a temperature below
fusion point of the ore where the ore reacts with the oxygen present in air and forms
metal oxide and sulphur dioxide.

Example:
2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)

Zinc sulphide Oxygen Zinc oxide Sulphur dioxide

(Zinc blende ore)

4FeS2(s) + 11O2 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)

Iron pyrites Oxygen Ferric oxide Sulphur dioxide

REDUCTION OF METAL FROM METAL OXIDE

Smelting:
The metal oxide formed after calcinations or roasting is converted into metal by
reduction. The method used for reduction of metal oxide depends upon the nature and
chemical reactivity of metals. Smelting is done in blast furnace. During smelting either
the metal oxide is smelted or reduced in to metal

Reduction with carbon:

The oxides of moderately reactive metals (occurring in the middle of reactivity series)
like Zinc, copper, nickel, tin, lead etc. Can be reduced by using carbon as reducing
agent.

ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(s) + CO(g)

Zinc oxide Carbon Zinc Metal Carbon Monoxide

Fe2O2(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)

Ferric oxide Carbon Iron Metal Carbon Monoxide

Reduction by heating:
Metals placed low in the reactivity series are very less reactive. They can be obtained
from their oxides by simply heating in air.

2HgS(s) + 3O2(g) 2HgO (S) + 2SO2(G)

Mercuric Sulphide Oxygen Mercuric Oxide Sulphur

2HgO(s) 2Hg() + O2(g)

Mercuric Oxide Mercury Oxygen

Reduction by Aluminium:

Some metal oxides cannot be reduced by carbon. In such cases as more reactive metal
aluminium is used as agent. Aluminium powder reduces metal oxide to metal and itself
is oxidized to Al2O3. For example MnO2 is heated with Al powdered, MnO2 is reduced to
Mn, Al is oxidized to Al2O3. MnO2 is reduced to Mn, Al is oxidized to Al2O3.

The reduction of metal oxides with Al are highly exothermic, the amount of heat evolved
is so large the metals are produced in molten state. The reduction of Fe 2O3 with Al is
used to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts. The reduction is known as thermal
reduction.

Electrolytic reduction:
The oxides of active metals (which are high up in the activity series) are very stable and
cannot be reduced by carbon or aluminium. These metals are commonly extracted by
the electrolysis of their fused salts using suitable electrodes.

For example, aluminium oxide is very stable and aluminium cannot be prepared by
reduction with carbon. It is prepared by the electrolysis of molten alumina (Al2O3).

Al3+ + 3e- Al

Aluminium ion Electron Aluminium

(From molten alumina) (At cathode)

(From cathode)

PURIFICATION OR REFINING OF METAL

The metal obtained by any of the above methods is usually impure and is known as
crude metal. The process of purifying the crude metal is called refining. Following
methods are used to refine the metal.

Liquation:
This method is used for refining metals having low melting points such as tin & lead.
The metals is placed on the sloping surface in a hearth on heating metals flows down
the surface and is collected. Impurities which have high melting points remarks on the
Earth.

Distillation:
More volatile metals like Zn, Hg are purified by this method. The impure metal is heated
in a retort. The pure metal distils over and is condensed in a reaction. Impurities will be
left in the retort

Electrolytic Refining:
Electrolytic refining means is electolysis. It is the most important, most widely used
method by means of which a metal of high purity can be obtained. Many metals like Cu,
Zn, Sn, Pb, Cr, Hg, Ag, Au are refined electolytically.
In this process a thick block of impure metal is taken as anode, a strip of pure metal is
taken as cathode, water soluble salt (of metal to be refined) is taken as electrolyte. On
passing electric current, impure metal dissolves from the anode and goes into the
solution, pure metal from the electrolyte deposits on the cathode. Impurities will settle at
the bottom as anode mud.

USES OF METALS AND NON METALS

Metal and Non-metals of Class 8
About USES OF METALS AND NON METALS
Iron is mainly used in the form of steel, an alloy in which the major
component is iron. Steel is used for making buckets, drain pipes, chains,
Metals Iron
etc. As it is extremely tough and it can withstand stress and has high
melting point.
It is used for making containers for corrosive liquids and protective
screens for X-ray and other harmful radiations as it is unaffected by
impure water, steam or dilute mineral acids and has low melting point
Lead
(337°C). It is used in the automobile batteries.
It is used in fireworks because it burns with dazzling white flame. It is
used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals.
Magnesium
Due to its light weight, it is used for the manufacture of aircraft and
automobiles. It is used to make electric transmission cables and for making
Aluminium utensils and novelty articles.
It is used for galvanizing iron to protect it from rusting and as cathode
 container in making dry cells.
Zinc
It is used as electric transmission wires, electrical goods, in electroplating
Copper and electro-typing. It is also used for making printed circuit boards and
electronic devices. Copper salts are largely used as insecticides.

It helps in the process of respiration and combustion and medical and

Oxygen
Non- industrial uses.
metals
It is an excellent non polluting fuel and to fill weather observation
Hydrogen
balloons and gas bags for airships.
Sulphur powder is an excellent insecticide and fungicide. It is used to
make the natural rubber hard for making tyres.
Sulphur
It dilutes the activity of oxygen in air. It is used in preserving food and
Nitrogen
biological specimens
Iodides are used in medicine and photography. It is used in the
Iodine
manufacture of tincture of iodine.