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BIOLOGY
Lab Manual
Class-XII
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BIOLOGY
Lab Manual
BIOLOGY
Lab Manual
BIOLOGY
Lab Manual
BIOLOGY
Lab
Lab Manual
Manual
BIOLOGY
Lab
Lab Manual
Manual
SYLLABUS
Class-XII (Practical)
BIOLOGY
[ For students of CBSE, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh
and other States Board of School Education ]
Evaluation Scheme
One Major Experiment Part A (Expt. No. 5, 6, 8, 9) 5 marks
One Minor Experiment Part A (Expt. No. 2, 3, 4) 4 marks
Slide Preparation Part A (Expt. No. 1, 7) 5 marks
Spotting Part B 7 marks
Practical Record + Viva Voce 4 marks
Project Record + Viva Voce 5 marks
Total 30 marks
Section-A
A. List of Experiments 60 Period
1. Study pollen germination on a slide.

2. Collect and study soil from at least two different sites and study them for texture, moisture content,
pH and water holding capacity. Correlate with the kinds of plants found in them.
3. Collect water from two different water bodies around you and study them for pH, clarity and
presence of any living organism.
4. Study the presence of suspended particulate matter in air at two widely different sites.
5. Study of plant population density by quadrate method.
6. Study of plant population frequency by quadrate method.
7. Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.
8. To study the effect of the different temperatures and three different pH on the activity of salivary
amylase on starch. Isolate
Section-B
B. Study/observation of the following (Spotting)
1. To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insect, birds).
2. To study pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.
3. Identification of stages of gamete development i.e. T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through
permanent slides (from any grasshopper/mice).
4. To study of meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.
5. To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).
6. To study pattern of mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour/sizes of any plant.
7. To study prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood
groups, ear lobes, widow's peak and colour blindness.
8. To study controlled pollination - Emasculation, tagging and bagging.
9. To study common disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Ringworm
through permanent slides or specimens. Comment on symptoms of disease that they cause.
10. To study two plants and two animals (models/virtual images) found in xeric conditions. Comment
upon their morphological adaptations.
11. To study two plants and two animals (models/virtual images) found in aquatic conditions. Comment
CONTENTS
SECTION A
1. Pollen Germination .............................................................................................................................1
Experiment-1 : To study the pollen germination on a slide .............................................................1
2. Physical Properties of Soil ...................................................................................................................4
Experiment-2 : To collect and study soil from at least two different sites and study them for texture.
moisture content, pH and water holding capacity of soil. Also correlate with the
kinds of plants found in them. .................................................................................5
3. To Analyse pH, Clarity and Living Organisms Present in Water ....................................................9
Experiment-3 : To collect water from two different water bodies around you and study them for pH,
Clarity and presence of any living organisms ........................................................9
4. Pollutants Present in Air ...................................................................................................................12
Experiment-4 : To study the presence of suspended particles matter in the two widely
different sites ........................................................................................................12
5. Plant Population Density....................................................................................................................14
Experiment-5 : To study plant population density by quadrate method. .........................................14
6. Plant Population Frequency ..............................................................................................................17
Experiment- 6 : To study population frequency by quadrate method .............................................17
7. Mitosis in Onion Root Tip ................................................................................................................. 19
Experiment-7 : To prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis. ... .......................19
8. Action of Salivary Amylase on Starch............................................................................................... 23
Experiment-8 : To study effect of different temperature and three different pH by the activity of
salivary amylase on starch. ............................. .................................................... 23
SECTION B
1. Adaptation of Flowers for Pollination ...............................................................................................27

Experiment-1 : To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies i.e.,
wind, insects ...................................................................................................... 27
2. Pollen Germination and Growth of Pollen Tube ............................................................................31
Experiment-2 : To study pollen tube germination on stigma through a permanent slide..................31
3. Stages of Gamete Development in Mammals................................................................................... 34
Experiment-3 : To identify stages of gamete development i.e, T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through
permanents slides. ..................... ..........................................................................34
4. Meiosis in the Floral Buds of Onion ..................................................................................................37
Experiment-4: To study of meiosis on onion bud cell through permanent slides ............................37
5. Study of Blastula................................................................................................................................40
Experiment-5 : To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slide ................................................ 40
6. Analysis of Seed Samples for Mendelian Inheritance ................................................................... 42
Experiment-6 : To study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour / size of pea plant..43
7. Pedigree Charts of Genetic Traits .................................................................................................... 45
Experiment-7 : To study prepared pedigree chart of genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood
groups, widow's peak, colour blindness ............................................................... 46
8. Exercise on Controlled Pollination................................................................................................... 48
Experiment-8 : Exercise on controlled pollination – Emasculation, tagging and bagging.............. 48
9. Common Diseases Causing Organisms ........................................................................................... 50
Experiment-9 : Identify the common diseases causing organisms like a scaris, entamoeba,
plasmodium, ringworm through permanent slides or specimen. Comment on the
symptoms of diseases that they cause ...................................................................50
10. Adaptation of Plants and Animals Found to Xerophytic Conditions ............................................ 54
Experiment-10 : To study two plants and two animals found in Xerophytic condition Comment u p o n
their morphological adaptions ............................................................................. 54
11. Adaptation of Plants and Animals Found in Aquatic Conditions ................................................. 59
Experiment-11: To study plants and animals found in aquatic conditions. Also comment on their
morphological adaptions ...................................................................................... 59
Section–A EXPERIMENTS
Pollen Germination
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
The male gametophytes of an angiospermic plant are pollen grains. Pollen grains are found inside
pollen sacs. Pollen sacs are formed by the development of microsporangia. Thousands of pollen grains
or microspores are formed in each microsporangium which are released into the atmosphere after the
dehiscence of anthers. When anther matures, it dehydrates due to which microspores present in it
separates from each other and develop into pollen grains.
You can look these pollen grains in the anthers of any flower such as China rose as yellowish particles.
Normaly, pollen grains are spherical in shape of about 25-50 micrometer diameter. Pollen grains
have two layered walls. Outer wall is known as exine. It is a hard layer consists of an organic material
called Sporopollenin. The exine of pollen grain has prominnt apertures known as germ pores. These
germ pores are significant as they help the pollen grain to absorb water and nutrients from the secretion
of stigma after the pollination. The inner wall of pollen grain is known as intine. This layer is thin and
continuous and consists of cellulose and pectin.
The pollen grain is uninucleate in beginning stages of development. At maturity, the pollen grain
contains two cells, the vegetative cell and generative cell. The vegetative cell is bigger in shape. It has
abundant food reserve and a large irregular shaped nucleus. Vegetative cell is also known as tube cell.
The generative cell is smaller in shape. It is found in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. The generative
cell divides mitotically and gives rise to two male gametes and the tube cell gives rise to a pollen
tube. After compatible pollination, the pollen grain germinates on the stigma of ovary and produces a
pollen tube through one of its germ pores. The remaining content of pollen grain moves inside the
pollen tube. The generative cell divides and produces two male gametes inside the pollen tube.
Experiment-1
AIM To study the pollen germination on a slide.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
10% sucrose solution, compound microscope, slide, coverslip, petridish, blotting paper, fresh
flower, dissecting needle, forceps, safranine stain, glycerine.
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all take the fresh flower of Hibiscus and take out the pistil from that flower with the help
of forceps.
BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

1
2. Keep the pistil on the glass slide and cut the pistil from the middle into two parts with the help
of a dissecting needle to prepare its longitudinal section.
3. Place a drop of water on this pistil and examine it under the microscope.
4. Now, take out the portion of pistil containing stigma with germinated pollens and tease it.
5. Place a drop of safranin on the teased section of pistil and then wash it with water.
6. Place a drop of glycerine on it and prepare a mount by covering it with coverslip.
7. Examine this slide under the microscope.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. In the nutrient medium, pollen grain germinating on stigma can be seen.
2. Growth of pollen tube within stigma can be seen.
3. After some time, the growth of two male gametes in spindle shaped can be seen.
Exine
Intine
Pollen
Pollen tube tube
Male
gametes
Tube
nucleus
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Be careful while taking out the pistil from the flower.
2. The flower should be pollinated.
3. Slides and needle for use should be proper clean.
4. Carefully done the teasing with the help of a needle.
5. If excess of glycerine is present while mounting, it can be removed by a blotting paper.
BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 2

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is Sporopollenin ? 10. How are the male gametes formed from
Ans. It is an organic material which forms the the generative cells?
outer walls of pollen grain. Ans. The male gametes are formed due to
2. What major function does the germ mitotic division of the generative cell.
pores play? 11. What is the colour of pollen grains
Ans. Pollen grains also need nutrition for found in China rose?
growth. After pollination, the germ pores Ans. Pollen grains are yellowish particles found
help pollen grains to obtain nutrition and in China rose.
water from the secretion of stigma. 12. What is the importance of pollen tube in
3. How many layers are there in Pollen flowering plants?
grains ? Ans. The pollen tube contains the remaining
Ans. Two layers – exine and intine. portion of pollen grain. Also, in the pollen
4. By which cells male gametes are tube the two male gametes are produced by
produced ? the division of generative cell.
Ans. Generative cell. 13. How pollen grains develops from
5. Which is the male gametophyte of anthers?
flowering plants? Ans. In flowering plants pollen grains are found
Ans. Pollen grains. in pollen sacs which are formed by
microsporangia. Each microsporangia
6. Which cells found in pollen grains at
consists of several thousands of pollen
maturity?
grains or microspores. At maturity anthers
Ans. Vegetative cell and Generative cell. dehisces and these pollen grains are
7. What is the shape of the pollen grains ? released in the atmosphere.
Ans. Spherical shape. 14. Where is the generative cell found inside
8. What are Germ pores ? the pollen grain?
Ans. Germ pores are the prominent apertures Ans. The generative cell is found in the
found on the exine of pollen grains. cytoplasm of the vegetative cell.
9. Why is the vegetative cell contained in 15. The inner wall of pollen grains are made
the pollen grain bigger in size? up of which substances?
Ans. It is so because the vegetative cell has Ans. The inner wall of pollen grains are made
reserve food stored in it. up of cellulose and pectin.
3 BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

EXPERIMENTS
Physical Properties of Soil
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
The upper most layer of the earth is called Soil. It

contains humus which is formed by the decomposition of
the dead remains of plants and organisms present in the
soil. It is formed by the weathering of the rocks. The soil
provides water, necessary minerals and nutrients to grow
the plants. A fertile soil have approximately 50% of
necessary minerals and rest are water, air and organic
matter.
Physical properties of soils are important to find out
whether they are fertile or not. Besides, physical
properties also help to find the types of plants that can be
grown in them. Soil can be classified on the basis of water holding capacity, texture, moisture present in
it, and by observing the pH.
The texture of soil is due to the size of the its particles present. Three types of soils are found
according to the size of the soil particles. They are as follows :
(i) Clay in which the average particle diameter is less than 0.002 mm.
(ii) Silt in which the average particle diameter is 0.002–0.05mm.
(iii) Sand in which the average particle diameter is 2–0.05 mm.
A fourth type of soil is also found. It is known as loamy soil. In this soil sand, slit and clay are
found in nearly equal proportion. Texture of the soil is helpful in knowing the density, capillary pore
spaces, water holding capacity, temperature and also root penetration capacity.
Water holding capacity is very important characteristics of soil. Water present in the pores of the
soil is also known as soil water. Soil water enriches due to the rain or the irrigation. Soil does not
retain all the rain water. Maximum of the rain water is lost as either run away water or gravitational
water. Soil retains only small amount of water. The amount of water retained in the capillary spaces of
the soil after the percolation of gravitational water into the deeper layers called water holding capacity
of the soil. It depends on the capillary pore spaces in the soil. Water holding capacity is found least in
sandy soil and maximum in clay soil.
Chemical property of a soil is also very necessary in calculating the fertility of the soil. The
nutrients present in the soil are responsible for the chemical nature of the soil. Excessive nutrients make
the soil toxic. In general, plants survive well in neutral or slightly acidic soils. Soils also become more
acidic by the use of excessive fertilizers. So, pH (Potential of hydrogen) of the soil indicates the
presence of the organisms and various nutrients in it. It also signifies the types of the organisms present
and the solubility of various minerals.

Experiment-2
AIM To collect and study soil from at least two different sites and study them for
textures, moisture contents, pH and water holding capacity soil. Also correlate
with the kinds of plants found in them.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Small boxes with perforation at bottom, pH paper strips, stirrer, water, measuring cylinder,
crucibles, soil samples from two different sites, test-tubes, funnel, balance, weights, oven, petridish,
digger, filter papers, weighing balance.
PROCEDURE:
First of all take the samples of soil from two different sites and keep them in separate containers.
Label them as sample 'A' and sample 'B' respectively.
STUDY OF SOIL TEXTURE

1. Take the samples 'A' and 'B' in your hand one by one and notice whether it is dry, moist or wet. If it
is sticky or plastic it can be clay, if it is smooth it can be silt or if it is coarse and gritty it can be sand.
2. From each samples, take 50 gms of soil in two containers of 250 ml capacity and put samples of 'A'
and 'B' in these containers. Add water to make the volume upto 250 ml.
3. Shake the containers and put them on the table to allow the particles to settle down.
4. Note down the thickness of the layers and amount of the water as indicated.
STUDY OF MOISTURE PRESENT

1. Take same amount of soils from the two samples in dry crucibles and weigh them. Note down their
weights.
2. Heat the crucibles on a burner. Heating will make the soil dry. After heating, leave the crucibles to
cool.
3. Weigh the crucibles again and note the weights after heating.
STUDY OF WATER HOLDING CAPACITY

1. Take the soil from samples 'A' and 'B' and crush them and leave them to dry.
2. Now, take two boxes whose bottoms are perforated and fill the boxes with these samples. Weigh
the boxes and note their weights.
3. Put the soil filled boxes in petridishes containing water and leave them till the upper surfaces of the
soils become wet.
4 Now, take out the boxes from the petridish and weigh them again, when the water does not drip out
of the tins. Note down the weight of the boxes after taking them out from the petridish.

5
CALCULATION OF pH OF SOIL
1. Take the soil from samples 'A' and 'B. Dry them in an oven to remove moisture.
2. Crush the soil of both samples and dissolve one table spoon of each sample in 100 ml of distilled
water in containers separately.
3. Now, stir the soil in the two samples and leave them to sediment.
4. Filter the solutions in two different test tubes after half an hour. Now, dip a portion of pH papers in
the two test-tubes and notice the colour change. Match this colour change with the colour scale on
the pH paper indicator.
5. Record the pH noticed in the table.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. In the measuring cylinder, clay in the uppermost layer. Silt is found above sand and sand being the
heaviest one settles down to the bottom.
So, a table is formed consisting the percentage of each type of soil as given below:
TABLE FOR SOIL TEXTURE

S. No. Soil Colour Texture Percentage of each type Soil type
Sample
Clay Slit Sand
1. A
2. B
2. The initial and final weights are noted in a table. If the difference between initial and final weights is
high, it means that the soil has high moisture content.
TABLE FOR MOISTURE CONTENT
S. No. Soil Sample Initial weight Final weight Moisture content = (F-I) gms
(I) gm (F) gm
1. A
2. B

3. Weight of the two boxes are recorded in the table for the water holding capacity
TABLE FOR WATER HOLDING CAPACITY
S. No. Soil Weight Weight of Weight of Weight Weight of Water

Sample of empty box filled boxes after of soil water holding
box with taking (Y–X) retained capacity
(X) soil (Y) out from by soil of the soil
petridish (Z–X) z–x ×100
y–x
(Z)
1. A
2. B
4. pH noticed should be written in tabular form for the two samples 'A' and 'B'.
TABLE FOR pH
S. No. Soil Sample pH Calculated
1. A
2. B
5. So, final table for the two samples 'A ' and 'B' are given below.
TABLE
S. No. Soil Sample Texture of the Moisture present Water holding pH of the soil
soil in the soil capacity of the
soil
1. A
2. B
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Setup should not be disturbed for some time while taking the readings for soil texture.
2. Carefully measured the thickness of the layers.
3. The petridishes should not be taken out immediately after heating.
4. Dried glass wares should be used for the experiment.
5. Check whether the bottom is perforated or not before using the tin boxes.
6. Only distilled water should be used with neutral pH.
7. Care should be taken while weighing the boxes.
8. Check whether water is dripping out or not before weighing the boxes.

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is soil ?
Ans. Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth. It is 12. What is water holding capacity of soil ?
formed by the weathering of the rocks and Ans. Amount of water retained in the capillary
contains humus. spaces of the soil after the percolation of the
2. What do you mean by humus ? gravitations water into the deeper layers is
Ans. A dark layer found in the soil which is formed known as water holding capacity of the soil.
by the decomposition of the remains of dead 13. Water holding capacity is found least in
plants and organisms. which soil ?
3. Define a fertile soil ? Ans. Sand soil.
Ans. Soil which contains 50% of necessary mineral 14. Plants survive in which type of the soils ?
nutrients and rest are water, air and organic
matters is called fertile soil. Ans. Plants survive in neutral or slightly acidic
soils.
4. How many types of soils are found on the
basis of soil particles size ? 15. What is pH ?
Ans. Three types of soils are found. Ans. pH means potential of hydrogen.
5. What are the constituents of the soil ? 16. Why it is necessary to know the physical
Ans. Mineral nutrients, water, organisms and properties of a soil?
organic matters are the constituents of the soil. Ans. Physical properties of a soil determines the
6. Define a loamy soil ? fertility of the soil. It is also helps to identify
which types of plants can be grown in them.
Ans. A soil in which sand, silt and clay are found in
equal proportion is called loamy soil. 17. How we can check the chemical nature of a
soil?
7. What do you mean by clay soil ?
Ans. Soil in which the average particle diameter is Ans. The chemical nature of soil can be checked by
less than 0.002 mm is called clay soil. testing the different nutrients present in the
soil. If excessive nutrients are present in the
8. Which is the best soil suited for the soil it makes the soil toxic.
growth of the plant ?
18. On which factor water holding capacity of
Ans. Loamy soil.
soil depends?
9. What is the term used for scientific study of soil ?
Ans. Water holding capacity of soil depends upon
Ans. Pedology. the capillary pore space present in the soil.
10. Why it is necessary to know the texture of 19. Is it important to know the pH of soil?
the soil ? Why?
Ans. Texture of the soil is helpful in knowing the Ans. Yes, it is necessary to know the pH of soil
density, capillary pore spaces, water holding because it indicates the presence of organism
capacity, temperature and also the root and different nutrients present in the soil. It
penetration capacity of the soil. also indicates the typw of organism present in
11. Out of clay, slit and sand water holding the soil and solubility of different minerals
capacity is maximum in which soil ? present in the soil.
Ans. Clay soil.

EXPERIMENTS
To Analyse pH, Clarity and Living Organisms
Present in Water
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
Several macro and micro organisms are present in water bodies like lake, pond or river. The
productivity and the trophic status of water body can be roughly calculated on the basis of presence of
these organisms. A productive water body has a very high density of phytoplanktons per unit area. Such
water bodies contain high amount of nutrients and dissolved oxygen. They support a wide range and
number of organisms to live. In those water bodies clarity, pH and presence of living organisms can be
estimated by examining the water sample of that body.
In general, water surface contains suspended particles, organic substances and living organisms of
many types like bacteria, protists, fungi, algae, viruses etc. Water becomes contaminated if the
concentration of those substances increases. A small quantity of toxins or even pathogens can also
pollute the water. Because of these organic wastes algal growth is promoted. This results in the
depletion of oxygen present in water. This depletion of oxygen is called as Eutrophication. The
depletion of oxygen causes the organisms to die and converts the water body into land after many
years.
Water body's pollution because the presence of organic wastes can be recognised by measuring its
biological oxygen demand (or BOD). It is the amount of oxygen required for the micro-organisms and
bacteria to decompose the wastes present in the water body. If BOD is high, it means large number of
micro-organisms are present to decompose the organic matters. It means that water is highly polluted.
Experiment-3
AIM To collect water from two different water bodies around you and study them for
pH, clarity and presence of any living organism.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Beaker, Test tubes, pH papers, Watch glass, Card board, Coverslip, Slides, Dropper, Compound
microscope, Water samples from two different bodies, Torch.
PROCEDURE:
In two beakers, collect the water sample from two different water bodies. Mark them as sample 'A'
and sample 'B' respectively.
DETERMINATION OF pH
1. First of all take the samples 'A' and 'B' in two different test tubes.
2. Dip a piece of broad range pH paper in each test tube.
3. Match the colour change of the pH paper with the colour scale on the pH paper indicator.
4. Record the pH of the two sample in the observation table.

9
CHECKING CLARITY
1. First of all take the samples 'A' and 'B' in two different test tubes.
2. Make a box from a card board. Now, make two holes on the opposite faces of this box.
3. Place the test tubes 'A' and 'B one by one between the two holes and switch on the light source
at one face having the hole. (Tyndal's effect)
4. Examine the two test tubes one by one through the other hole for clarity.
5. Record the observation in the table.
Test tube
Path of light
Steps to find the presence of living organisms

1. Shake the water samples 'A' and 'B' well. Now, take two clean slides and put a drop of water from the
two samples on each slide.
2. Examine this slide under the compound microscope. Try to find if there is any bacteria, algae, fungi,
etc present in the drop.
3. Record the living organisms observed in the table.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. The test tube in which more particles are seen is less clean than the other one.
2. After watching the slides under microscope a large number of organisms are seen.
3. So, the observation table for samples 'A' and 'B' is given as follows:
TABLE
Water pH Clarity of Number and types of

S. No. sample water sample organisms present in the sample
observed.
1. A
2. B
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Test tubes which are used for clarity checking should be dirt free, neat and clean.
2. Light source should have a remarkable intensity.
3. Hole in the card board box should not be very large.
4. The slides used should be neat and clean.

2
VIVA-VOCE
1. What Stand for BOD ? 8. What is productive water body?
Ans. Biological Oxygen Demand. Ans. A water body having a very high density of
2. What is biological oxygen demand (BOD)? phytoplanktons per unit area is called as
Ans. Amount of the oxygen required for the micro- productive water body. Such water body
organisms and bacteria to decompose the contains high amount of nutrients and
wastes present in the water body is called dissolved oxygen.
biological oxygen demand (BOD). 9. How can the clarity of water sample be
3. Name some organisms present in water tested ?
body. Ans. Clarity of water sample can be tested by
Ans. Bacteria, virus, algae, fungi, protists etc. observing the sample in a light source. If more
4. Give examples of some fresh water algae ? particles are seen moving in the light source it
Ans. Volvox, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas etc. means that the sample is less clear.
5. If BOD is high what does it mean ? 10. Write some examples of phytoplanktons
present in polluted water.
Ans. It means that water is very much polluted.
Ans. Spirogyra, ulothrix, spirulina etc.
6. What do you mean by eutrophication ?
11. Write some examples of zooplanktons
Ans. Depletion of oxygen present in water due to
present in polluted water.
the growth of algae is called as eutrophication.
Ans. Hydra, amoeba etc.
7. Define water pollution.
12. How can you know that water is polluted?
Ans. Increase in the concentration of particles,
micro-organisms and organic substance makes Ans. When BOD is high indicates that water is
the water unfit for use. This is called as water polluted.
pollution.

11
EXPERIMENTS
Pollutants Present in Air
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
Pollutants are by–products or waste products which cause adverse effect on the environment and
also on all living organism including human beings. This phenomenon is known as Environmental
pollution. These waste products are released after the use of materials by human beings. Various
pollutants are found in air. They are as follows :
(i) Gases pollutants like CO2, SO2, smoke, unburnt hydrocarbons etc.
(ii) Particulate pollutants like smog, dust, pollen grains etc.
Those areas which are rich in dust, smoke and suspended particulate matters (SPM) are more
polluted areas. All these are generated by the use of vehicles, industries and other activities like burning
of materials.
Experiment-4
AIM To study the presence of suspended particulate matter in air at the two widely
different sites.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Glycerine, Dropper, Slides, Coverslip, Microscope, Leaves of plants from two different sites.
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all collect the leaves from two different sites. Like one from any industrial area and
another from the road side near your house.
2. put few drops of glycerine on these leaves with the help of a dropper and rub the glycerine
with a brush.
3. Now. take a small amount of glycerine rubbed on the leaves over the slides. Cover the slides
by coverslips.
4. Place the slides under the microscope one by one and observe the presence of dust, suspended
particulate matters etc on these slides.
5. Record the presence of particles in the table.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. The leaves collected from different sites contain number of suspended particulate matters like
pollen grains, dust particles, spores etc.
2. Record the observations of the two slides in the table.

TABLE
Suspended particulate matters seen
S. No. Sample of leaves under the microscope
1. From industrial area
2. From the road side
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Always use clean slides for the experiment.
2. While using glycerine always take a clean dropper.
VIVA-VOCE
1. Define Pollutants. 7. What are particulates ?
Ans. Agents that bring about undesirable changes Ans. Solid particles which are suspended in air are
are called Pollutants. called particulates.
2. What do you mean by Pollution ? 8. Mention examples of some particulates ?
Ans. Pollution is the undesirable change in the Ans. Dust, pollen grains, smog, spores etc.
physical, chemical or biological characteristics 9. What is global warming ?
of air, water, land or soil which affects the Ans. Warming of the earth because of the rise in the
living organisms including human beings. mean temperature of the earth is called global
3. Write some examples of pollutants. warming. It is due to the retention of heat by the
Ans. Smoke, dust particles, pollen grains. harmful gases released in the atmosphere.
5. What stands for SPM ? 10. What are Green house gases ?
Ans. Suspended Particulate Matter. Ans. Gases which retain heat and cause the
6. What are the main source of pollution ? atmospheric temperature to rise are called Green
Ans. Vehicles, automobiles. industries. house gases.
4. Write some examples of gaseous pollutants. 11. Write some examples of green house gases.
Ans. SO2, CO2, unburnt hydrocarbons. Ans. CO2, N2O, chloro-fluoro carbon i.e. CFC etc.

13
EXPERIMENTS
Plant Population Density
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
Population means number of the individuals of same species living in a particular geographical
area at a particular time. The individuals of a population share similar resources and they interbreed. In
a population number of individuals increases or decreases because of many factors like birth rate, death
rate, emigration, immigration etc. So, population never remains constant. Number of the individuals of
a species in any unit area is known as its density. Therefore, population density is the total number of
individuals present at a given time in a given space divided by the unit of area.
\ Total numbers of individuals of a species in that area
Density =
Total area
The value of the density so acquired represents the number of the individuals per unit area.
Experiment-5
AIM To Study plant population density by quadrate method.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Theory : Population is the total number of interbreeding individuals of a species found in a
geographical area. Population density need not always be measured in numbers.
[What is population density? What are the factors influencing it ?]
In plants it could be present cover or biomass, as counting will be impossible if population is hug.
[How is human population estimate ?]
Population density is the number of individuals of a species per unit area/space at a given time.
N
D=
S
N= No. of Individuals
S= Space
PROCEDURE: 100
1. Choose a field full of vegetations for the experiment. 90
80
2. Measure 1 m × 1 m quadrate with the help of meter scale. Label 70
the boundary of this quadrate with threads and nails. Fix the nails 60
50
by a hammer. 40
cm
3. In this quadrate make smaller quadrants of size 10 cm × 10 cm, 30

20
20 cm × 20 cm and so on as indicated in given figure 5.1. You 10
have to make ten smaller quadrants in this bigger quadrate. 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
cm
4. Count the types of a species and total number of individuals of Quadrants
each species in each quadrate. Record the data in the table. Fig 5.1

Quadrate area Total No. of species
2
10 × 10 cm
2
20 × 20 cm
2
30 × 30 cm
2
40 × 40 cm
2
50 × 50 cm
2
60 × 60 cm
2
70 × 70 cm
2
80 × 80 cm
2
90 × 90 cm
2
100 × 100 cm
5. Draw a graph in which x-axis denotes the size of quadrate and y-axis denotes the no. of
species. Use the information noted in the table. When the curve starts flattening record that
point equivalent to x-axis. This minimum area of the quadrate is suitable for the study.
6
No. of species
0
10 20 30 40 50
Size of quadrate
Fig 5.2
6. Now, divide this quadrate (assume 50 cm × 50 cm) into five equal parts. Record the no. of
species found in each quadrate and also total number of individuals of each species in the
observation table.

15
OBSERVATIONS:
OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No. Plants No. of individual Total number of Total area of Population
Species plants per individual plants Quadrates density
quadrate in all the studied (B) N
quadrates (N) B
I II III IV V
Therefore, population density is given by the formula

Total numbers of individuals of a species in an area
=
Total area
N
i.e., Population Density =
B
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use the full vegetated site which are distributed uniformly.
2. Be sure that the plants are not damaged, while fixing the nails by a hammer.
3. Individuals of a species should be counted carefully.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is population ? Ans. Population density represent the number of
Ans. Number of individuals of a species living in a individuals per unit area.
particular geographical area at a particular 6. What do you mean by mortality ?
time is known as population. Ans. Rate at which individuals die in a population
2. Define population density. known as mortality.
Ans. Population density is the total number of 7. What is natality ?
individuals of a species in that area divided by Ans. Rate at which new individuals are born and
total area. added to the population is known as natality.
3. What is the formula of population density ? 8. What are the factors which causes the
N
Ans. Population density = B . increase or decrease of individuals present
4. What is quadrate ? in population?
Ans. A plot of specific size used as a sample to Ans. The factors are : (i) mortality, (ii) natality, (iii)
study population is called a quadrate. immigration, (iv) emigration.
5. What does the population density denotes?

2
EXPERIMENTS
Plant Population Frequency
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
The number of individuals of same species living in a particular geographical area at a particular
time is called population. Frequency means the occurence of individuals of a species within a
community. Frequency is the number of quadrants in which a particular species occurs. Frequency is
expressed in percentage and the formula for the calculation of percentage frequency is :
Total numbers of quadrants in which species occured
% Frequency = ´100
Total no. of quadrants studied
Experiment-6
AIM To Study plant population frequency by quadrate method.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Meter scale, Threads, Hammer, Nails etc.
PROCEDURE:
1. Choose a field full of vegetations for the 100
experiment. 90
2. Measure 1 m × 1 m quadrate with the help of 80
meter scale. Mark the boundary of this quadrate 70
with the help of threads and nails. Fix the nails 60
with the help of a hammer. 50
3. In this quadrate make smaller quadrants of size 40
10 cm × 10 cm, 20 cm × 20 cm and so on as 30
shown in the given figure. You have to make ten 20
smaller quadrants in this bigger quadrant. 10
4. Count the types of a species and total number of 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
individuals of each species in each quadrant.
Record it in the table. Fig 6.1 Quadrants
5. Use the information entered into the table and draw a graph in which x-axis denotes the size of
quadrate and y-axis denotes the number of species. When the curve stands Flattening note that point
equivalent to X-axis. This minimum area of quadrate is suitable for study.

17
8
No. of species
6
4
2
0
10 20 30 40 50
Size of quadrate
Fig 6.2
6.
Now, divide this quadrate (assume 50 cm × 50 cm) into five equal parts. Record the no. of
species found in each quadrate and also total number of individuals of each species in the
observation table.
OBSERVATIONS:
OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No. Plants No. of individual Total number of Total area of Frequency

Species plants per quadrates in which Quadrates percentage
quadrate species occured studied (B) A
´100
(A) B
I II III IV V
So, population frequency is given by

Total numbers of quadrants inwhich species occured
= ´100
Total no. of quadrant studied
A
i.e., % Frequency = ´100
B
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use the site which is full of vegetations and also they are distributed uniformly distributed.
2. Be sure that the plants are not damaged while fixing the nails by a hammer.
VIVA-VOCE
1. Define percentage frequency ? 2. What is the formula of percentage frequency ?
Ans. Percentage frequency is the total number of
A
quadrates in which species occured divided by Ans. percentage frequency ´100
B
the total number of quadrates multiplied by
hundred .

2
EXPERIMENTS
Mitosis in Onion Root Tip
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
New cell arises by the division of pre-existing ones in a multicellular organisms like human beings.
Cell division in human beings is of two types—(i) Mitosis and (ii) Meiosis. In mitosis somatic cells are
divided, whereas in meiosis germ cells are divided. Division of somatic cells causes the growth of the
body by increasing the number of the cells. In somatic cells, both nucleus and cytoplasm divides.
Division of nucleus is known as Karyokinesis, whereas division of cytoplasm is known as Cytokinesis.
In mitosis, nucleus divides first followed by the division of cytoplasm. Division of nucleus, i.e.,
Karyokinesis is divided into four stages : (i) Prophase (ii) Metaphase (iii) Anaphase and (iv) Telophase.
After nuclear division, the cytoplasm divides to produce two daughter cells. Before the prophase stage
of mitosis, an inactive stage called interphase occurs. A short explanation of all the stages of mitosis are
given below :
I. Karyokinesis : Division of nuclues. Karyokinesis involves five stages :
(i) Interphase : Replication of DNA, protein storage.
(ii) Prophase : DNA condensation and chromosomes appear.
(iii) Metaphase : Formation of spindle and arrangement of chromosomes on equator.
(iv) Anaphase : Movement of daughter chromosomes on the opposite poles.
(v) Telophase : Formation of daughter nuclei from the chromatics.
Formation of daughter nuclei from the chromatics.
II. Cytokinesis : Division of Cytoplasm.
Ultimately, cell divides to produce two daughter cells. Mitosis can be best seen in the root tips of
the meristematic cells in laboratory. For example, in the onion root tips, you can see the steps of mitosis
under a compound microscope.
Experiment-7
AIM To Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Methyl alcohol, Forceps, Petridishes, Needles, Acetocarmine, Scissors, Slides, Coverslips, Blotting
paper, Razor or Blade, Spirit lamp, Microscope, A fresh onion bulb, Conical flask, Hydrochloric acid,
etc.
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all take a medium sized onion bulb and with the help of a sharp razor cut off the old
roots from the bulb's base.
19
2. Put the cut bottom end of the bulb on a conical flask filled with water so that the base of the
bulb touches the water layer of the flask. Keep it for one week and observe whether roots have grown
or not.
3. Cut the 5 mm of the root tip with the help of a sharp razor and put the tip in vial containing a
mixture of 1 : 3 acetic acid and methanol. Keep this vial for 1 hour.
4. Now, take two or three root tips and hydrolyze them by warming to 60°C in 1 N Hydrochloric
acid solution for 15 minutes.
5. Take out the root tips and clean them thoroughly in plain water or distilled water.
6. Take a slide and place a drop of acetocarmine on the slide. Now, keep one hydrolyzed root tip
in the drop then put a coverslip on the root.
7. Now, apply some pressure gently on the coverslip with the help of the blunt end of a pencil or
needle or any object. This gentle pressing separates the cells and spreads into a very thin layer.
8. Gently warm the slide over a flame for few seconds.
9. Now, examine this slide under a powerful microscope and record the observations.
Cell surface membrane Aster

Nuclear envelop Centriole
Chromatin threads Nucleolus
Nuclear envelop
Nucleolus Pair of chromatids
(Chromosome)
Centrioles Centromere
Cytoplasm Prophase
Interphase
Pair of centrioles
Spindle fibres Nucleolus
(microtubules) Chromatin threads
Cntromeres Nuclear envelop
on 'equator' Cytokinesis
of spindle beginning
(division of the
cell)
Telophase
Metaphase Chromatids
are pulled
apart,
centromeres
first
Anaphase
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Under the microscope, rectangular cells with pink nucleus are seen. On observing under high power
microscope you can see the different stages of mitosis. These different stages are as following:

2
1. Interphase :
(i) Thin thread like chromation fibres are found.
(ii) Replication of DNA and synthesis of histone proteins.
(iii) Non-dividing phase of the cell.
2. Prophase :
(i) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear at the end of this stage.
(ii) Each chromosome has two identical threads known as sister chromatids. Sister chromatids are
attached at a point known as centromere.
(ii) Chromatin fibres condenses and shortens to form thread like chromosomes.
3. Metaphase :
(i) Each chromosome attach with spindle fibres.
(ii) Chromosomes thickness and the two chromatids are seen clearly.
(iii) Chromosomes then arrange at the equator of the spindle.
(iv) Spindle appears as a bipolar structure.
4. Anaphase :
(i) Sister chromatids are separated from each chromosome and more to the opposite poles.
(ii) The daughter chromosomes which move to the opposite poles form different shapes like V, J, I
and L.
5. Telophase
(i) The spindle pole disappears and the daughter chromosomes form chromatin fibres.
(ii) Nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappears around the two daughter nuclei at opposite poles.
6. Cytokinesis:
(i) Development of cells with nuclei and furrow in the middle can be seen.
(ii) Formation of cell plate can be seen.
(iii) Finally two new cells are formed.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While heating the slide do not use strong flame.
2. Take care that only the roots are being cut and not the bulb While cutting the root of the bulb
with a sharp razor.
3. Check periodically whether the bulb is in the water or not.
4. Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 12.

21
VIVA-VOCE
1. What types of cell division takes place in 12. In which stage of mitosis sister
human being? chromatids of chromosomes can be
Ans. Two types - (i) mitosis and (ii) meiosis. seen?
2. In which types of cells meiosis takes place ? Ans. Metaphase.
Ans. Germ cells. 12. At which stage of mitosis envelope mitosis?
3. What is Karyokinesis? Ans. Telophase.
Ans. Karyokinesis is the division of the nucleus. 13. Development of cell plate can be seen at
4. Define Cytokinesis. which stage of cell division?
Ans. Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm. Ans. Cytokinesis.
5. In which types of cells mitosis takes 14. What is the importance of mitosis ?
place? Ans. Importance of mitosis are:
Ans. Somatic cells. (a) It maintains the nucleo-cytoplasmic
6. Spindle pole appears at which stage of ratio.
mitosis? (b) Cells are repaired through mitosis.
Ans. Metaphase. (c) It causes the growth of multicellular
7. In lab mitosis can be best seen in which organism.
types of cells? 15. In a cell during mitosis which divides
Ans. In the meristematic cell of onion root tip. first - nucleus or cytoplasm ?
8. In which stage of the mitosis replication Ans. Nucleus..
of DNA takes place? 16. Under the microscope which changes
Ans. Interphase stage. can be seen in the anaphase stage of
9. At what stage sister chromatids separate mitosis?
and move to the opposite poles? Ans. In anaphase stage sister chromatids
Ans. Anaphase. separates from chromosomes and moves to
opposite poles and forms different shapes
10. At what stage chromosomes are best seen?
like V, J, I and L.
Ans. Metaphase.
17. In which stage of mitosis thin threads of
11. At which stage of the mitosis nucleolus chromatin fibres can be seen?
disappears?
Ans. Interphase
Ans. Prophase.

2
EXPERIMENTS
Action of Salivary Amylase on Starch
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
An enzyme which is present in the saliva is known as salivary amalyse. Saliva is secreted by
salivary glands present in the oral cavity of mouth. Salivary amylase is also called ptylin. Salivary
amylase hydrolyses the carbohydrate, i.e., starch into disaccharides - maltose, isomaltose and small
amount of dextrins. Salivary amylase acts as a biological catalyst which is proteinaceous in nature. It
has a three dimensional structure. It is denatured by heat and chemicals. Salivary amylase acts at a
specific pH of 6.8. Action of salivary anylase also depends on temperature and works at an optimum
temperature of 37°C.
The action of salivary amylase on starch can be tested by using the iodine solution in laboratory.
When iodine solution (yellow in colour) is added to starch it turns blue-black because iodine does not
reacts with starch. When salivary amylase is added to the mixture, colour of the mixture changes from
blue-black to reddish-brown indicating the digestion of starch in presence of salivary amylase.
The complete breakdown of starch into simpler sugars can be detected by using Benedict's
solution. When Benedict's solution is added to the mixture and heated, the colour of the mixture canges
from blue → green → yellow → orange.
Orange colour indicates the complete breakdown of starch into simpler sugars.
Salivary amylase
So, Starch Maltose + isomaltose + limited amount of dextrins.
pH-6.8
Experiment-8
AIM To Study effect of different temperatures and three different pH by the activity of
salivary amylase on starch.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Potassium iodide, Iodine, Sodium chloride, Therinecol box, Dropper, Stop watch, Test tubes, Test
tubes stands, Test tube holders, Thermometer, Glass stirrer, Beakers of 200 ml and 250 Spirit lamp,
Cotton, 1% starch.
PROCEDURE:
1. 1% starch solution : First of all take 10 ml of distilled water and add 1 gm of starch to it.
Now, heat 90 ml of distilled water and add the 10 ml of starch and water solution in it.
2. 1% NaC1 solution : Add 1 gm of NaCl in 100 ml of distilled water.
3. Iodine solution (Lugol's Iodine) : Add 1 gm of iodine and 2 gm of potassium iodide in 100
ml of distilled water.

23
4. Buffer solutions of pH 5, pH 8 and pH 10 : In 5 ml of distilled water add buffer tablets
of 5,8, and 10 to make buffer solutions of pH 5, pH 8 and pH 10 respectively.
Collection of Saliva (Saliva solution) :
First of all take a small piece of cotton and soak it in water. Drain off the excess water present in
the cotton and place it over the mouth of funnel in such a way that it acts as a filter. Place this funnel
over a clean test tube. Chew a piece of rubber and pour the incoming saliva into the funnel. Collect the
filtered saliva in the test tube. Now, take 1 ml of saliva and add 19 ml of distilled water to make saliva
solution.
TO STUDY EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all take three test tubes and mark them as tube A, tube B and tube C.
2. Add 10 ml of starch, 3 ml of saliva solution and 10 ml of water in each test tube and shake well to
mix them. Take three test tubes 1, 2 and 3 and put iodine solution in each of them. Tubes 1, 2 and 3
are the indicator tubes.
3. Take a beaker with water at 5°C and put tube A in it. Take another beaker with water at 37°C and
put tube B in it. Similarly, take a beaker with water at 70°C and place tube C in it.
4. Put the beakers along with the test tubes in thermocol boxes to maintain their constant
temperature.
5. After two minutes take two drops from each tube A, B and C and add them to the tubes containing
iodine solution.
6. Examine the colour change and repeat the process at an interval of 2 minutes until the colour of the
iodine does not change.
OBSERVATIONS:
The effect of temperature on the digestion of starch by salivary amylase can be seen in the table.
TABLE
Time Reaction of iodine Reaction of iodine Reaction of Iodine
(in minutes) with tube A at 5°C with tube B at 37°C with tube C at 70°C
2 Blue Light Blue Blue
4
6
8
RESULT :
(i) 10 ml of starch is digested by 3 ml of saliva in .......... minutes at 5°C.
(ii) 10 ml of starch is digested by 3 ml of saliva in .......... minutes at 37°C.
(iii) 10 ml of starch is digested by 3 ml of saliva in .......... minutes at 70°C.
CONCLUSION:
Digestion of starch is affected by salivary amylase at different temperatures.

2
TO STUDY EFFECT OF pH
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all take three test tubes having 1 mL iodine solution and put them in three stands
separately.
2. Take a test tube and add 5 mL of 1% starch solution, 1 mL of 1% NaCl and a tablet of pH 5.
Put mark this tube as 'A'.
3. Take another tube and add 5 mL of 1% starch solution, 1 mL of 1% NaC1 and a tablet of pH
6.8. Mark this tube as 'B'.
4. In the same way, take the third tube and add 5 mL of 1% starch solution, 1 mL of 1% NaCl and
a tablet of pH 8. Mark this tube as 'C'.
5. Now, take a beaker with water at 37°C and put the three tubes A, B and C in it for 10 minutes.
Maintain the temperature of water by putting a thermometer in the beaker.
6. Pour 1 mL of diluted saliva in each tube.
7. Take a drop from each tube and add to the corresponding indicator tube containing the iodine
solution. Examine the colour of the iodine solution.
8. Do again this process after every two minutes and note the colour change in the table until the
colour of the iodine does not change further.
OBSERVATIONS:
REACTION IN IODINE SOLUTION
Time Type A Type A Type C
(in minutes) (pH 5) (pH 6.8) (pH 8)
Blue Colour Blue Colour Blue Colour
0
2
4
6
8
RESULT :
At pH 5 → No salivary amylase action.
At pH6.8 → Digestion of Starch.
At pH 8 → No salivary amylase action.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use only clean Glasswares.
2. Always filter saliva with cotton and not by a filter paper.
3. Chemicals should be handled with care.

25
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is the nature of salivary amylase ? the complete breakdown of starch into
Ans. It is the proteinaceous in nature. simpler sugars.
2. Which enzyme present in saliva ? 9. Define Ptylin.
Ans. Salivary amylase. Ans. Salivary amylase is also known as ptylin.
3. What is the pH of the salivary amylase ? 11. What are conjugated enzymes?
Ans. 6.8. Ans. Enzymes in which non-protein part are
4. What is the optimum temperature at attached along with the protein part are
which salivary amylase works ? called conjugated enzymes.
Ans. 37°C. 12. In lab how iodine solution is prepared?
5. What is the function of salivary amylase? Ans. By adding 1 gm of iodine and 2 gms of
Ans. It digests the starch and converts it into potassium iodide in 100 ml of distilled
simple sugars. water.
6. What do you mean by achromic point ? 13. What is saliva solution used in the
Ans. Point at which no blue colour is seen when experiment?
iodine is added to starch + saliva solution, Ans. Saliva solution is combination of saliva
is called as achromic point. and water. For example 1 ml of saliva is
7. In lab, action of salivary amylase can be added in 19 ml of distilled water.
tested by which solution? 14. In the Bendict's solution test what does
Ans. Action of salivary amylase can be tested the orange colour indicates?
by iodine solution. Ans. Orange colour indicates the complete
8. What happens when Benedict's solution breakdown of starch into simpler sugars.
is added to the starch ?
Ans. Colour of the solution changes from blue
→ green → yellow → orange indicating

2
Section–B EXPERIMENTS
Adaptation of Flowers for Pollination
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of same flower or different flower of
same plant and of same species is called pollination. Plant needs some external agents for transference
of pollen grains. These external agents can be wind, animal, water or air. The external agents are biotic
or abiotic, i.e., water, air or wind are examples of abiotic agents while animals are the biotic agents.
Since pollen grains need agents for transference, therefore many plants have adapted themselves for the
acceptance of pollen grains for pollination.
Those plants in which wind is the agent for pollination, pollen grains are light and non-sticky.
Because of their light weight they can be transported through wind. In such plants the stamens are well
exposed. Due to this when anther matures, the pollen grains are dispersed in wind easily. In these plants
the stigma is of feather shape because of which they can trap the pollen grains present in the air.
Flowers which require wind for pollination contain one ovule in each ovary and many flowers are
bundled to represent the inflorescence. Some examples of plants which require wind as the external
agent for pollination are wheat, maize, acacia etc.
Those plants in which animals are the agent for pollination, flowers are coloured and have
fragrance to attract the insects/animals. Flowers of these plants are large and have nectars. In place of
fragrance some flowers produce foul smell to attract the insects/animals. When the insects/animals
comes to sip the nectar of a flower, the pollen grains stick to their bodies and are transferred to another
flower with them or on the same flower's stigma. After this, pollination occurs. Some animals
pollinated flowers are brassica, petunia etc.
Experiment-1
AIM To study the owers adapted to pollination by different agencies, i.e., wind,
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Procedure :- Flowers of Wheat, Acacia, Brassica, Petunia , Slides, Forceps, Needles etc.
OBSERVATIONS
FLOWERS ADAPTED TO POLLINATION BY WIND
1. Wheat
(i) Flowers are very little.
(ii) There are two stigma found in each pistil which are feather shaped to trap the pollen grains
present in the wind or air.
(iii) Every flower has three stamens which are versatile. They easily produce pollen grains in the air.
(iv) Perianth of the flower is in the form of two small lodicules because of which pollen grains
move with less resistance.
27
inflorescence Gynoecium
Stamen
Lodicule
Palea Lemma
Leaf Spikelet (Diagrammatic)
Locule
Glume I Glume II
Placenta
Ovule
An opened spikelet of wheat

T.S. of ovary
A flowering twig
Fig 1.1 Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
2. Acacia
(i) Flower of acacia is very little.
(ii) Anther produces huge pollens.
(iii) Many stamens with long filaments are seen which are exposed to air.
(iv) Corolla is tube shaped.
Leaflets
Style
Anther
Stamen Filament
Corolla
Leaf
Corolla
Ovary
Inflorescence
Sepal
Thalamus
Calyx
L.S. of Flower
Stipule (Spine)
A flower
Stem Placenta
A flowering of twig
Wall
Uvule
Locule
T.S. Ovary
Fig 1.2 Acacia

FLOWERS ADOPTED TO POLLENATION BY INSECTS
1. Petunia
(i) Flowers are enormous shaped.
(ii) When insects enter the flower for nectar they rupture the anther wall.
(iii) Stamens are attached with coralla.
(iv) Corollas are of various colours.
(v) Bright nectaries are found at the base of stamens which are sucked by the insects.
Petal
Petal Anther
Stigma
Stigma
Stamen Filament
Ovary
Sepal Sepal
Pedicel Thalamus
Pedicel
A Flower L.S. Flower
Fig 1.3 Petunia
2. Brassica
1. It has six stamens. Inner four stamens are bigger, outer two stamens are smaller.
2. Colour of the flower is bright yellow which attracts the insects.
3. Every flower has four nectaries to attract the insects, bees, animals etc.
Petal
Stigma
Petal
Style
Stamen
Stamen
Ovary
Sepal
Sepal
Pedicel Thalamus
A Flower Pedicel
L.S. of Flower
Fig 1.4 Brassica

29
VIVA-VOCE
1. Define Pollination. 11. What do you mean by autogamy ?
Ans. Transfer of pollenn grains from the anther Ans. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
to stigma of same flower or different flower the stigma of the same flower.
of same species is called Pollination. 12. What is the colour of the flower of
2. Mention examples of some agents brassica ?
required for pollination. Ans. Yellow.
Ans. Wind, Water, Animals, Insects. 13. What is the shape of the stigma of wheat ?
3. What are anemophillous flowers ? Ans. Feather shaped.
Ans. Wind pollinated flowers are known as 14. How many types of pollination are
anemophillous flowers. found in flowering plants and what are
they ?
4. Mention examples of abiotic and biotic
external agents for pollination. Ans. Two types namely :
Ans. Biotic external agents—insects, animals. (i) self pollination
Abiotic external agents—wind, water. (ii) cross pollination
5. Write examples of some plants in which 15. How the stamens are arranged in
wind is required for pollination. Brassica flower?
Ans. Wheat, maize, acacia. Ans. Brassica flower contains six stamens. Two
outer stamens are smaller and four inner
6. Mention examples of some plants in stamens are bigger.
which insects are required for pollination.
16. What is the shape of corolla found in
Ans. Brassica, Petunia. acacia?
7. Why pollination is important for plants ? Ans. It is tube shaped.
Ans. For fertilization. 17. Why pollen grains moves with less
resistance in wheat's flower?
8. Define Xenogamy.
Ans. In wheat the-perianth of the flower is in the
Ans. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to form of two small lodicules due to which
the stigma of different flower is Known as pollen grains moves with less resistance.
Xenogamy. 18. What is the colour of Brassica flower?
9. What do you mean by geitonogamy ? Ans. Bright yellow.
Ans. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to 19. How pollination takes place through
the stigma of another flower of the same animals?
plant is called as geitonogamy. Ans. When an animal or insect comes to sip the
10. What are entomophilous flowers ? nectar of the flower the pollen grains sticks
to their bodies and are transferred to
Ans. Insect pollinated flowers are known as
another flowers with them.
entomophillous flowers.

EXPERIMENTS
Pollen Germination and Growth
of Pollen Tube
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
Pollen grains are the male reproductive units in angiosperms. They represent the male gametophyte
of a plant. Pollen grains are produced by a process known as microsporogenesis. In this process, many
thousands of pollen grains or microspores are released into the atmosphere after the dehiscence of
anthers.
Pollen grain has two layered walls. Outer wall is called exine. It is a hard layer made up of an
organic material known as sporopollenin. Exine has prominant apertures known as germ pores. Inner
wall of pollen grain is known as intine. It is made up of cellulose. This is a thin layer.
In initial stages pollen grains are uninucleate. At maturity, pollen grains contain two cells-
vegetative and generative cells. Vegetative cell contains abundant food reserve. It is also known as tube
cell. Generative cell gives rise to two male gametes.
Pollen grains germinate on the stigma of a flower after compatible pollination. After some time
pollen grains produce pollen tubes which are the extension of the inner walls of pollen grains, i.e., intine.
Pollen tubes are made up of cellulose. They emerge through one of the germ pores and carry the two male
gametes. One of the pollen tubes after passing through stigma and style reaches the ovule. In the
laboratory you can observe the development of pollen tubes by staining with cotton blue. You can examine
the growth of the pollen tube in the flower of sunflower, Lady's finger, petunia, grass, maize etc.
Experiment-2
AIM To Study pollen tube germination on stigma through a permanent slide.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Microscope, Dropper, Beaker, Brush, Needle, Cotton blue stain, Coverslips, Slides, Blotting paper, Fresh
pollinated flower.
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all take a fresh pollinated flower. Then, take out the pollinated carpel from the flower, with using
forceps.
2. Place the carpel on the glass slide in a drop of water.
3. Take a beaker and boil water in it. Put the stigma of the flower in the boiled water for at least 10 minutes.
This will help in the softening of the tissue of stigma.
4. Stain the stigma with cotton blue for 5 minutes. Gently wash it with water to remove excess stain from it.
5. Now, take one stigma on a slide and mount a drop of glycerine on it. Put a coverslip on this stigma and
gently press the coverslip on the slide
6. Examine this slide under a microscope. If pollen tube is not seen then repeat the process as described
above for another stigma.

31
Exine
Intine
Pollen tube Pollen tube
Male gametes
Tube nucleus
Fig (a) Various stages of Germination
Pollen tube
Pollen tube
Pollen tube
Pollen tube
Pollen tube
Longitudinal section of a flower

showing growth of pollen tube.
Fig (b) L.S. of pistil showing path of pollen tube growth
OBSERVATIONS:
You will observe various stages of pollen tube germination under the microscope. Examine long
tubes having blue colour passing through the tissues of style and stigma. These blue coloured are the
pollen tubes. One of the pollen tubes will reach the ovule.
CONCLUSION:
Pollen tube can be seen in the tissues of style of a flower. Growth of pollen tube the origin of the
pollen grains can be traced in the tissues of the stigma.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Beaker should not be heated empty.
2. Excess of water should be removed by the blotting paper.
3. Only fresh pollinated flower must be selected.

2
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do yo mean by grains ? gametes are produced by the division of
Ans. Pollen grains are the male reproductive units generative cells.
of an angiospermic plant. They represent the 10. What is role of stigma and style in pollination ?
male gametophyte of a plant. Ans. Stigma of a pistil gives a platform for the
2. Define a pollen tube. pollen grains to identify it during pollination.
Ans. Pollen tube is the extension of the inner wall After compatible pollination, these pollen
of the pollen grain. grains germinate on the stigma and produce
pollen tubes. The pollen tube gets the
3. By which process the pollen grains are nourishment from the tissues of stigma.
produced in the plant ?
Style of a pistil gives a path for the pollen tube
Ans. Pollen grains are produced by a process called to proceed further and to reach the ovule. The
microsporogenesis. male gametes of the pollen tube get all the
4. What is Microsporogenesis ? nourishment from the tissues of style.
Ans. The process of formation of microspores from 11. Why do we keep the stigma of the flowering
a pollen mother cell through meiosis is called plant in the boiling water for some time ?
microsporogenesis. Ans. We keep the stigma of the flowering plant in
5. What is the importance of pollen tube in the the boiling water to soften the tissues of the
reproduction of flowering plant ? stigma.
Ans. Through pollen tube the male gametes pass to 12. What is the ploidy of the pollen grains ?
the embryo sac of the ovule in the ovary for Ans. Haploid.
fertilization. 13. Pollen tubes are produced by which cells of
6. Mention the chemical used for staining the the pollen grains ?
pollen tube. Ans. Vegetative cells.
Ans. Cotton blue stain. 14. What are the cells present in the pollen
7. Pollen tube carries how many gametes ? grain?
Ans. Two cells named as vegetative cell and
Ans. Two.
generative cell.
8. Write the various parts of the pistil.
15. Mention the layer of the pollen wall from
Ans. Stigma, Style and Ovary. which pollen tube arises.
9. What is the necessity of pollen tube? Ans. Intine.
Ans. Pollen tube contains the remaining portion of
pollen grain. Also, in pollen tube the two male

33
EXPERIMENTS
Stages of Gamete Development
in Mammals
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
The sexual reproduction takes place by the formation of sex cells known as gametes in all human
beings. The cells which do not participate in sexual reproduction are known as Somatic cells. Gametes
are different from these somatic cells due to the presence of half number of chromosomes in their
nuclei. Gamete formation takes place in testis in male organisms while in female organisms gamete
formation takes place in ovary.
The process of formation of gametes is known as gametogenesis. It involves meiotic cell division.
It is of two types : (1) Spermatogenesis—formation of sperms in male and 2. Oogenesis—formation
of ova in female. Sperms are formed in the seminiferous tubules of the testis and ovum is formed in the
ovary. You can observe the various stages of gamete development in testis and ovary by examining
their permanent slides under microscope.
Experiment-3
AIM To identify stages of gamete development i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through
permanent slides.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Compound microscope, Permanent slides of T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary, Lens cleaning paper
and Fluid.
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all clean the lenses of the microscope with the help of lens cleaning paper and fluid.
Also clean the slide to be observed.
2. Put the slide and observe under the microscope.
3. Observe different stages of gamete development.
4. Now, draw the labelled diagrams in the notebook.
OBSERVATIONS:
(A) T.S. of Testis
1. The outer covering of thick fibrous tissue is known as tunica albuginea.
2. You will find large tabular structures embedded in tissues while observing. Large tubules are
seminiferous tubules and tissues are intestinal tissues.
3. On examine a mature tubule you will find different stages of gamete development in testis.
These stages are as from periphery towards the lumen of the tubule : Germinal epithelium
Spermatogonial cells→ Primary Spermatocytes → Secondary Spermatocytes → Spermatids
→Spermetozoa.
4. You will examine some pyramid shaped cells known as Sertoli cells between the germinal cells.

5. Sertoli cells have sperms arranged in clusters. Every sperm has a head and a long tail.
Seminiferous tubule
Sertoli cell
Interstitial cells
Mature sperms
Blood capillary
Spermatocytes at different
stages of development
Connective tissue
Fig T.S. Testis if Mamals
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is gametogenesis ? Ans. Pyramid shaped cells found in the
Ans. The process of formation of gametes in males seminiferous tubules are called as Sertoli
and females is called as gametogenesis. cells. Sertoli cells provide nourishment to
2. What is spermatogenesis ? the developoing sperms.
Ans. The process of formation of sperms in 7. What are the different parts of a sperm
male is called spermatogenesis. observed under the microscope ?
3. What is tunica albuginea. Ans. Head and long tail.
Ans. The outer thick fibrous tissue of testis is 8. Write the layer of tissues found on the
called as tunicia albugenia. peripherals part of the seminiferous tubule.
4. Spermatogenesis takes place in which Ans. Germinal epithelium.
part of the human body ?
9. Mention the sequence of different stages
Ans. Testis of male.
of gamete development.
5. What is Seminiferous tubules ?
Ans. Germinal epithelium Spermetogonial cells →
Ans. Large tabular structure present in the testis
Primary spermatocytes → Secondary
is called seminiferous tabule.
spermatocytes → Spermatids → Spermatozoa.
6. What are sertoli cells and what is their
function ?
(B) T.S. OF OVARY
OBSERVATIONS:
1. The outer covering of ovary is known as germinal epithelium.
2. Next layer of thick fibrous tissue will be seen followed by germinal epithelium. It is tunicia albugenia.
3. You will observe an ovum inside the ovary which is surrounded by one to several layers of follicular cells.
4. With the maturity of the ovum, the follicular cell layer also increases.
5. A cavity develops in the later stage of follicular development. This cavity is known as antrum.
6. The rounded oval bodies with enlarged cavities are known as Graffian follicles. These Graffian
follicles release the ovum by a process called ovulation.

35
7. Ovum is surrounded by several layers of follicle cells.
8. A large mass of yellow cells can be seen. These yellow cells are known as corpus luteum.
9. Ovary is filled with a tissue known as stroma.
10. Graffian follicle can be seen in various stages of development as :
(i) Egg net (ii) Primary follicle
(iii) Mature Graffian follicle (iv) Ruptured Graffian follicle
(v) Corpus luteum.
Young follicle
Corpus luteum
Graafian follicle
Oocyte Ovarian stroma

Germinal epithelium
Oogonia
Interstitial cells
Blood vessel
Fig T.S. Mammalian Ovary
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by Oogenesis ? 7. Define Stroma.
Ans. The process of formation of ova in female Ans. Ovary is filled with a tissue called Stroma.
is called as Oogenesis. 8. What is the sequence of events seen in
2. Mention the stage in which human the development of Graffian follicle ?
ovum is released from ovary. Ans. Sequence of events are as :
Ans. Secondary oocyte stage. (i) Egg net
3. What do you mean by Corpus luteum ? (ii) Primary follicle
Ans. Large mass of yellow cells found in the (iii) Mature graffian follicle
ovary is called Corpus luteum. (iv) Ruptured graffian follicle
4. What is Graffian follicle ? (v) Corpus luteum.
9. Write the name of the outermost
Ans. Graffian follicle is a mature follicle having
covering of the ovary.
ovum and surrounded by follicle cells.
Ans. Germinal epithelium.
5. A mature Graffian follicle produces how
10. Mention the thick fibrous tissue
many eggs ?
surrounding the ovary.
Ans. Only one egg. Ans. Tunica albuginea.
6. What is the colour of the Corpus luteum 11. What is antrum ?
seen under microscope ?
Ans. An antrum is a cavity which develops in
Ans. Yellow. the later stages of follicular development.

2
EXPERIMENTS
Meiosis in the Floral Buds of Onion
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
The Germ cell divided by meiosis in multicellular organisms. In meiosis diploid cells are divided to
produce haploid gametes. Number of the chromosomes present in the daughter cells are half as compared to
their parent cells. Meiosis consists of two stages—Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Meiosis I is known as reductional
division because in it the chromosome numbers are reduced to half. Meiosis II is known as equational division
because in it chromosome numbers remain same. Various stages of meiosis I are : Prophase I, Metaphase I,
Anaphase I and Telophase I. Prophase I is further subdivided into Leptotene Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
and diakinesis. Various stages of Meiosis-II are : Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II.
Meiosis I and Meiosis II take place in the nucleus of germ cells. After the nuclear division, i.e., Karyokinesis
cytoplasm divides. This division of cytoplasm is known as Cytokinesis. After cytokinesis four haploid daughter
cells are formed from a diploid parent cell.
Experiment-4
AIM To Study meiosis in onion bud cell through permanent slides.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Permanent slides of different stages of meiosis, Microscope etc.
PROCEDURE:
1. Different stages of meiosis can be seen under the microscope. They are as given below :
(A) MEIOSIS-I
1. Prophase–I : It is sub-divided into five steps.
(a) Leptotene : Long thread like structures are seen. They are chromosomes. Nucleus
becomes large.
(b) Zygotene : Homologous chromosome pairs and forms bivalent. This pairing is known as
Synapsis.
(c) Pachytene : The two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and form a tetrad.
Crossing over takes place between two non-sister chromatids and forms chiasma.
(d) Diplotene : The two homologous chromosomes separate from each other. Chiasma can
be seen at the terminal end. Chromosomes condense more to become shorter and thicker.
( e) Diakinesis : Formation of spindle can be seen. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear.
2. Metaphase – I : Bivalents are arranged at the equator of the spindle. Spindle fibres attach with the
centromere of chromosomes.
3. Anaphase–I : Homologous chromosomes separates and moves to the opposite poles. This is
known as disjunction. Every chromosome has two chromatids.
4. Telophase–I : Chromosomes are arranged at opposite poles. Spindle disappears. Cytokinesis
takes place and produces two haploid cells.
37
(B) MEIOSIS-II
1. Prophase-II : Chromosomes condense and become thick. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope
disappear. Formation of spindle begins.
2. Metaphase–II : Chromosomes are arranged on the equator of the spindle.
3. Anaphase–II : Sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to opposite poles.
4. Telophase–II : Chromosomes uncoil and become thin. Spindle fibres disappear. Nuclear
envelope and nucleolus reappear.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis takes place and four daughter cells are formed each having haploid number of chromosomes.
Nuclear Nuclear Aster

membrane Membrane
Nucleus Chromosomes Homologous

Chromosome
(Bivalent)
Pachytene
Leptotene Zygotene
Prophase - I
Tetrad
Diplotene Diakinesis Metaphase - I
Anaphase - I Spindle fibres
Prophase - II
Chromosomes
Spindle fibres
Metaphase - II
and
Anaphase - II
Haploid Haploid
daughter daughter
cells Telophase - II cells
and Cytokinesis
Fig. Diagram showing various stages of meiosis.

2
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by Meiosis ? 10. In which stage of prophase-I crossing over
Ans. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which can be seen ?
diploid cell divides to produce daughter Ans. Pachytene
cells with half number of chromosomes as 11. ln which stage of meiosis chromosomes
compared to the parent cell. move towards the opposite pole ?
2. Which stage of Meiosis is known as Ans. Anaphase.
reduction division ? 12. W h a t i s t h e d i ff e re n c e b e t w e e n
Ans. Meiosis-I. anaphase-I and anaphase-II?
3. Which stage of meiosis is known as Ans. In anaphase-I homologous chromosomes
equational division ? separate and waves to opposite pole
Ans. Meiosis-II. whereas in anaphase-II sister chromatids of
each chromosome separates and moves to
4. In which type of cells meiosis occurs ?
opposite poles.
Ans. It occurs in the germ cells.
13. What is Cytokinesis ?
5. In meiosis parent cell produces how Ans. Division of Cytoplasm is called as Cytokinesis.
many daughter cells ?
14. What changes are seen in the leptotene
Ans. 4 daughter cells. stage of meiosis-I?
6. Define Karyokinesis. Ans. Long thin thread like structures are seen.
Ans. D i v i s i o n o f n u c l e u s i s k n o w n a s These are chromosomes. Also nucleus
Karyokinesis. becomes large.
7. Name all the sub-stages of prophase-I ? 15. What changes are seen during the
Ans. L e p t o t e n e , Z y g o t e n e , P a c h y t e n e , telophase-I stage?
Diplotene, Diakenesis. Ans. Telophase-I, chromosomes are arranged at
8. In which stage of meiosis synapsis occurs ? opposite pole and spindle disappears.
Ans. Zygotene. 16. What is the difference between metaphase-
I and metaphase-II?
9. What is the importance of meiotic cell
division ? Ans. In metaphase-I bivalents are arranged at the
equator of the spindle whereas metaphase-II
Ans. It helps in conserving the chromosome chromosomes are arranged at the equator of
numbers of each species and also offers the spindle.
genetic variability among the species.
10. At which stage of prophase I tetrad
formation can be seen ?
Ans. Pachytene.

39
EXPERIMENTS
Study of Blastula
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
Fertilization is the process in which male gamete fuses with egg cell to form a zygote. The zygote
which is formed after fertilization undergoes repeated mitotic divisions. These divisions are called
cleavages. Because of cleavage a single celled zygote transforms into a multicellular structure known
as blastula. In the early stages of cleavage, a solid ball of cells are formed. This ball of cells is known
as morula. Morula continues to divide due to which a cavity is formed within it. This stage is blastula.
Blastula consists of sixty-four cells and forms a blastodermic vesicle. Cleavage takes place in the upper
part of the fallopian tube.
Experiment-5
AIM To Study T.S. of blastula through permanent slide.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Permanent slide of T.S. of blastula, microscope etc.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. It has two types of cells. Smaller cells are known as micromeres which are present in the part of
hemisphere and larger cells are known as macromeres. Macromeres are present it the lower part of
the hemisphere.
2. It is a spherical ball like structure with sixty four cells.
3. It has a cavity within it called blastocoel which consists of fluid.
4 It has an outer layer of cells known as trophoblasts.
5. The inner cell mass present forms the embryo.
Trophoblast
Micromeres (each cell is blastomere)
Blastocoel
Blastocoel
Macromeres
Inner cell mass
Fig A. T.s. Of Blastula Fig Human Blastocyst

VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by Fertilization ? 6. What do you mean by morula ?
Ans. The process fertilization of fusion of motile Ans. Solid mass of cells which are formed after
male gamete with the immotile egg cell to cleavage are called as Morula.
produce zygote is called as fertilization. 7. In blastula stage, upper part of hemisphere
2. What do you mean by cleavage ? contains which cells?
Ans. Conversion of a single celled zygote into a Ans. Micromeres which are the smaller cells.
multicellular structure due to repeated 8. Process of cleavage formation occurs in
mitotic divisions a blastula is called as which part of the female body ?
cleavage. Ans. Upper part of the fallopian tube.
3. Define a blastula. 9. What is trophoblast ?
Ans. A multicellular structure with a fluid filled Ans. Outer layer of blastula is called trophoblast.
cavity is called as blastula. It has 64 cells in
10. In blastula stage, lower part of hemisphere
it.
contains which cells?
4. What are macromeres ?
Ans. Micromeres which are the bigger cells.
Ans. In blastula larger cells found in the lower part
11. How many cells are found in blastula
of hemisphere are called as macromeres.
stage?
5. What is micromeres ?
Ans. 64 Cells.
Ans. In a blastula smaller cells found in the
12. What do you mean by blastocoel?
upper part of hemisphere are called as
micromeres. Ans. Cavity present in blastula is called as
blastocoel.

41
2
EXPERIMENTS
Analysis of Seed Sample for
Mendelian Inheritance
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
The transmission of characters from one generation to another generation is called inheritance.
Gregor Mendel was the first person who observed inheritance in the garden pea and proposed laws of
inheritance. In pea plant Mendel studied seven contrasting characters. These characters are as given below:
Sr. No. Character Studied Contrasting Character

1. Stem height Tall/Dwarf
2. Flower colour Violet/white
3. Flower position Axial terminal
4. Pod shape Inflated/constricted
5. Pod colour Green/yellow
6. Seed shape Round/wrinkled
7. Seed colour Yellow/Green
Character Dominant trait Recessive trait Character Dominant trait Recessive trait
Seed shape
Round Wrinkled
Flower
Position
Seed colour
Yellow Green
Character Character
Flower colour
Stem
Violet White height
Pod shape
Full Constricted
Pod colour
Green yellow Character Character

Mendel selected two pure plants with contrasting pair of characters and cross pollinated The first
generation obtained was called F1 or First filial generation. F1 generation shows dominant character.
When two plants of Fl generation were crossed a new generation called veneration was observed. In F2
generation, plants were homozygous dominant, heterozygous t and homozygous recessive. A cross in
which a single pair of contrasting characters are is called a monohybrid cross. On the basis of the
monohybrid cross, Mendel observed that dominant and recessive characters are in the ratio of 3 : 1
Experiment-6
AIM To Study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour /size of pea plant.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Pea seeds, Tray, Petridish, Notebook, Pen etc.
PROCEDURE:
1. In a big tray, take 120 seeds of pea plant. Out of these 120 seeds, collect all round seeds in one
petridish and all wrinkled seeds in another petridish. Count the number of round and wrinkled
seeds and record in the table. Also find the common ratio of round and wrinkled seeds.
2. Empty the petridishes by putting all the seeds in the tray.
3. Now, on the basis of yellow and green colours, separate the seeds again and collect them in the
petridishes. Count the number of yellow coloured and green coloured seeds and try to find a
common ratio of both the colours. Record the result in the table.
OBSERVATIONS:
S. No. Characters taken No. of seeds No. of seeds showing the Ratio
observed contrasing characters
Round/Wrinkled Round-86
1. (Seeds Shape) 110 Wrinkled-24 3:1
Yellow Green Yellow-90

2. (Seed Colour) 106 Green-26 3:1
CONCLUSION:
Both the two pairs of contrasting characters, i.e., round/wrinkled (seed shape) and
yellow/Green(seed colour) of pea seeds shows the same ratio upto approximate value.
43
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by heredity ? 9. Who proposed the laws of inheritance?
Ans. Transmission of characters from one Ans. G.J. Mendel.
generation to it next generation is called 10. Which type of plants did Mendel got in
heredity. F2 generation?
2. How many characters did Mendel used Ans. He found plants having homozygous
to study inheritance? dominant, homozygous recessive and
Ans. Seven characters. heterozygous dominant characters.
3. What is the ratio of monohybrid cross ? 11. What is heterozygous dominant plant ?
Ans. 3. 1. Ans. Plant in which one of the factors of a
character is dominant is called heterozygous
4. Which contrasting characters did Mendel
dominant plant.
found in the seed shape ?
12. What is homozygous recessive plant ?
Ans. He found round and wrinkled seeds.
Ans. Plant in which both the factors of a character
5. Which contrasting characters did Mendel are recessive is called as homozygous
found in the seed colour ? recessive plant.
Ans. He found yellow and green coloured 13. What is the botanical name of pea plant ?
seeds. Ans. Pisum sativum.
6. What is a monohybrid cross? 14. Name the characters Mendel studied for
Ans. A cross in which only one pair of giving the laws of inheritance in pea plant?
contrasting characters are taken is Known Ans. The characters : Stem height, flower
a monohybrid cross. colour, flower position, pod shape, pod
7. What is Fl generation ? colour, seed shapes and seed colour.
Ans. The first generation obtained by the crossing 15. How Mendel got the F1 generation of
of pure parents is the F1 generation. It shows pea plant?
the dominant character. Ans. Mendel selected two pure plants with
8. What is homozygous dominant plant ? contrasting pair of characters and cross
Ans. Plant in which both factors of a character pollinated them to get the F1 generation.
are dominant is called homozygous
dominant plant.

2
EXPERIMENTS
Pedigree Charts of Genetic Traits
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
Many genetic disorders and characteristic features are transferred from parents to their or from one
generation to next generation. These genetic disorders or characteristics can be seen and predicted by
making a diagram or a family tree. Such diagram or family tree is known as Pedigree and the analysis
of traits or characters in several generations of a family is known as Pedigree analysis. In pedigree
chart we can analyze inheritance of a particular trait in a family over several generations. A list of
symbols used in human pedigree analysis are given below :
(i) Male (ii) Female
(iii) Sex unspecified (iv) or Affected individual.
(v) Mating or marriage. (vi) Mating between relatives
(vii) or Carrier Female (viii) or Carrier Male
(ix) Parents
Children (In the order of the birth left to right)
(x) Parents with a male child affected with disease.
(xi) Parents with a female child affected with disease.
(xii) 5 Five unaffected offsprings.
s Rolling of tongue
Homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals shows this characteristics whereas homozygous
recessive individuals do not show this characteristics.
s Widow peak
Homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals shows this characteristic, whereas in
homozygous recessive individual this characteristic is absent.
s Colour blindness
It is related to sex. Females are either normal, carrier or colourblind, whereas males suffer or normal but
never carriers.

45
Experiment-7
AIM To Study prepared pedigree chart of genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood
groups, widow's peak, colour blindness.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Prepared pedigree charts for genetic traits etc.
1. PEDIGREE CHARTS FOR GENETIC TRAIT OF BLOOD GROUP
OBSERVATIONS:
1. In this pedigree chart, a male of blood group 'A' marries a female of unknown blood group. They have
three children – two daughters and one son. One of the daughters is born with blood group 'A'.
2. This female is married to a male without the blood group 'A'. Three childs are born – two males and
one female.
3. No chid is born with the blood group A.
CONCLUSION:
1. Blood groups are not related with sex.
2. Blood group of male parent is heterozygous IAIO.
3. So, blood group of daughter is also IAIO, i.e., heterozygous.
2. PEDIGREE CHARTS FOR TONGUE ROLLING

2
OBSERVATIONS:
1. In this pedigree, a male with tongue rolling character marries a female without having this character.
They have four children-3 males and one female.
2. The female born is a tongue roller. She is married to a male. Their marriage produces two
children—one male and one female. The female is having the tongue rolling character.
CONCLUSION:
1. Father in the first generation is tongue roller because of the presence of two recessive genes 'aa'.
2. Only the daughter in the second generation shows this character. It means that mother is hetrezygous,
i.e., Aa.
3. Again, this female of second generation is married to a male of unknown trait. But one of their
children i.e., daughter shows the character of tongue roller. So, the man must be a homozygous
dominant, i.e., Aa or AA.
4. So, the final pedigree chart is as given below :
Aa aa
Aa Aa aa Aa Aa AA
aa A_ A_ A_
Aa
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by pedigree? 6. In pedigree chart what does a horizontal
Ans. In the diagram a family tree showing any line represents?
genetic disorder or characteristic from one Ans. Horizontal line represents mating of two
generation to another generation is called individuals where one is female and other
as pedigree. is male.
2. What is pedigree analysis? 7. In colour blindness disease males are
Ans. The analysis of traits or characters in carrier or sufferer?
several generation of a family is known as Ans. Sufferer.
pedigree analysis. 8. Write example of disease which is related
3. In a pedigree chart what does square to sex.
represents? Ans. Colour blindness.
Ans. Male. 9. In which type of individuals widow peak
4. In a pedigree chart what does a circle is absent?
represents? Ans. Homozygous recessive.
Ans. Female? 10. In which type of individual rolling of tongue
5. In pedigree chart how affected individuals is absent?
are represented? Ans. Homozygous recessive.
Ans. By crossed circle or crossed rectangle.

47
EXPERIMENTS
Exercise on Controlled Pollination
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
Pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of same flower or different flowers of same
species in pollination. In controlled pollination, anthers are removed from a flower before they mature.
This process is called emasculation. Because of emasculation the female parent receives the pollen grains
from a male parent having desired characters. Through emasculation plant breeders have achieved in
producing hybrid plants with better yield, disease resistance climate tolerance and quality of the yield. In
controlled pollination the emasculated is immediately covered with a polythene bag so as to avoid self
pollination and undesired cross pollination. This covering of emasculated flower with a polythene bag is
known as bagging. When this female flower matures, it is pollinated with the pollen grains of a different
male flower. Through this process, a plant breeder gets a new plant with desired characters.
Experiment-8
AIM Exercise on controlled pollination—Emasculation, tagging and bagging.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Procedure :- Round and Wrinkled pea seeds, Polythene bag, Thread, Brush, Scissors etc.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. First of all take five round and five wrinkled seeds of pea and sow them in separate flower
pots. Examine them until they grow and flower appears. Mark the pots by labeling 1, 2, 3... etc.
2. When the floral bud appears then remove the immature stamens from some of the wrinkled
seed plant.
3. Then with polythene bags cover the flowers whose anthers have been removed. Wait until the
flower matures.
4. Once when the flowers mature, then pollinate them with the pollen grains from anther of another
parent plant. Pollen grains are transferred artificially to the stigma of these emasculated flowers.
Fig. Emasculation Plant A Plant B Bagging

5. Now, collect the pods and seeds of the pea plants which are produced from round seeds,
wrinkled seeds and emasculated flowers of wrinkled seeds.
6. In pea, round seed plants produce round and wrinkled seeds in the ratio of 3 : 1.
CONCLUSION:
1. Through controlled pollination these facts are found for round seeds and wrinkled seeds of pea
plant.
2. Shapes of the pea seeds are of the two types—round and wrinkled.
3. Round seed shape is dominant, whereas wrinkled seed shape is recessive in character.
4. Recessive character is expressed when both the recessive genes are present.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by emasculation ? undesirable cross pollination is called as
Ans. Removal of anthers from an immature flower i.e., bagging.
before they mature is called as emasculation. 4. Define plant breeding.
2. What do you mean by pollination ? Ans. A technique to develop improved varieties of
Ans. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to crops is called as plant breeding.
the stigma of a same flower or flower of 5. What is the benefit of cross pollination ?
different species is called as pollination. Ans. By cross pollination new plants are produced
3. Define bagging. which have desired characters, like better
Ans. Covering of the emasculated flower with a yield, disease resistance, climate tolerance etc.
polythene bag to prevent self pollination or

49
EXPERIMENTS
Common Diseases Causing Organisms
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
There are large number of disease causing organisms in nature. These organisms causes a number of
diseases in human beings. These organisms have various characteristic features which can be seen under a
microscope. Some disease causing organisms are ascaris, plasmodium vivax, ring worms and entamoeba.
Experiment-9
AIM Identify the common disease causing organisms like ascaris, entamoeba,
plasmodium, ringworm through permanent slides or specimens. Comment on the
symptoms of diseases that they cause.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Permanent slides of ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Ringworm, Compound microscope etc.
OBSERVATIONS: Dorsal lip
Excretory pore
1. ASCARIS Mouth
Dorsal
lip Excretory pore
Classification : Gonopore
Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Nematoda Lateral
Panial
Genus – Ascaris setae
Species – lumbricoids Lateral line
Anus Tail
Fig. Ascaris
Physical Characteristics :
1. This parasite is commonly found in the human intestine.
2. Body is long, cylindrical without any segment.
3. Separate sexes are found with females longer than males. Both the ends of the body are pointed.
4. In males, posterior end is ventrally curved having parietal setae.
5. Mouth is three liped and found at the anterior end, anus or cloacal aperture in male is found in front
of the posterior end.
6. In males and females both single longitudinal lines are present on the ventral, dorsal and both
lateral sides.
7. Excretory pore is present on the ventral side behind the anterior end.
BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII PHYSICS Lab Manual-XI

50
8. In males, the curved posterior tip has a paired penial setae.
9. In female, a genital aperture is present mid-ventrally at one third distance from the anterior end of
its body.
Symptoms of diseases :
1. Anaemia, 2. Gastrointeritis, 3. Vomiting, 4. Irregular bowel (especially in children) and 5.
Abdominal pain.
VIVA-VOCE
1. In which part of the body ascaris is found ? 5. What is the position of the genital aperature
Ans. Intestine. in female?
2. What is the common name of ascaris ? Ans. Mid-ventrally at one third distance from the
Ans. Round worm. anterior end of the body.
3. What is the difference between male and 6. What is the position of anus in the male
female ascaris externally ? ascaries?
Ans. Males are shorter with posterior end curved. Ans. Anus is found in front of the posterior end.
4. What are the diseases caused by ascaris ?
Ans. Gastroenteritis, vomiting, irregular bowel,
abdominal pain.
2. ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA
Pseudopodium
Classification :
Ectoplasm
Phylum – Protozoa
Class – Rhizopoda Endoplasm
Genus – Entamoeba Ingested R.B.C.

Species – Hisotlytica
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Fig Entamoeba histolytica
1. Shape of the body is irregular due to pseudopodia or false feet.
2. It is a unicellular organism found as a parasite in human intestine.
3. Body has outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm with eccentric nucleus. Endoplasm has food
vacuoles and ingested RBC.
4. Entamoeba causes amoebic dysentry or amoebiasis.
Symptoms of disease
1. Abdominal pain, 2. Stool with blood and mucus.

51
VIVA-VOCE
1. Entamoeba is unicellular or multicellular 5. Where is entamoeba present in the human
organism ? body ?
Ans. Unicellular. Ans. In intestine.
2. What is the body shape of entamoeba ? 3. Mention the disease caused by entamoeba ?
Ans. Irregular body shape. Ans. Amoebic dysentry.
3. What is the position of nucleus in entamoeba ? 7. Mention the class of entamoeba ?
Ans. Eecentric position. Ans. Rhizopoda.
4. What are the symptoms of amoebic dysentry?
Ans. Abdominal pain, stool with mucus and blood.
3. PLASMODIUM VIVAX
Classification :
Phylum – Protozoa Pellicle
Class – Sporozoa
Genus – Plasmodium
Species – Vivax
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Fig. Sporozoites of plasmodium
1. It causes malarial fever in human body.
2. It is a unicellular organism.
3. It enters the human body as sporozoite due to the bite of female anopheles mosquito.
4. It is an intracellular parasite found in the RBC of infected person.
5. In the RBCs of infected person it passes through tropozoite, signet ring and amoeboid stage.
6. Signet ring stage is the most diagnostic stage of the parasite.
7. Sporozoite is uninucleate, spindle shaped and covered with pellicle.
Symptoms of the disease
Intermittent high fever with chills followed by excessive sweating in every three or four days.

52
VIVA-VOCE
1. Is plasmodium unicellular or multicellular ? Ans. Female anopheles mosquito.
Ans. Unicellular. 5. What are the various stages of plasmodium
2. Which disease caused by Plasmodium ? in RBCs of human ?
Ans. Malaria. Ans. Trophozoite, signet ring stage, amoeboid
3. What is the shape of the sporozoite of stage.
plasmodium ? 6. What are the symptoms of malaria ?
Ans. Spindle shaped. Ans. Intermittent high fever with chills followed by
4. Name the vector of the plasmodium. excessive sweating in every three or four days.
4. TRICHOPHYTON (RING WORM)
Classification :
Phylum – Fungi
Class – Deutromycetes
Genus – Trichophyton
Species – Rubrum
1. The ring worm belong to genus trichophyton.
2. It causes dry, scaly lesions on the infected part of the body such as skin, nails etc.
3. It requires heat and moisture to spread.
4. It is white, yellowish brown or reddish brown in colour.
Symptoms of the disease
Itching of the red, scaly and dry patches. It is of ring shaped.
VIVA-VOCE
1. Name the kingdom belong to ringworm. patches are of ring shape.
Ans. Fungi. 5. What are the condition under which
2. What is the genus of the ringworm ? trichophyton spreads?
Ans. Trichophyton. Ans. Trichophyton requires heat and moisture to
3. Which micro-organism causes ringworm spread.
? 6. Name the species trichopyton belongs
Ans. Trichopyton. to.
4. What is the symptoms of infection by Ans. Rubrum
ringworm ? 7. Name the class trichophyton belings to.
Ans. Itching of the red, dry scaly patches. These Ans. Deutromycetos.

53
EXPERIMENTS
Adaptation of Plants and Animals Found
in Xerophytic Conditions
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
All xerophytic plants and animals grows in extreme dry conditions. Because of the scarcity of water and
other life supporting conditions xerophytes shows many morphological adaptations among themselves. The
leaves are few or absent or are represented by spines to conserve the water present in them in xeropytic plants.
Their stems are reduced with well developed xylems. Roots of these plants are dense. Leaves and stems are
thick, fleshy and succulent for the storage of water. Their leaves are needle like with thick cuticle to prevent
water loss by transpiration. In them sunken stomata are found at the lower surface. Some examples of
xerophytic plants are acacia, calotropis, capparis, opuntia, asparagus, aloe etc.
The skin is hard and spiny to prevent water loss by sweating in xerophytic animals. Their bodies have
hygroscopic skin. Their limbs are long, slender and padded. They prefer juicy food for water and have
water storage capacity in their body. Some xerophytic animals are camel, Hemiechinus etc.
Experiment-10
AIM To Study two plants and two animals found in Xerophytic conditions. Comment
XEROPHYTIC PLANTS
OBSERVATIONS:
Flower
1. Opuntia Spines
Morphological adaptations
(i) Stem is green and leaf like. These stems Phylloclade
are called phylloclades.
(ii) Spines are the modified leaves.
(iii) Phylloclade has thick waxy coating.
(iv) Yellow latex is present in the stem for
binding water.
(v) Stem is flat, green and expanded part with
spines found in clusters.
Fig. Opuntia

2. Acacia
(i) It has bipinnate compound leaves.
(ii) Parts of the plants are covered with white powder.
(iii) Spines present are modification of stipules. Spines reduce transpiration.
Leaves
Stipular
Spines
Stem
Fig. Acacia
3. Calotropis
(i) Leaves are less exposed to sun or air.
(ii) Leaves are subsellile and crowded.
(iii) Plant is covered with white powder.
(iv) White latex is present in its body parts to retain water in them.
Floral buds
Leaf
Stem
Fig. Calotropis

55
OBSERVATIONS:
4. Asparagus
(i) It has stems with small branches called cladode.
(ii) Latex is present in these plants.
(iii) Cladodes are waxy and having water proof coatings.
(iv) Leaves are scaly or modified spines.
Cladode
Hooked Leaf
Stem
Fig. Asparagus
5. Aloe
(i) Fleasly leaves due to presence of mucilage
(ii) Latex is present in these leaves.
(iii) Margin of the leaves are spiny.
(iv) Leaves are scaly or modified spines.
Nargina
Spines
Succulent
leaves
Rhinzo
Roots
Fig. Aloe
56
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by Xerophytic Ans. Opuntia, Asparagus, Aloe, Acacia.
plants ? 5. Which type of stomata is found in
Ans. Plants which grow in extreme hot and dry Xerophytic plants?
conditions are called Xerophytic plants. Ans. Sunken stomata.
2. Why the stems of Xerophytic plants are 6. Which types of leaves are found in
thick and succulent ? acacia ?
Ans. To prevent loss of water by transpiration. Ans. Bipinnate compound leaves.
3. Phylloclade is the characteristic feature 7. What is the importance of latex in
of which Xerophytic plant ? Xerophytic plants?
Ans. Opuntia. Ans. Latex holds water in these plants.
4. Write examples of some Xerophytic
plants.
XEROPHYTIC ANIMALS
1. Camel
(i) It has hump on its back which accumulates fat.
(ii) It is a tall animal. Neck and legs are long.
(iii) Lips are divided, eye lashes are long and nostrils are muscular which protect it in.
(iv) It leaves in minimum water and food conditions.
(v) Body is covered with light brown hairs.
(vi) Feet has cushions for walking on the sand.
(vii) It is called the ship of desert.
Fig. Camel
57
2. Hemiechinus (Hedge-hog)
(i) It is omnivorous in nature.
(ii) Nostril is covered by hairs.
(iii) Found in the bushes and underground pits and holes.
(iv) Short and thin limbs are present with clawed digits.
(v) Body is small, globular and covered by hard spines.
(v) It is a nocturnal animal commonly found in deserts.
Fig. Hemiechinus
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by nocturnal animals ? 3. Why camels have hump on their back ?
Ans. Animals which are active at night are called Ans. Hump stores water and fat.
nocturnal animals. 4. Why camel is able to walk on sand ?
2. Write examples of some animals found in Ans. Due to presence of long legs with cushions.
deserts? 5. Which animal is called as ship of desert ?
Ans. Camel, hedge-hog. Ans. Camel.

58
EXPERIMENTS
Adaptation of Plants and Animals
Found in Aquatic Conditions
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT
All aquatic plants and animals need fresh or marine water to grow. They develop some special adaptive
features in them due to presence of abundant water. These features are morphological as well as
anatomical. Aquatic plants are called as hydrophytes.
In hydrophytes, leaves are long and cylindrical with flexible petioles to withstand the current of water.
Leaf blades are green in colour and finely dissected. In some plants petioles have air pockets for buoyancy.
Stomata are either absent or if present are found on the upper surface of the leaves. Roots of these plants are
poorly developed and have root pockets which help in buoyancy. Xylem and Phloem are not well developed.
Parenchyma tissue is modified into aerenchyma for gaseous circulation and storage of air. Examples of some
aquatic plants are eichhornia, hydrilla, trapa, potemogeton, ceratophylum etc.
In aquatic animals, body is streamlined with enlarged tail. In Pythem external ears are not found and
neck is found without constriction. For locomotion they have fins or webbed feet. Limbs are absent in them.
For respiration they have gills and cutaneous surfaces. Skin consists of scales, mucous glands etc.
Examples of some aquatic animals are Labeo, Crocodile etc.
Experiment-11
AIM To study plants and animals found in aquatic conditions. Also comment on their
morphological adaptations.
Procedure :-
AQUATIC PLANTS
1. Hydrillas Flower
(i) It is found in fresh water ponds. It is a submerged Branch
hydrophyte. Whorls of
(ii) Its roots are adventitious. Stems are soft and have submerged leaves
thin membrane leaves.
Fig. Hydrilla
(iii) In each whorl, 3 to 8 leaves are found. Leaves are
simple which allow free flow of water in between Water Stem
them with least resistance.
(iv) Plant is light, soft and covered with mucilage.
(v) Xylems are poorly developed and have air cavities. Root

59
2. Eiehhornia (water hyacinth)
(i) It is a soft plant.
(ii) It is a free floating hydrophyte found in ponds, lakes etc.
(iii) Xylems are poorly developed. Plant has air cavities.
(iv) It has dark green leaves which contain waxy layer.
(v) Petioles are flat and balloon shaped with big air cavities in it.
Lamina
Inflated petiole
offset
Water
Fibrous
roots
Fig. Eichhornia
3. Trapa
(i) This hydrophyte plant is soft and spongy.
(ii) It grows in swallow and marshy areas.
(iii) Air cavities are present in this plant.
(iv) Poor development of leaves and xylem.
(v) Roots are adventitious and green. Photo-synthesis occurs in the roots.
Spongy petiol
Floating leaves
Stem
Water
Fibrous roots (Modified
submerged leaves)
Roots
Fig. Trapa
60
3. Ceratophyllum
(i) It is a floating type plant which is light and spongy.
(ii) It is a submerged hydrophyte.
(iii) Adventitious roots present.
(iv) Leaves are small and dissected.
(v) development of Xylem.
Submerged
leaves
Stem
Water
Fig. Ceratophyllum
5. Potemogeton
(i) Its leaves are simple, thin and are arranged in alternate manner.
(ii) It is a submerged and rooted hydrophytes which grows in ponds. lakes etc.
(iii) Air cavities are present inside the plant.
(iv) Xylem is poorly developed.
Submerged
leaves
Water
Rhizome
(Root stock)
Roots
Fig. Potemogeton
61
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by hydrophytes ? 6. Photosynthesis occurs in the roots of
Ans. Plants which grow in fresh water or in which hydrophytes ?
marine water are called hydrophytes. Ans. Trapa.
2. Define aerenchyma. 7. Why hydrophytes have air cavities in them?
Ans. They are the modified parenchyma tissues Ans. A i r c a v i t i e s p r o v i d e b u o y a n c y t o
which store air in them. hydrophytes so that they can float in water.
3. Mention examples of some hydrophytes. 8. Mention example of a submerged
Ans. Hydrilla, trapa, potenogeton. hydrophyte.
4. Write the name of a hydrophyte found in Ans. Hydrilla.
marshy areas. 9. Why Xylems are poorly developed in
Ans. Trapa. hydrophytes ?
5. Mention a hydrophyte found in fresh water. Ans. Main function of Xylem is to transport
water which is not required for hydrophytes
Ans. Hydrilla.
as they grow water.
AQUATIC ANIMALS
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Crocodile
(i) It is a carnivorous animal which eats fishes and other animals.
(ii) Hind limbs of this animal have webbed digits.
(iii) Its body is covered with scales.
(iv) It has a long body with four short limbs.
(v) It has a long tail for swimming.
(vi) It is found in rivers, lakes and marshy areas.
Fig. Crocodile

62
2. Labeo
(i) It is herbivorous.
(ii) Its body has bones which are light.
(iii) Body is covered with scales.
(iv) Gills are present which help in breathing in water.
(v) Body has head, trunk and tail.
(vi) It has fins for swimming which are well developed.
(vii) It has elongated body which is laterally compressed.
(viii) It is a fresh water fish found in rivers, ponds, streams etc.
Dorsal fin Lateral
Naris Eye Line Scales
Caudal fin
Maxillary
barbel
Ventral fin
Operculum Pectrol fin Pelvic fin
Mouth
Fig. Labeo
2. Frog (Rana tigrina)
(i) It’s hand in turn is divided into 3 parts, namely a wrist (carpus), a palm (metacarpus) and
the fingers.
(ii) It is amphibian lives both on land and water.
(iii) The skin of Rana tigrina is rough and slimy.
(iii) It has no scales in the skin.
(iv) It’s dorsal surface is olive color the ventral surface is whitish.
(v) The neck and tail is absent.
(vi) Two prominent eyes are situated behind the nostril.
(vii) It has cylindrical shape trunk.
(viii) The trunk bears a pair of fore limbs and a pair of hind limbs.
Eye
External Nares
Mouth
Tympanum
Upper Arm
Thigh Fore Arm
Shank Fingers
Hand
Web
Ankle Foot Toe
Fig. Frog (Rana tigrina)
63
VIVA-VOCE
1. Write two characteristic features of fish. water. The skin of Rana tigrina is rough
Ans. Presence of fins and a pair of gills. and slimy. There is no scales in the skin.
2. Mention examples of two aquatic animals. It’s dorsal surface is olive color the ventral
Ans. Fish, crocodile. surface is whitish It has a cylindrical
3. What do you mean by Carnivorous animals ? shaped like trunk. Two prominent eyes are
Ans. Animals which feed on other animals are
situated behind the nostril. The neck and
called Carnivorous animals.
tail is absent.
8. What is the morphological adaptation
4. Mention example of a herbivorous animal.
crocodile have?
Ans. Small fishes.
Ans. It has tail for swimming like fishes. Body is
5. Write the main characteristic feature of covered by scales and has four short limbs
aquatic animals. where hind limbs have webbed digits.
Ans. P r e s e n c e o f e l o n g a t e d a n d l a t e r a l l y 9. Write example of carnivorous animal found
compressed body. in lakes, rivers and marshy areas.
6. Crocodile swims in water with the help of Ans. Crocodile.
which body parts ? 10. What are amphibians ?
Ans. With the help of legs with webbed digits and Ans. Animals which lives both on land and
long tail. water are called amphibians.
7. What is the morphological adaptation frog
(Rana tigrina) have?
Ans. It is an amphibian class lives both on land and

64

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Strictly According to the latest prescribed

Class ..................... Roll No. .......................

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in the practical examination held on .................................

1. Study pollen germination on a slide.

2. To study pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.

5. To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).

8. To study controlled pollination - Emasculation, tagging and bagging.

1. Adaptation of Flowers for Pollination ...............................................................................................27

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 2

3 BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

The upper most layer of the earth is called Soil. It

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 4

STUDY OF SOIL TEXTURE

STUDY OF MOISTURE PRESENT

STUDY OF WATER HOLDING CAPACITY

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

TABLE FOR SOIL TEXTURE

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 62

S. No. Soil Weight Weight of Weight of Weight Weight of Water

S. No. Soil Sample pH Calculated

72 BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 82

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

Steps to ﬁnd the presence of living organisms

Water pH Clarity of Number and types of

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 10

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 12

1. From industrial area

2. From the road side

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

3. In this quadrate make smaller quadrants of size 10 cm × 10 cm, 30

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 14

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

Therefore, population density is given by the formula

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 16

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

S. No. Plants No. of individual Total number of Total area of Frequency

So, population frequency is given by

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 18

Cell surface membrane Aster

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 20

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 22

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 24

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 26

An opened spikelet of wheat

Fig 1.2 Acacia

BIOLOGY Lab Manual-XII 28

A Flower L.S. Flower

Fig 1.3 Petunia

Fig 1.4 Brassica