Personality and Individual Differences 144 (2019) 31–35

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Behavioral inhibition/approach systems constitute risk/protective pathways T

from ADHD symptoms to depression and anxiety in undergraduate students
⁎
Mana Oguchi , Fumito Takahashi
Institute of Education, Shinshu University, Nishi-Nagano 6-ro, Nagano City, Nagano, Japan

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Despite the strong positive association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and depression
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or anxiety, little is known about the underlying mechanism that links ADHD symptoms to internalizing pro-
Adult blems. We aimed to examine the contribution of behavioral inhibition/approach systems (BIS/BAS) in ex-
Depression plaining ADHD symptoms, depression, anxiety, and their relationships. A sample of Japanese non-clinical un-
Anxiety
dergraduate students (N = 419) completed the BIS/BAS Scales, Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, Patient Health
Protective factor
Impulsiveness
Questionnaire-9, and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Scale. Spearman's partial rank correlation coefficients
Reward responsiveness were calculated to describe the direct association between each of the measured variables. Mann-Whitney's U
BIS/BAS tests were conducted to compare ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems according to BIS and BAS acti-
vation. The results indicated that, although the simple correlation between inattention and anxiety was positive,
it turned negative when the BIS was controlled for. Hyperactivity/impulsivity showed a simple positive corre-
lation with all three BAS components: reward responsiveness (RR), drive, and fun seeking (FS). The RR showed
negative partial correlation with anxiety. Furthermore, Mann-Whitney's U tests in the high-BIS group indicated
that the high-BAS RR group exhibited less depressive symptoms compared with the low-BAS RR group. Further
research focusing on interaction of environmental-social factors and neuro-biological factors are required.

1. Introduction
The ADHD is a cognitive/behavioral developmental disorder char-
acterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
beginning in childhood and persisting into adulthood (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). The ADHD symptoms are associated
with low level of employment, academic adjustment, self-efficacy, and
well-being (Das, Cherbuin, Butterworth, Anstey, & Easteal, 2012;
Norwalk, Norvilitis, & MacLean, 2009; Young & Gudjonsson, 2006).
Moreover, several empirical studies have reported that the symptoms
sometimes co-occur with psychiatric symptoms such as depression and
anxiety (Bron et al., 2016; Das et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2007; Haddad,
Umoh, Bhatia, & Robertson, 2009; Harrison, Alexander, & Armstrong,
2013; Pehlivanidis, Papanikolaou, Spyropoulou, & Papadimitriou,
2014; Young & Gudjonsson, 2006). In order to better understand and
treat ADHD-related problems, it is necessary to clarify the underlying
mechanisms of ADHD symptoms and related internalizing problems.
Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Gray, 1982) and its re-
vised version (Gray & McNaughton, 2000) offer a possible explanation
about the underlying mechanisms of ADHD symptoms. The theory
proposes three neuropsychological response systems: the fight-flight-
freeze system (FFFS), BIS, and BAS. The FFFS is responsible for med-
iating reactions to all aversive stimuli, conditioned and unconditioned,
causing emotions of rage and panic. Since FFFS has no relevance in
understanding ADHD (Gomez & Corr, 2010), this study focused only on
BIS and BAS.
The BIS is a physiological basis that causes sensitivity in response to
aversive stimuli and generates anxious emotions and behavior inhibi-
tions (Corr, 2008). Previous studies have reported that activation of the
BIS has been observed in people with ADHD inattention symptoms
(Gomez & Corr, 2010; Heym, Kantini, Checkley, & Cassaday, 2015) and
depression and anxiety (Heym et al., 2015; Kasch, Rottenberg, Arnow,
& Gotlib, 2002). These findings suggest that the overactivation of BIS
predicts inattention, depression, and anxiety, and may provide a rea-
sonable explanation for the intercorrelation of these three problems.
The BAS constitutes neuro-biological sensitivity to conditioned ap-
petitive stimuli and is related to positivity and impulsivity (Corr, 2008).
The BAS comprises three responses: (1) BAS Drive, which is “pertaining
to the persistent pursuit of desired goals”; (2) BAS RR, which reflects
“positive responses to the occurrence or anticipation of reward”; and
(3) BAS FS, which comprises “both a desire for new rewards and a
willingness to approach a potentially rewarding event on the spur of the

⁎
Corresponding author at: Graduate School of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Mikajima 2-579-15, Tokorozawa City, Saitama, Japan.
E-mail address: oguchima@suou.waseda.jp (M. Oguchi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.033
Received 13 September 2018; Received in revised form 5 December 2018; Accepted 21 February 2019
Available online 01 March 2019
0191-8869/ © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
M. Oguchi and F. Takahashi
moment” (Carver & White, 1994). Recent research showed that BAS RR
was associated with increased positive experience (Beevers & Meyer,
2002) and alleviation of internalizing problems (Henriques & Davidson,
2000; Kasch et al., 2002; McFarland, Shankman, Tenke, Bruder, &
Klein, 2006; Taubitz, Pedersen, & Larson, 2015). To Support the notion
that BAS should be conceptualized as adaptive when targeting inter-
nalizing problems (Corr, 2008), several randomized clinical trials have
reported the efficacy of psychological treatment intended to enhance
RR and reduce depression (Dimidjian et al., 2006; Hopko et al., 2011;
Takagaki et al., 2016).
However, the activation of BAS is also associated with more ex-
ternalizing problems such as aggression (Taubitz et al., 2015), patho-
logical gambling (Atkinson, Sharp, Schmitz, & Yaroslavsky, 2012), and
impulsivity (Gomez & Corr, 2010; Heym et al., 2015), which sometimes
co-occur with depression (Davies & Oliver, 2014). This demands an
investigation of the following two points. First, possible confounding
effect of internalizing or externalizing problems should be controlled
for when investigating correlation between BIS/BAS scores, ADHD
symptoms, depression, and anxiety. It has been reported that, even after
controlling for the effects of depression or anxiety, BAS predicts ADHD
hyperactivity/impulsivity (Mitchell & Nelson-Gray, 2006) or ex-
ternalizing behavior (Taubitz et al., 2015). Little is known, however,
about the confounding effect of ADHD on the correlation between BAS
and depression or anxiety.
Second, the interaction of BIS and BAS possibly explain the mixed
function of BAS in context of ADHD symptoms, depression, and anxiety.
The Reward Sensitivity Theory (RST) explains that individual differ-
ences in response can be regarded as a phenotype of functional varia-
tions in BIS and BAS (Corr, 2008). For example, higher depression may
reflect BIS over-activation and BAS under-activation (Kasch et al.,
2002). In fact, enhancing BAS in depressive people, who usually show
high BIS, provides appropriate balance in BIS and BAS that result in
reduced depression (Hopko et al., 2011; Takagaki et al., 2016). On the
other hand, impulsivity is theoretically explained as a phenotype ex-
hibiting a combination of BIS under-activation and BAS over-activation
(Avila, 2001). In this case, enhancing BAS can cause severe imbalance
in both BIS and BAS, which may not be appropriate. These theoretical
predictions suggest that individual differences in BAS functioning
would be, at least in part, explained by BIS activation.
The purpose of the present study was to clarify interrelationships
between the RST components, ADHD symptoms, and internalizing
problems by describing following two phenomenon: (1) direct corre-
lation between each variable while considering others only partially;
(2) effect of simultaneous activation of BIS and BAS on ADHD symp-
toms and internalizing problems. It should be noted that causal in-
ferences cannot and should not be drawn from the current cross-sec-
tional study. Any word which might seem causal refers only to statistical
effects and not to causal effects.
2. Methods
2.1. Procedure
All procedures performed in the current study were approved by the
institutional review board of the second author's affiliation. Participants
were recruited from undergraduate psychology, education, en-
gineering, and literature courses of the second author's affiliation. The
academic level of these students on an average + 0.5 to 1.5 SD, im-
plying that participants' intellectual ability should not limit the validity
of the data. The first author (MO) visited the classroom, where these
courses were held, to distribute the questionnaires to all students, and
explained the purpose, participation procedure, and ethical considera-
tions of the current study. Those interested were asked to complete the
questionnaire and hand it directly to MO. Participants did not get any
credit or reward for their participation. Consent to participate was
implied by responding to at least one item in the questionnaire.
32
Personality and Individual Differences 144 (2019) 31–35
2.2. Participants
A total of 503 undergraduate students answered the questionnaires
and participated in this study. Ages ranged from 18 to 28 (M = 20.01,
SD = 1.19). As an ethical consideration, prior to responding to the
questionnaire, participants were given the right to skip any item they
wanted. As the result, 47 participants skipped one or two items, 3
skipped three or four items, and 2 skipped five or more items. A total of
32 participants returned questionnaires that had systematic errors (e.g.,
answered “true for me” for all items). Only data from the participants
who completely answered all items were included in the following data
analysis. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 419 Japanese students
(83.3% of initial sample) of which 247 were female and 172 were male.
There were 132 freshmen, 113 sophomores, 161 juniors, and 13 se-
niors. Unadjusted t-tests for participants' age, ADHD symptoms, beha-
vioral inhibition/approach system, depression, and anxiety found no
significant differences between the participants who were included in
the analysis and those who were excluded. Additionally, a chi-square
test revealed no significant gender-related differences between the two
groups.
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Behavioral inhibition/approach systems
The BIS/BAS Scales (Carver & White, 1994) were used to measure
reinforcement sensitivity and punishment sensitivity. The scale consists
of the following four subscales: BIS (7 items; e.g., “I worry about
making mistakes”), BAS Drive (4 items; e.g. “When I want something I
usually go all-out to get it”), BAS FS (4 items; e.g. “I crave excitement
and new sensations”), and BAS RR (5 items; e.g., “When good things
happen to me, it affects me strongly”). Responses were recorded on a 4-
point scale (1 = very false for me, 4 = very true for me). Cronbach's alpha
values were adequate for all: BIS (α = 0.72), BAS Drive (α = 0.80), BAS
FS (α = 0.71), and BAS RR (α = 0.80) (Gray, Hanna, Gillen, & Rushe,
2016). Reliability and validity of the Japanese BIS/BAS scales were
confirmed by Takahashi et al. (2007).
2.3.2. ADHD symptoms
The Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale-v1.1 (ASRS; Kessler et al., 2005)
was used to measure ADHD symptoms. The ASRS was translated into
many languages including Japanese by the World Health Organization.
This scale is a 6-item self-report questionnaire for screening adult
ADHD based on DSM-IV criteria. The 6 most predictive items of an
ADHD diagnosis from the original 18-item ASRS were extracted to form
the scale (Kessler et al., 2005). Each item rates the frequency of ADHD
symptoms over the past 6 months using a 5-point scale (0 = never to
4 = very often). The ASRS is highly consistent with a diagnosis of ADHD
by clinicians and has adequate test-retest reliability (range 0.58 to 0.77)
and internal consistency reliability (range 0.63 to 0.72) (Kessler et al.,
2007). The sum of the scores for the first 4 items was used as the in-
attention score and that of the last two items was used as the hyper-
activity/impulsivity score (Das et al., 2012).
2.3.3. Depression
The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke, Spitzer, &
Williams, 2001) was used to measure depression. This scale is a 9-item
screening tool for major depression and is also used as a severity
measure. Each item rates the severity of depressive symptoms in the
past 2 weeks using a 4-point scale (0 = not at all to 3 = nearly every
day). The total depression severity score ranges between 0 and 27. The
PHQ-9 has been found to be a reliable and valid measure of depression
in the general population (Kroenke et al., 2001; Kroenke, Spitzer,
Williams, & Löwe, 2010). Reliability and validity of the Japanese PHQ-
9 was confirmed by Muramatsu et al. (2007).
M. Oguchi and F. Takahashi
2.3.4. Anxiety
The 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7; Spitzer,
Kroenke, Williams, & Löwe, 2006) was used to measure anxiety
symptoms experienced in the past 2 weeks. Each of the seven items is
rated on 4-point scale (0 = not at all to 3 = nearly every day), and total
scores can range from 0 to 21. The GAD-7 has been found to have good
construct validity, internal consistency reliability (α = 0.92), and test-
retest reliability (r = 0.83) (Kroenke et al., 2010; Spitzer et al., 2006).
The Japanese GAD-7 has also exhibited good psychometric properties
(Muramatsu et al., 2010).
2.4. Statistical analyses
Initially, we conducted preliminary analyses of the descriptive sta-
tistics in order to confirm that the data of the current study were nor-
mally distributed. Preliminary analyses indicated that depression
measured by PHQ-9 and anxiety measured by GAD-7 were not normally
distributed, although RST components and ADHD symptoms were.
Logarithmic transformation improved the distribution of depression but
did not improve that of anxiety. Therefore, we used non-parametric
techniques in the following analyses. Next, Spearman's rank correlation
coefficients were calculated to describe observable relationships that
included both direct and indirect associations. In order to clarify the
direct association between each variable, partial correlation coefficients
were calculated controlling for all other measured variables.
Finally, in order to examine the effect of simultaneous activation of
BIS and BAS on ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems, Mann-
Whitney's U tests were conducted. Dependent variables were as follows:
BIS group (low-BIS: participants whose BIS score was 7 to 18 and in the
lowest 24.6%, n = 103; high-BIS: scored 25 to 28 and in the highest
23.6%, n = 99); BAS Drive group (low-BAS Drive: scored 4 to 9 and in
the lowest 27.4%, n = 115; high-BAS Drive: scored 12 to 16 and in the
highest 27.2%, n = 114); BAS RR group (low-BAS RR: participants
whose BAS RR score was in the lowest 27.2%, n = 114; high-BAS RR:
participants whose BAS RR was in the highest 27.2%, n = 114); BAS FS
group (low-BAS FS: participants whose BAS FS score was in the lowest
27.4%, n = 115; high-BAS FS: participants whose BAS FS score was in
the highest 31.0%, n = 130). The dependent variables were inattention,
hyperactivity/impulsivity, depression, and anxiety. In this analysis,
distributions of dependent variables were compared between each low-
and high-BAS groups in the low-BIS group. The same analyses were
conducted in the high-BIS group. All analyses were conducted using
SPSS 22.0 software.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive statistics
Mean, SD, kurtosis, skewness, median, and Cronbach's alpha va-
luesfor all variables are presented in Table 1. The ASRS showed rela-
tively low internal consistencies and high scores since 37.5% of the
participants scored above the cut-off criteria (scored 14 or above).
3.2. Intercorrelations between the RST components, ADHD symptoms, and
internalizing problems
Results of Spearman's rank correlation analysis are shown in
Table 2. In terms of zero-order correlations, BIS showed positive asso-
ciation with ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems. BAS Drive
was negatively associated with inattention and depression. Hyper-
activity/impulsivity showed positive associations with all three BAS
components. In terms of partial correlations, BIS was positively asso-
ciated with inattention and anxiety. The BAS Drive associated nega-
tively with inattention and positively with hyperactivity/impulsivity,
RR associated negatively with anxiety, and BAS FS associated positively
with inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Finally, BIS was
33
Personality and Individual Differences 144 (2019) 31–35
positively associated with BAS RR and negatively associated with BAS
Drive and FS.
3.3. Combined effect of BIS and BAS on ADHD symptoms and internalizing
problems
Mann-Whitney's U test revealed that the high-BIS/high-BAS RR
group (n = 32) showed lower depression than the high-BIS/low-BAS RR
group (n = 19, U = 141.50, r = 0.45, p = .001). In the same manner,
the high-BIS/high-BAS FS group (n = 34) showed lower depression
than the high-BIS/low-BAS FS group (n = 30, U = 339.50, r = 0.29,
p = .021). In the low-BIS group, the high-BAS FS group (n = 35)
showed higher hyperactivity/impulsivity than the low-BAS FS group
(n = 28, U = 320.00, r = −0.30, p = .017). There were no significant
differences between the remaining pairs of groups.
4. Discussion
In this study, we examined the interrelationships between the RST
components, ADHD symptoms, and internalizing problems. Our ana-
lysis suggested that the BIS explained the positive association between
inattention and anxiety. BAS RR showed simple positive correlation
with hyperactivity/impulsivity but was negatively correlated with an-
xiety after controlling for ADHD symptoms. Furthermore, BAS RR was
negatively associated with depression in high-BIS group. BAS Drive was
negatively associated with inattention and positively associated with
hyperactivity/impulsivity. BAS FS was positively correlated with in-
attention and hyperactivity/impulsivity.
The results of the correlational analysis showed that the positive
association between BIS and anxiety was observed regardless of the
ADHD symptomatology. This result implies that the ADHD symptoms
do not influence the BIS-anxiety bond that has been repeatedly ob-
served (Heym et al., 2015; Kasch et al., 2002). Anxiety and inattention
showed positive zero-order correlation and negative partial correlation
after the BIS was statistically controlled for, which may mean that the
BIS activation and related hypervigilance constitutes underlying me-
chanisms of positive association between inattention and anxiety. The
BIS also correlated with BAS RR, as observed in previous literatures
(Beevers & Meyer, 2002; Taubitz et al., 2015), meaning that BIS and
BAS RR could share some physiological functions such as hypervigi-
lance when apetitive or aversive stimulus are presented.
In terms of the BAS, people with hyperactivity/impulsivity tend to
exhibit all three BAS components. This finding is consistent with several
previous studies that found a positive correlation between hyper-
activity/impulsivity and BAS (Gomez & Corr, 2010; Heym et al., 2015;
Mitchell & Nelson-Gray, 2006; Wilbertz et al., 2012). In addition, re-
sults of this study described different functions of three BAS compo-
nents.
The BAS RR showed some adaptive functions. It negatively asso-
ciated with anxiety after controlling for all other variables and with
depression in the high-BIS group. Several literatures on BAS RR have
also reported its adaptive functions on depression (Beevers & Meyer,
2002; Henriques & Davidson, 2000), well-being (Taubitz et al., 2015),
and impulsivity (Leone & Russo, 2009). The BAS Drive associated ne-
gatively with inattention and positively with hyperactivity/impulsivity.
The same result has been obtained in some studies (e.g. Heym et al.,
2015), while others reported association only with externalizing be-
havior (Taubitz et al., 2015) and none with inattention or hyper-
activity/impulsivity (Gomez & Corr, 2010). While differentiating
functionality of impulsiveness, the BAS Drive was related to functional,
and not dysfunctional, impulsivity (Leone & Russo, 2009); however, the
ADHD measurement used in this study could include both types of
impulsivity. The BAS FS showed some maladaptive functions even after
controlling for internalizing problems. This result supports the view
that the BAS FS may constitute dysfunctional impulsivity (Corr, 2008;
Leone & Russo, 2009; Smillie, Jackson, & Dalgleish, 2006).
M. Oguchi and F. Takahashi Personality and Individual Differences 144 (2019) 31–35

Table 1
Sample characteristics and descriptive statistics for all analytic variables.
Mean SD kurtosis skewness Median Cronbach's alpha

Age 20.00 1.19 4.16 0.89 20.00

BIS/BAS scale
BIS 21.16 4.20 0.11 −0.50 21.00 0.83
BAS drive 11.12 2.56 −0.25 −0.14 11.00 0.80
BAS reward responsiveness 15.87 2.42 0.31 −0.40 16.00 0.70
BAS fun seeking 12.01 2.46 −0.23 −0.38 12.00 0.73
Adult ADHD self-report scale-v1.1
Inattention 12.48 2.58 0.27 0.02 12.00 0.68
Hyperactivity/impulsivity 5.94 1.73 −0.46 0.14 6.00 0.57
Total ADHD symptoms 18.41 3.59 0.00 −0.01 18.00 0.70
Patient health questionnaire-9
Depression 6.13 4.47 1.45 1.06 6.00 0.82
The 7-item generalized anxiety disorder scale
Anxiety 4.39 4.47 1.09 1.26 3.00 0.89

Note. n = 419. BAS = Behavioral Approach System; BIS = Behavioral Inhibition System.

It seems that the BAS has some multifinality —exposure to the same
cause can result in different outcomes (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996). The
results of this study can provide better understanding of functional and
dysfunctional discriminations of impulsivity (Dickman, 1990; Leone &
Russo, 2009) on the basis of RST.
impulsivity (2 items). Informality and lack of rigor in data collection
could influence reliability of the results. Finally, all measures in this
study consisted of self-report questionnaires, meaning that we should
consider the possibility that the confounding effect of shared method
variance occurred. Future research should include objective and bio-
logical indices of the variables.

4.1. Limitations
4.2. Conclusions
The results of this study must be interpreted with the following
Despite these limitations, our findings illustrated the interrelation-
limitations in mind. First, since this study was cross-sectional, long-
ships between the RST components, ADHD symptoms, and internalizing
itudinal research or experimental investigation should be conducted to
problems. The BIS explains the positive association between inattention
test the validity and causality of the results. Second, direct positive
and anxiety. Although higher hyperactivity/impulsivity apparently
association between ADHD symptoms and depression remained,
correlates with higher BAS, three BAS components showed different
meaning that factors other than neuro-biological basis (e.g. BIS/BAS)
functions: RR negatively associated with depression in the high-BIS
are required to explain associations between externalizing and inter-
group and anxiety, drive negatively associated with inattention, and FS
nalizing problems. Since ADHD symptoms can be context dependent
negatively associated with depression in the high-BIS group and posi-
(Weiss et al., 2008), it is necessary to investigate the effects of specific
tively associated with inattention. Further research is needed to explore
environmental, social, and cognitive factors on psychosocial adjustment
interactions between environmental-social factors and neuro-biological
among adults with severe hyperactivity/impulsivity or inattention. For
factors (e.g. BIS/BAS) to obtain a better understanding of individuals
example, the BAS can be a risk factor for aggressive behavior (Taubitz
who suffer from ADHD symptoms or internalizing problems.
et al., 2015) that is associated with interpersonal conflict or social re-
jection (Dodge, Coie, Pettit, & Price, 1990; Underwood, 2002), which
often leads to depression. Third, our study lacked a clinical sample of Conflicts of interest
people diagnosed with ADHD. Although previous research on dimen-
sional latent structure of ADHD symptoms has reported no distinct The authors have declared that they have no competing or potential
qualities separating those with ADHD from those with subclinical conflicts of interest.
problems (Frazier, Youngstrom, & Naugle, 2007; Marcus, Norris, &
Coccaro, 2012), we need a replication study with clinical samples be- Acknowledgement
fore applying our findings to people diagnosed with ADHD. Further-
more, this study is based on convenient undergraduate sample and This study was supported by grants from the Japan Society for the
relatively few items of inattention (4 items) and hyperactivity/ Promotion of Science to the second author (Grant-in-Aid for Scientific

Table 2
Correlations between the RST components, ADHD symptoms, and internalizing problems.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎
1. BIS – −0.07 0.20 0.00 0.26 0.18 0.30 0.50⁎⁎
2. BAS drive −0.11⁎ – 0.50⁎⁎ 0.50⁎⁎ −0.12⁎ 0.12⁎ −0.11 −0.08
3. BAS reward responsiveness 0.31⁎⁎ 0.28⁎⁎ – 0.66⁎⁎ 0.06 0.14⁎⁎ −0.08 −0.04
4. BAS fun seeking −0.17⁎⁎ 0.23⁎⁎ 0.56⁎⁎ – 0.11⁎ 0.23⁎⁎ −0.08 −0.04
5. Inattention 0.18⁎⁎ −0.19⁎⁎ −0.01 0.13⁎⁎ – 0.36⁎⁎ 0.30⁎⁎ 0.18⁎⁎
6. Hyperactivity/impulsivity 0.04 0.11⁎ −0.04 0.15⁎⁎ 0.28⁎⁎ – 0.31⁎⁎ 0.24⁎⁎
7. Depression −0.07 −0.03 0.00 −0.08 0.20⁎⁎ 0.17⁎⁎ – 0.64⁎⁎
8. Anxiety 0.44⁎⁎ 0.03 −0.12⁎ 0.07 −0.11⁎ 0.03 0.70⁎⁎ –

Note. n = 419. BAS = Behavioral Approach System; BIS = Behavioral Inhibition System. Partial rank correlations are shown below the diagonal. Zero-order rank
correlations are shown above the diagonal.
⁎
p < .05.
⁎⁎
p < .01.

34
M. Oguchi and F. Takahashi
Research on Innovative Areas: 24118504, 17H05922).
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