THE LAW OF THE SEA

October/November 2023
One of the oldest branches
• One of the oldest branches of International law
• The Battle of the Books between Hugo Grotius and John Selden
• Oceans cover three-fourths of the earth’s surface
• The Law of the Sea is that branch of International Law that deals with
the uses of the oceans, the exercise of sovereignty by a coastal state
in different maritime zones, the free and safe navigation of ships, the
protection of the marine environment, ensuring the safety and
security of coastal states, the balancing of coastal and foreign ship
interests in the maritime zones of a coastal state and the use of ocean
resources.
Codification
• The First UN Conference on the law of the Sea
• The Second UN Conference on the Law of the Sea
• The Third UN Conference on the law of the Sea
UNCLOS 1982
• The third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea culminated with the
adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
1982 (UNCLOS 1982).
• UNCLOS 1982 is widely cited as one of the successes of international
law making. Widely ratified and accepted the world over, the
convention provides the basic legal framework for the use of the
oceans by different nation States.
The different maritime zones under UNCLOS
1982
• The Internal Waters
• The Territorial Sea
• The Contiguous Zone
• The Exclusive Economic Zone
• The High Seas
• The Continental Shelf
Baseline
• The different maritime zones of a coastal state are measured from the
a line called the baseline
• The baseline is the low water mark or the level of the sea at low tide.
• The waters landward of the baseline are the internal waters
• The waters seawards of the baseline constitute the various other
maritime zones: the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive
economic zone and the high seas.
The Internal Waters: legal status
• The State exercises complete sovereignty in the internal waters of a
costal state.
The territorial sea : the legal status
• The maritime zones of a coastal state that extend upto 12 nautical
miles from the baseline constitute the territorial sea of a coastal
state.
• The coastal state exercises sovereignty over its territorial sea.
• The only right that a foreign ship enjoys in the territorial sea of a
coastal state is the right of innocent passage.
Legal status of the territorial sea
• The sovereignty of the coastal state extends BEYOND ITS LAND
TERRITORY to a stretch of water, up to a maximum of 12 nautical
miles from the baseline. This is the territorial sea.
• The sovereignty extends to the seabed and subsoil of the territorial
sea as well as the airspace above the territorial sea.
• The sovereignty is exercised subject to the Convention and other
rules of international law.
Rights exercised by foreign ships in the
territorial sea of a coastal state
• The only right that a foreign ship enjoys is the right of innocent
passage.
Innocent Passage
• Passage means navigation through the territorial sea for the purpose
of
1.(a) traversing that sea without entering internal waters or calling at a
roadstead or port facility outside internal waters; or (b) proceeding to
or from internal waters or a call at such roadstead or port facility.
• 2. Passage shall be continuous and expeditious. However, passage
includes stopping and anchoring, but only in so far as the same are
incidental to ordinary navigation or are rendered necessary by force
majeure or distress or for the purpose of rendering assistance to
persons, ships or aircraft in danger or distress.
Meaning of Innocent Passage
• Passage is innocent so long as it is not prejudicial to the peace, good
order or security of the coastal State. Such passage shall take place in
conformity with this Convention and with other rules of international
law.
Passage of a foreign ship shall be considered to be prejudicial to the peace, good
order or security of the coastal State if in the territorial sea it engages in any of the
following activities:

• any threat or use of force against the sovereignty, territorial integrity

or political independence of the coastal State, or in any other manner
in violation of the principles of international law embodied in the
Charter of the United Nations; (b) any exercise or practice with
weapons of any kind; (c) any act aimed at collecting information to
the prejudice of the defence or security of the coastal State; (d) any
act of propaganda aimed at affecting the defence or security of the
coastal State; (e) the launching, landing or taking on board of any
aircraft; (f) the launching, landing or taking on board of any military
device; (Contd…)
Passage of a foreign ship shall be considered to be prejudicial to the peace, good
order or security of the coastal State if in the territorial sea it engages in any of the
following activities:

the loading or unloading of any commodity, currency or person

contrary to the customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and
regulations of the coastal State (h) any act of wilful and serious
pollution contrary to this Convention; (i) any fishing activities; (j) the
carrying out of research or survey activities; (k) any act aimed at
interfering with any systems of communication or any other facilities or
installations of the coastal State; (l) any other activity not having a
direct bearing on passage. (Contd….)
Innocent passage
• In the territorial sea, submarines and other underwater vehicles are
required to navigate on the surface and to show their flag.
Duties of the coastal state
• The coastal State shall not hamper the innocent passage of foreign
ships through the territorial sea except in accordance with this
Convention. In particular, in the application of this Convention or of
any laws or regulations adopted in conformity with this Convention,
the coastal State shall not:
1.(a) impose requirements on foreign ships which have the practical
effect of denying or impairing the right of innocent passage; or
2.(b) discriminate in form or in fact against the ships of any State or
against ships carrying cargoes to, from or on behalf of any State.
Contiguous Zone
• 1. In a zone contiguous to its territorial sea, described as the
contiguous zone, the coastal State may exercise the control necessary
to:
• (a) prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary
laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea;
• (b) punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed
within its territory or territorial sea.
• 2. The contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles
from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is
measured.
The Exclusive Economic Zone
• Article 56
Rights, jurisdiction and duties of the coastal State in the exclusive economic zone
• In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has:
(a) sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural
resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed and its
subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as
the
• production of energy from the water, currents and winds;
(b) jurisdiction as provided for in the relevant provisions of this
• Convention with regard to:
(i) the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations
• and structures;
Exclusive Economic Zone
• (ii) marine scientific research;
(iii) the protection and preservation of the marine
• environment;
(c) other rights and duties provided for in this Convention.
• 2. In exercising its rights and performing its duties under this Convention in the exclusive economic zone, the
coastal State shall have due regard to the rights and duties of other States and shall act in a manner compatible
with the provisions of this Convention.
• 3. The rights set out in this article with respect to the seabed and subsoil shall be exercised in accordance with
Part VI.
Breadth of the EEZ
• Article 57
Breadth of the exclusive economic zone
• The exclusive economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the
breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Rights and duties of coastal states in the EEZ
• Article 58
Rights and duties of other States in the exclusive economic zone
• 1. In the exclusive economic zone, all States, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy, subject to the relevant
provisions of this Convention, the freedoms referred to in article 87 of navigation and overflight and of the
laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these
freedoms, such as those associated with the operation of ships, aircraft and submarine cables and pipelines,
and compatible with the other provisions of this Convention.
• 2. Articles 88 to 115 and other pertinent rules of international law apply to the exclusive economic zone in so
far as they are not incompatible with this Part.
• 3. In exercising their rights and performing their duties under this Convention in the exclusive economic zone,
States shall have due regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State and shall comply with the laws and
regulations adopted by the coastal State in accordance with the provisions of this Convention and other rules
of international law in so far as they are not incompatible with this Part.