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    Atom, Origin of Spectra

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    c ATOMS AND NUCLEI ‘Chapter 2 6 Atom, Origin of Spectra : Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom ‘atoms : Alpha particle scattering experiment, Rutherford's atomic model; Bohr's atomic model, energy Jovels, hydrogen spectrum, Syllabus INTRODUCTION With the discovery of electron by J.J, Thomson in 1897, it was supposed that (i) atom as a whole is neutral, (ii) atom consists of negatively charged particles called electrons. Thomson presented his plum pudding atomic model. However, the mode! could not explain certain observed facts. Meanwhile Rutherford and his coworkers Geiger and Marsden by performing a-scattering experiments gave important ideas about atomic structure which in actual sense laid the foundation of the present day accepted atomic structure. In this chapter Rutherford and Bohr atomic models have been discussed. oO Particle Scattering Experiment, Rutherford's Atomic Model In 1906, Rutherford observed that when a sharp beam of a-particles falls upon a photographic plate in vacuum, a sharp image is obtained. If, however, a thin foil of metal is placed in the path of the beam, the image becomes diffuse. This is due to the scattering of a-particles by the atoms of the foil. In 1909, Geiger and Marsden made a series of measurements on the scattering of a-particles, co9-Fou. wh which led to the discovery of atomic nucleus. Their experimental set up is shown in Fig. 1. A beam of high- Oo energy a-particles emitted by a radioactive element polonium was made to fall on a very thin gold foil . The ‘whole arrangement was kept in vacuum, so that there were no collisions of a-particles with air molecules. ‘The particles, while passing through the gold foil were deflected (scattered) through a wide range of angles, The particles scattered in various directions were counted by a scintillation counter. It was found that although most of the particles scattered through angles of the order of 1° or less, but a small number, say about 1 in every 10000, scattered through 90° or even 180°. This large-angle scattering of a-particles could not be at all explained from prevalent ideas about atom at that time. 18401 Was lan o ensure that apart wae defiled bya single’ collsln. Gok fo was takon because gol ean Be Beaton nto ne Yol and secondly, gold-nucleus being heavy produces a largo deflection in apart, ay a oo Scanned with CamScanner SCINTILLATION COUNTER. ePgaricues (Fig. 1) _—— ~~ = bot NOOTAN ISC Py, In 1911, Rutherford explained successfully the large-angle scattering by proposin; atom in the following way : ; (i) Most of the particles passed almost straight way through the gold foil without bein way. From this, Rutherford concluded that atom is mostly hollow inside (in no cas as was assumed by Thomson). (i) Some a-particles were deflected at small angles and their angular distribution was definite, axparticles are postvelycharge, the part ofthe atom deflecting them mus also be poste t= basis, Rutherford concluded thatthe whole ofthe positive charge of atom must be conceng a very small space, ¢ cannot be distributed uniformly inside the atom, as was assumed by pete i) Very few of the acparticles were scattered at angles greater than 90° from their intial pa returned back (Fig. 2). From this it is evident that when high-speed (ositively.chags «-particles pass through the atoms of the gold-foil, then : a few of them experience such a ‘strong’ repulsive force so as to return back. On this basis, Rutherford assumed that the positive charge in the atom is concentrated in an extremely small space at the centre of the atom. This space is called the ‘nucleus’. Calculations show that the radius of the nucleus is of the order of 10” m, while the radius of the atom is of the order of 107! m. Thus, the radius of the nucleus is only a ten-thousandth part of the radius of the atom. In the rest of the empty space of the atom around the nucleus there are electrons only. An «particle which happens to approach the nucleus very 2) closely, experiences a very strong repulsive force and is deflected by a large angle. If, however te nucleus is very much smaller in size compared to the atom, then the probability of a-particle reachiag Close to the nucleus will be very small and so, the number of a-particles scattered at large angles wi also be very small. Experiments confirm this fact. It has been seen that only 1 out of about 20000 o-particles is scattered at an angle greater than 90°. Thus, this experiment gave importat information regarding the existance of the positive charge in the atom. (») Another important information obtained from the a-particle scattering experiment was regal the scope of the Coulomb's law. Rutherford had assumed that when an particle passes throug) atoms of gold-foil, the repulsive force exerted on it by the nucleus is in accordance with Coulom Jaw; that is, itis inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the particle from the nucle ‘The particle which on passing through an atom remains quite far from the nucleus experiences @™ Tepulsive force and it goes through without any appreciable deflection, But the particle passing to the nucleus, experiences a large repulsive force and is scattered through a large angle. Ruther ‘on the basis of Coulomb's law, calculated the number of a-particles scattered at different angls®™ found that the scattering of a-particles by the nucleus is in accordance with the Coulomb's la” other words, Coulomb’s law holds for atomic distances also, ot (¥) Rutherford also acquired knowledge about the positive charge in the nuclei of the atoms of cif’ | metals. He made a-particles to fall on foils of different metals {as gold, silver, platinum, ee) | counted the number of particles scattered in a definite direction, and found that this umber | different for different metals. From this, he concluded that the magnitude of positive chars’ ite | nuclet of different metals is different, Greater the positive charge in the nucleus, greater Will be repulsive force exerted on the w-particle and larger will be the angle by which «particle is scat from its path. Rutherford showed analytically that the number of cvparticles scattered with definite range of angles by a metal foil fs directly proportional to the square of the magnitude 8 structs Balleedin, i ©, it can be iy = RAYS Scanned with CamScanner ‘Atom, Origin of Spectra : Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom 1919 0 positive charge in the nucleus of the metal. On this basis, Chadwick, in 1920, determined the positive charge in the nuclei of different metals and found that the positive charge in the nucleus of a metal is Ze, where e is the (negative) charge on the electron and Z is a constant for the metal. Z is called the ‘atomic number’. (i Fora particular direction of scattering (0), the thickness (t) of the foil and the number (WV) of the scattered cpa are related as N Mot Me const mh | t stant, ie., N ® (il) The number (W) of scattered «particles scattered at angle (0) is given as t va — 7 a a sin’ (® = (3) The graph between Wand 0 is shown in the figure. a Distance of Closest Approach of a-Particle to the Nucleus We can estimate the size of the nucleus by the scattering of a-particles. The a-particles are emitted with Kinetic energy from the radioactive source. The particle which goes straight (head-on) towards the nucleus, reaches closest to the nucleus. As the a-particle approaches the nucleus, the electrostatic repulsive force due to the nucleus increases and the kinetic energy of the particle goes on converting into the electrostatic potential energy. When whole of the kinetic energy is converted into electrostatic potential energy, the a-particle can go no more towards the nucleus and returns back on its own path (Fig. 3). Thus, the a-particle is scattered through an angle of 180°. The positive charge on the nucleus is Ze and that on the & a-particle is 2e . Let rg be the distance of closest approach ei &-PARTI ae of the a-particle to the nucleus. At this instant, the ““gARTICLE ak ucteus electrostatic potential energy of the a-particle is (ze) (Ze) y= GIR) __1_ 220 (Fig. 3) 4ne ancy If the initial kinetic energy of the a-particle be K, then at the instant of closest approach, U = K, that is, xe 2%. 4nt I fl 2 Zen = @ 0 ~ 4neg K This is the expression for the distance of closest approach ro of the a-particle to the nucleus. Clearly, for agiven nucleus, the value of rp depends upon the initial kinetic energy K of the a-particle. Inone of the scattering experiments, the velocity of an a-patticle (mass 6.7 x 10-*” kg) moving towards the gold nucleus (Z = 79) was 2.1 x 107 ms". The kinetic energy of the particle is, K = 1M, v2 = 46.7 «1027 kg) x (2.1107 ms“)? = 1.48 x 107 2% 2 Scanned with CamScanner v NOOTAN IS¢ pp, © vee I } = 9.0% 10° N 2 12 K = 1.48 « 10°? J and Fneq C2. a 1.6 x 10" Substituting Z = 79,¢ i), we get i 2x79* (6x10 _ 25x10" m, 1.48 x 1071? having the above energy can approach the nucleus up t0 a closest distans the radius of the gold nucteus will be less than this because an a-particle ga,” f strong repulsion, The Eq, (i), therefore, gives the = Ip = (9.0 10°) x $0, a-particles 25x 107! m. Clearly, fouch the periphery of the nucleus because of limit of the radius of the scattering nucleus. $$ 0 he int kinetic energy of c-partil is very large, then the particle wil each extremely close to the nuces. this condition, the nucleus will no more be a ‘oint-charge’ for the a-partile and the Coulomb's law will no mae applicable. In addition to it, nuclear forces (which are attractive in nature) will become active. Hence, the u-parcy instead of returning back, wil penetrate into the nucleus. Clearly, particles with kinetic energy greater than a cers, limit, cannot be scattered back by the nucleus. The distance of the closest approach of the a-particles with iss ‘maximum limit of kinetic energy decides the radius ofthe nucleus. On this basis, the radius of the gold-nucleus has beer estimated to be 6.9 x 10°" m. (ii) At the distance of closest approach the alpha particle is momentarily stopped. Rutherford's Model of Atom On the basis of the observations of a-particle scattering experiments, Rutherford presented a model of atom, called ‘Rutherford’s atomic model’. In this model, the mass of the atom (eaving the mass of its electrons) and its whole positive charge are concentrated at the centre of the atom in a nucleus of radius ~ 10-'° m. Around the nucleus, the electrons are distributed the electrons in a hollow sphere of radius = 102° m. The total negative charge is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus, the atom. as a whole being electrically neutral. Rutherford assumed that the electrons in the atom are not stationary (if they were so, they would be pulled into the nucleus due to strong electrostatic attraction), but are revolving around the nucleus in different orbits, and the necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus (Fig. 4). Rutherford’s atomic model was supported by the periodic table of elements. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model : This model suffers from two drawbacks : () Regarding Stability of Atom : Electrons revolving around the nucleus have centripetal accelerate According to electrodynamics, accelerated charged particles radiate energy (electromagnetic Wa") Hence, electromagnetic waves should be continuously radiated by the revolving electrons. Due 0" continuous loss of energy of the electrons, the radii of their orbits should be continuously decree and ultimately the electrons should fall into the nucleus. Thus, atom cannot remain stable. (i) Regarding Explanation of Line-spectrum : In Rutherford’s model, due to continuously hans’ fadii of the circular orbits of electrons, the frequency of revolution of the electrons must ae" RUTHERFORO'S MODE Fig. 4) changing. As a result, electrons will radiate electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, that 8 spectrum of these waves will be ‘continuous’ in nature, Hut experimentally the atomic spect" Continuous they have many sharp lines and each spectral line corresponds to a particular tree So an atom should radiate waves of some definite trequencies only, not of all frequencies. 1 Rutherford model was unable to explain the line spectrum, : ‘These difficulties were solved by Neil Holw with the help of quantum theory: Scanned with CamScanner ‘Atom, Origin of Spectra : Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom I oa I ow Concept of Atomic Number, Mass Number and Neutron Number Now, we know that the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The entire positive charge is in the nucleus. We shall learn later that the nucleus has protons and neutrons. The nuclear particles (protons and neutrons) are also called ‘nucleons’. The protons give positive charge to the nucleus, while protons and neutrons together give it it’s mass. The total number of protons and neutrons is equal to the integral value of the atomic mass and is called the ‘atomic mass number’. The number of protons is called the ‘atomic number’, The place of an element in the periodic table is decided by its atomic number only. Since, the atom has the same number of electrons as the number of protons, hence, the atom, on the whole, is electrically neutral. ‘The charge (+ ¢) and mass of hydrogen nucleus are exactly equal to those of a proton. So, there is only 1 proton in hydrogen nucleus. Thus, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1 and its mass number is also 1. The deuterium (heavy hydrogen) nucleus (called deuteron) has charge +e, but its mass is nearly 2 cimes the mass of proton. Hence, it has 1 proton and 1 neutron. Thus, the atomic number of deuterium is 1 and its mass number is 2. The helium nucleus has charge +2e, but its mass is nearly 4 times the mass of proton. Hence, helium nucleus has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Thus, the atomic number of helium is 2 and its mass number is 4, The lithium nucleus has charge +3e but its mass is nearly 7 times the mass of proton. Hence, its nucleus has 3 protons and 4 neutrons. Thus, the atomic number of lithium is 3 and its mass number js 7. In general, if the atomic number of an atom is Z and its mass number is A, then its nucleus contains Z protons and (A - Z) neutrons. If the atomic number of the atom X be Z and its mass-number be A, then this atom is written as 7X“. The number (A - Z) is called the neutron number N. [Ei Bohr’s Atomic Model In 1913, Prof. Neil Bohr removed the difficulties of Rutherford’s atomic model by the application of Planck's quantum theory. For this, he proposed the following three postulates : (i) Electrons can revolve only in those orbits in which their angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2z, where h is Planck’s universal constant. If the mass of the electron be m and it is revolving with velocity v in an orbit of radius r, then its angular momentum will be m v r. According to Bohr’s postulate, we have mor eh, Qn where nis an integer (n = 1, 2,3, ...) and is called the ‘principal quantum number of the orbit. This equation is called ‘Bohr’s quantisation condition’, Thus, according to Bohr’s atomic model, electrons can revolve only in certain discrete orbits of ‘definite’ radii, not in all. These are called ‘stable orbits’. (ii) While revolving in stable orbits, the electrons do not radiate energy in spite of their acceleration towards the centre of the orbit. Hence, the atom remains stable and is said to exist in a stationary state, (ii) When the atom receives energy from outside, then one (or more) of its outer electrons leaves its orbit and goes to some higher orbit. This state of the atom is called ‘excited state’. The electron in the higher orbit stays only for 10 second and returns back to a lower orbit, While returning back, the electron radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves (Fig. 5). Ifthe energy of electron in the higher orbit be £2 and that in the lower BORE MODEL orbit be E,, then the frequency v of the radiated waves is given by (fo.8) hy = Ey - Ey Scanned with CamScanner > | 1 922 1 NOOTAN Isc Physi ty or ‘This equation is called ‘Bohr’s frequency condition’. Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen-Like Atoms ‘A hydrogen-like atom consists of a tiny positively-charged nucleus and an electron revolving in a stable circular orbit around the nucleus Fig. 6). : Let ¢, m and v be respectively the charge, mass and velocity of the electron and r the radius of the orbit. The positive charge on the / nucleus is Z ¢, where Z is the atomi NucLeus_”" EUs, number (in case of hydrogen | the atom, Z = 1). As the centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic \ force of attraction, we have mv? __ 1 exe r 4G) or ae Ze or = 4ntgr 4 From the first postulate, the angular momentum of the electron is mor=n—, an (i Where m (= 1, 2, 3,..) is quantum number’. Squaring Eq. (i) and dividing by Eq. (i), we get 2 ren? 7 amZe “i This is the equation for the radii of the permitted orbits. According to this equation, ron, Since, n = 1, 2, 3, ... it follows that the radii of the permitted orbits increase in the ratio 1 14:9:16, from the first orbit. Bohr's Radius : The radius of the first orbit (n = 1) of hydrogen atom (Z = 1) will be 1 eo nme Re This is called Bohr’s radius and its value is 0.53 A. Since, rx n2, the radius of the second ott hydrogen atom will be (4 x 0.53) A and that of the third orbit (9 x 0.53) A. Velocity of Electron in Stationary Orbits : We can obtain formula for the velocity of electra Permitted orbits. From Eq. (ii), we have h ven : 2nmr Putting the value of r from Eq, (iii), we get Zea Zhe a Thus, vies This shows that the velocity of electron is maximum in the lowest orbit (n= 1) and goes on decress® in higher orbits. | Scanned with CamScanner > ‘n origi of Spectra : Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom 19231 ae ‘the velocity of electron in the first orbit (n= 1) of hydrogen atom (Z = 1) is 2 is Thus, v1/¢ ore’ / (Zhe) isa pure number. It is known as fine-steuicture constant’ and is denoted by «. Energy of Electron in Stationary Orbits : The energy & of an electron in an orbit is the sum of kinetic and potential energies. The kinetic energy of the electron is [from Eq. (i) ‘The potential energy of the electron in an orbit of radius r due to the electrostatic attraction by the nucleus is given by v=) Ge(-0 | 4xcy or The total energy of the electron is therefore 2 2 2 E=Kiy- Ze Ze Zee Bxeqr 4negr Bxeor Substituting for r from Eq. (iii), we get 2.4 Ra mae (+): Beg? hh? n? where n = 1, 2,3, ..... This is the expression for the energy of the electron in the nth orbit. Suppose, in the ‘excited! atom, an electron jumps from some higher-energy state np to a lower-energy state ny. The energy-difference between these states is 2 64 fy —n, = MBE (#-3) Beh? (ne nb -(iv) ‘According to Bohr's third postulate, the frequency v of the emitted electromagnetic wave (photon) is Beare + 7 no ehh (ne nk The corresponding wavelength 2, of the emitted radiation is given by mZ Af 1 Bitch | ne 5} ‘scalled wave number’ (number of waves per unit length). In the last equation, the quantity 5 n a ec ‘SA constant, known as ‘Rydberg's constant’ R. ‘That is, me R Scanned with CamScanner NOOTAN Isc Phin 1924 5 1 +) : 1 _zRit- = Thus, 377 (3 ny “fj and hydrogenlike atoms (He’, Li” ...). For hydrogen, z _ 1 os - 4} a (nem 1 This is Bohr’s formula for hydrogel ‘The value of Rydberg’s constant is met Bech? (9.11 «107 kg) x (1.60 « 10719 ct T m2)? x (3,00 x 1 © 8x (8.85 x 10? C? .090 x 107 m?. 7 | This value fairly agrees with empirical value (1.097 « 10” mm a by Balmet ‘Thus, energy is radiated only when electron returns from some higher orbit to some lower obi Hag waves of some definite frequencies only are radiated from the atom, because of which line spec having only certain discrete wavelengths is obtained. _ ‘The energy expression (iv) can be written in terms of Rydberg’s constant R in a simplified form : Rhe EB=-2->. oa 19 Putting the known values of R, h and c taking 1 eV = 1.60 x 10"? J, we can see that = -77 36 ey, a2 For hydrogen, Z () Each Bohr orbit has a definite energy. (ii) Total energy of electron in an energy state is negative which indicates that electron is bourd with the nucleus andere? will be required to make it free (/e., to make the total energy zero), ii) E = (iv) Rehis called Rydberg energy. Is value is 2.17 x 108) - 13.6 ev, (v) Rydberg constant is different for different elements. Its value Considered to be infinitely massive as compared to the revolving electr ‘when nucleus is not stationary, 09 x 107 mT is for the case when nucks§ ‘on ‘e., the nucleus is considered at rest. noe the value of Rydberg constant is given by the relation Where Mis the mass of nucleus and m that of electron, (Wi) The de-Broglie wavelength of electrons in tst Bohr orbits equal to the Clroumference of the orbit. Scanned with CamScanner g n, Origin of Spectra : Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom 1 925 | Discrete Energy Levels of Atom we have read that the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering can be explained on the basis of Planck's quantum theory. According to this theory, the exchange (emission and absorption) of radiant- energy. oF light, is not continuous; it takes place by photons of definite energy hv, where v is the frequency of radiation and h is the Planck's constant. This shows that the quantity of energy emitted or absorbed by a body can be hy, 2hv, 3hy, ..., not in petween these quantities. Since, light is emitted and absorbed by the atoms, it means that an atom can have only certain definite amounts of energy, or there can only be some definite energy states of the atom. This fact has been experimentally verified by Lenard, Franck and Hertz. ‘They performed the experiment on mercury vapours for which the energy was provided by the collision of accelerated clectrons. They found that mercury atoms can absorb exactly energies of 4.86 eV, 6,67 eV, .-- 10.4 eV. When mercury atom absorbs 10.2 ev, it starts ejecting its own electrons. From these observations, it is quite clear that except for some specific energy values, energy is not absorbed by the atoms. For example, if the energy of electron be 7.50 eV, then the mercury atom will not take energy as such. It will either not take any energy from the electron, or take exactly 4.86 eV or 6.67 eV out of it, It means that the energy states of an atom are definite and discrete. If the ground state of the mercury atom be taken to be the zero-energy state, then the excited states of the atom will be 4.86 e\, 6.67 eX, ......10.4 eV. The last of these states is called the ‘ionised state’ of the atom. All these energy- sates of the atom can be drawn, taking a suitable scale. The energy states of mercury atom have been drawn in Fig. 7. This type of diagram is called the ‘energy-level diagram’. The normal state of the atom is one in which the electrostatic energy of attraction between its nucleus and the electrons is minimum. This ‘SE UUM LA 10-4 eV state is called the ‘lowest’ or the ‘ground state’ of the atom. When | the atom gets appropriate energy from outside, it leaves its ground state and rises to some higher-energy state. Then the atom is said to be ‘excited’. The shifting of the atom from one energy state t0 the gyejrep other is called ‘transition’ and it can be shown by drawing an arrow “STATES between these two energy states in the energy-level diagram. In Fig. 7, the shifting of mercury atom from the ground state to the first and the second excited states has been represented by transitions 1 and 2 respectively. In these transitions the atom absorbs 4.86 eV and 6.67 eV of energy respectively. Ifthe atom gets so much of energy from outside that one of its electrons leaves the atom and goes out, then the atom is said to be ‘ionised’. In Grounp Fig. 7, the ionisation of mercury atom has been shown by the dotted SYATE transition. In this transition, the atom absorbs 10.4 eV of energy. Excitation and lonisation Potentials : Generally, the atoms are excited or ionised by colliding with electrons accelerated by high potentials. But the excitation, or ionisation of the atom is possible only when the energy of the colliding electron is at least equal to that tequired for excitation or ionisation of the atom. The minimum accelerating potential required to energise an electron which, on collision, can excite an atom is called the ‘excitation potential’ of that atom. Similarly, the minimum accelerating potential required to energise an electron which can ionise an atom is called the ‘ionisation potential’ of that atom. Actually atoms have more than one excitation potential. The first excitation potential of mercury atom is 4.86 V, second excitation potential is 6.67 V and the ionisation potential is 10.4 be7ev +86eV (Fig.7) Explanation of the Line (Emission and Absorption) Spectrum and Estimation of Wavelength by Energy Transitions Emission of Light : We have read above that atoms can absorb only certain definite energy amounts only, which are different for the atoms of different elements. Thus, the atom of a particular element has = Scanned with CamScanner = a | NOOTAN ISG Phys, 8) some characteristic energy levels, or energy states. The energy-level diagram of mercury ay " been shown in Fig. 8. Ordinarily, all the atoms remain in their lowest (ground) energy state, whe” Ph receive appropriate energy from outside, they leave the lowest-energy state and go to some excited state of higher : energy. But the excited state of the atom remains for avery jcyeq- i short time (nearly 10% s) and the atoms return back £xé®ey 5.87 immediately. An atom may return from the excited state cither directly to the ground state or through other lower- energy states. When the atom returns from a higher-energy state to a lower-energy state, it radiates energy in the form of light. Transitions of mercury atom from higher-energy states to lower-energy states have been shown in Fig. 8. With each transition of the atom, light of a definite wavelength is emitted. This wavelength can easily be calculated. Suppose the difference of energy between two energy-states is AE. By LOESr the transition between these two states, a light-photon of |“ S/™e) ENssION=TRANSITIONS® energy AE will be emitted. According to Planck's theory, AE = hv, (Fig. 8) 4.86 ey where v is the frequency of the emitted light. But v=c/2, where 2 is the wavelength of the emitted in and cis the speed of light. gt ny or x If AE be in electron-volt, then hei he/ ae. ww (6.6 x 104 J) x (3.0108 ms) | he ‘AE electron-volt But 1 electron-volt (eV) = 1.6 x 10717, 2, = 6.6.10 Js) x (3.0 x 10% ms“) _ 12375 x10" (AE eV) x (1.6 x 107° J/ eV) 45 or a = 2875 5 AE In this formula, AF is in eV. For the transition 4 in Fig. 8, we have AE = 6.67 - 4.86 = 1.81 e\. Therefor, the corresponding wavelength is _ 12375 = el Thus, by the transition 4, light of wavelength 6837 A will be emitted. Light of other wavelengths wile obtained by other transitions. Since, the energy states of the atoms of a particular element are defini, the spectral lines of certain specific wavelengths are obtained for that element. The atomic ene! states of different elements are different and so spectra of different elements are different. Hence, measuring wavelengths of the spectral lines of some element, the element can be identified Absorption of Light : atoms not only emit light, but if they get light-photons of appropriate eneSS they also absorb them. White light has photons of all energies. If we pass white light through so transparent substance, then the atoms of the substance absorb the photons of those energies by 2 they reach in any of the excited states from their ground state. Hence, the light emerging from & substance lacks the wavelengths corresponding to the photons absorbed by the substance. = 6837 A. 6, * Sometimes, trom the point of view of easy remembrance, Instead of 12375, wo use tho number 12345 In the formula & = “ae A ™ ‘approximation entails an error of less than 1%). Scanned with CamScanner - 4, origin of Spectra : Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom yo, «Fig. 9 shows a few energy-levels of mercury atom. When 1 927 5 —___,— ‘nite light is passed through a tube filled with mercury Vapour, the mercury atoms absorb light-photons of energies 4,86 e¥, 6.67 eM Eyengy qxcited states. These transitions of the atom are shown in the STATES figure. The wavelengths corresponding to these energies are and rise from their ground-state tothe guee- | ———+—| 6.67eV 2536 A, 1855 A, .... . So, these wavelengths are not found jn the light emerging from the tube. in general, the number of the emission transitions és larger than the number of absorption transitions. It is 1} 2 so because the absorption transitions start from the lowest energy-level only and may end at any higher energy-level. put emission transitions may start from any higher energy- Lowesr jevel and end at any energy-level below - It becomes clear Enerey 4.86 STATE from Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 that six emission transitions are sakORETION possible between the lowest energy level and three higher- i energy levels, whereas the absorption transitions are only Les three. 7 TRANSITIONS (Between m energy states, the number of possible transitions in emission is _A0=1) = mod {i Since absorption spectrum can start only from the ground level (lowest energy | level), the number of transitions = n(if ground state is not included in given energy levels and these are the excited states). Number of transitions in emission is greater than the number of transitions in absorption, nen (%) With increase in n, the energy difference between the two successive energy levels Gecreases. But the wavelengths of emitted radiation increases. From fig, i> B>& Iy= R35 ~=5], = 3,4,5, 0 none (i) For Paschen series : > ee as G6 (x) For Brackett series : 2 where n = 5, 6,7, -- () ForPfund series: 2= (4 3). where n = 6,7,8, a son? Explanation : The different series of hydrogen spectrum can be explained by Bohr theory. px oo Musulutituiiltote MAUL eg According to Bohr theory, if the ionised state of She. hydrogen atom be taken as zero energy-level,, TPB sents then the energies of the different energy-levels PABCHEN SERIES # of the atom can be expressed by the following formula M1 oe ‘BALMER SERIES z n= 1,2,3,... where R is Rydberg’s constant and h is Planck's constant. The integer n is called ‘quantum number. The energy-levels of hydrogen atom are shown in Fig. 11. When the atom gets energy from outside, its electron goes from the lowest energy-level to | some higher energy-level. But it returns from there, within 10°* second, to the lowest energy- level directly or via other lower energy-levels. | While returning back, the electron emits light. | Suppose two energy-levels of hydrogen atom | and ng, have energies £, and Ey respectively. If n= the transition of the atom takes place from the higher energy-level ng to the lower energy-level (Fla. 10) ny, then it will emit a light-photon of energy (Ey ~ Ey). According to Planck's theory, we Be nN SERIES _

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