ECE 331 – CONTROL SYSTEMS I

Course Content

Introduction to linear feedback Control systems

Basic concepts – open and closed loop systems, examples of simple systems

Classification of systems – Linear/non linear, Continuous-time/discrete-time, time-variant/time-

invariant, SISO/MIMO, order and type of systems

Mathematical modeling of control systems:

Representation using differential equations, The Transfer function, poles, zeros and impulse response.

Block diagrams, signal flow graphs and Mason’s rule

Transient and steady state response:

Transient and steady state response of systems with emphasis on first and second order systems. Time
domain specifications of second order systems – delay time, rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot,
settling time.

Steady state error analysis, computer aided simulations of system response to standard test inputs –
impulse, step and ramp

Stability:
Stable and unstable systems, characteristic equation, location of the roots in the s-plane for stability.

Routh’s stability criterion

Root locus method:

Root loci, plotting of the root loci, Interpretation of the root locus, System design using root
locus,Computer aided plotting of the root loci

Frequency response:
Bode plots, gain and phase margin, Nyquist plots, stability. Gain and phase margins, Nichols chart

References:
1. Modern control Engineering – Katsuhiko Ogata

2. Control systems engineering – I. J. Nagrath and M Gopal

3. Control systems – R. A. Barapate and Dhananjay K. Theckedath

1.0 INTRODUCTION:
Definitions
Plant – A set of equipment, functioning together to perform a particular operation eg. Furnace,
Spacecraft etc

Process – This refers to any operation to be controlled e.g chemical, biological etc.

System – An arrangement of or combination of different physical components connected or related in

such a manner so as to perform a certain objective

Disturbance – Any signal that tend to adversely affect the value of the output of the system

Output – Actual response obtained from a control system

Input – This is the stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external source inorder to
produce a specific output

Control – This refers to the manipulation of any quantity of interest in a desired manner so as to achieve
a desired result. It means to regulate, direct, manipulate or command.

Control system – This is the arrangement of different physical elements connected in such a manner so
as to regulate, direct or command itself (or another system) so as to achieve a certain objective

Actuator – Final control element that produces the desired control action eg motor opening/closing a
valve or a relay switching ON or OFF an electric circuit

Controlled variable – Quantity or condition that is measured and controlled, usually the output of the
system

Manipulated variable – quantity or condition that that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value
of the controlled variable

Requirements of a good control system

1. Accuracy – Accuracy should be very high, as any error arising should be corrected

2. Sensitivity – A control system senses changes in output due to environmental or parametric

changes, internal disturbances or any other parameters and corrects the same. Any control
system should be insensitive to such parameters and very sensitive to input signals

3. Noise – This is the undesired input signal. A good control system should be insensitive to such
signals

4. Stability – This means for a bounded input, the output is also bounded. In the absence of the
input, the output should tend to zero. A good control system should always be stable
 5. Bandwidth – This is the operating frequency range of any system. For frequency response of a
good control system, the bandwidth should be large

6. Speed – A good control system should have a high speed of response

OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS

Control systems are classified as:

Open loop – This refers to systems in which the output has got no effect on the control action

This means that in closed loop control, the control action is dependent of the output of the system

Input CONTROLLER PLANT Output

An open loop system

Examples of open loop systems include

(i) Automatic hand drier

The input is wet hands

The output is dry hands

The plant is a system that generates and circulates warm air

The system is open loop because the controller does not ascertain whether the hands are
dry or not, before switching OFF

(ii) Automatic clothes washing machine – Dirty clothes are washed using a detergent for a
preset time and the machine stops without ascertaining the degree of cleanliness of the
clothes )no feedback)

(iii) Bread toaster

(iv) Automatic coffee/milk server etc

Closed loop/Feedback control – Refers to an operation that in presence of disturbances, tends to

reduce the difference between the output of the system and some reference input and does so on
the basis of this difference.

The control action is dependent on the output since part of the output (or its function) is fed back
for comparison with the input. When this feedback signal is positive, it is referred to as positive
feedback and when negative, it is called negative feedback.
 Output

Input
CONTROLLER PLANT

FEEDBACK ELEMENTS

Closed loop system (feedback system)

Examples:
(i) Automatic fluid level control system

Inlet

Sight tube

Operator (human being)

Outlet

The operator maintains the level of the fluid at height h by manipulating the outlet valve.
The inlet flow rate might change due to the changes in the pressure, temperature etc that
constitutes inlet disturbance

Consequently, the level of the fluid sighted may go below or above the reference input h.
The operator must compensate for this disturbance.

(ii) Automatic electric iron

Desired temperature Actual temperature

 Switch Heater Plant

When the temperature falls below a certain range, the heating process is started and when
it rises beyond a certain range, heating is stopped.

(iii) Voltage stabilizers

(iv) DC motor speed control by tachometer feedback

 (v) Sun seeker solar systems etc

CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
Systems can be classified as

(a) Linear and non linear systems

A system can be represented using a mathematical model which relates the input to the output
such that y (t )  F {x(t )} where F denotes function of.

A system model is said to be linear if it obeys the principle of superposition.

If y1 (t )  F{x1 (t )} and y 2 (t )  F{x2 (t )} , then

F{x1 (t )  x2 (t )}  F{x1 (t )}  F{x2 (t )}  y1 (t )  y 2 (t ) for linearity

Example: Determine whether the system below is linear or not

y (t )  3x(t )  2

y(t )  x 2 (t )

A non linear system does not obey the principle of superposition

(b) Time variant and time invariant systems

A system is said to be time invariant if its response does not change with the time of excitation.
The system output remains the same, except for the time delay depending on the time at which
excitation occurs.

On the other hand, if the mathematical model of the system given by the differential equations
has coefficients which are function of time, the system is time varying

(c) Single input single output(SISO) and multiple input multiple output (MIMO) systems

In SISO systems, the quantity of interest is usually one, which may be speed, voltage, frequency
etc

In many practical applications, more than one quantity of interest are encountered eg in a
chemical plant, we may require to control the temperature, pressure, fluid flow etc
simultaneously
 Controller Plant

Feedback elements

A MIMO system

(d) Continuous time and discrete time systems

In a continuous time system, the signals associated with various parts of a system are all
continuous functions of time.

In a discrete time system, signals at one or more points of a system are either in form of a pulse
train or a digital code

(e) Order – Depending on the order of the differential equations , the system may be first order,
second order or higher order

(f) Electrical, Mechanical, Fluid, thermal. Pneumatic systems etc

We shall restrict our study to Linear time invariant continuous time systems of first and second
order during the course of the study

Open and closed loop systems

As mentioned earlier, in a closed loop system, the actuating error is the difference between the input
reference signal and the feedback signal (which may be the output signal itself, its derivative, its integral
or any other function of the output) is fed back to the controller.

In open loop system the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input

Open loop is used where

(i) The relationship between the input and the output is known

(ii) No external or internal disturbance in the system

Advantages of open loop control

(i) Simple in construction and ease of maintenance

(ii) Less expensive than a corresponding closed loop system

(iii) No problem of instability

 (iv) Convenient when output is hard to measure or when measuring the output is not
economically feasible ie qualitative and not quantitative such as a washing machine where
the cleanliness of a cloth cannot be measured

Disadvantages
(i) To maintain the required quality, recalibration is necessary from time to time

(ii) Disturbances and changes in calibration causes errors and the output may be different from
what is desired

Advantage of closed loop systems

(i) System response is insensitive to external disturbances and internal variation of the system
parameters and hence high accuracy

(ii) Used where unpredictable disturbance or unpredictable variations in the system

components are present

(iii) Reduced effects of non linearities

(iv) High bandwidth

(v) Facilitates automation

Disadvantages
(i) Complicated in design

(ii) Expensive to construct

(vi) There is a potential problem of instability

Comparison of open and closed loop systems

Open loop Closed loop

1 No feedback elements Feedback elements exists

2 No error detector Error detector present

3 Inaccurate Accurate

4 Highly sensitive to parameter changes less sensitive to parameter changes

5 Small bandwidth Large bandwidth

6 Stable May become unstable

7 Economical Expensive
 Feedforward path

Input
reference r(t) Error signal Manipulated Output
Command e(t) signal u(t) signal c(t)

input Reference
Controller Plant
transducer

Feedback
Feedback signal elements
b(t)

Feedback path

Generalised closed loop system

Feedback is the property of the system which permits the output of the system to be compared with the
reference signal so that appropriate control action is formed. The feedback signal may be positive or
negative. When the signal is positive, e(t )  r (t )  b(t ) and the system is said to be positive feedback.
When negative, e(t )  r (t )  b(t ) and the system is negative feedback. In many cases, the controller
may contain a series of more than one block whose action will be to drive the controlled output, such
that the error is reduced to zero

Command input – This is the input signal to the reference transducer

Reference transducer – The transducer that generates a reference input

Reference input – External signal applied to a feedback control system inorder to obtain a specific action
from the system

Primary feedback signal b(t) – Signal proportional to the controlled output, may be the signal itself or its
function

Error signal e(t ) – algebraic sum  r (t )  b(t )

Manipulated variable – Output of the controller that controls the plant

Plant – the body or process whose particular quantity or condition is controlled

Feedback element – Transducer that produces the feedback signal b(t) as a function of the output c(t)

Forward path – the transmission path from the actuating signal to the output

Feedback path – The transmission path from the output to the primary feedback
2.0 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF SYSTEMS
This is the mathematical representation of the physical model by use of the appropriate physical laws.
Usually, the mathematical models of the system are characterized by differential equations.

Derivation of the system model is based upon the fact that the dynamics of the system can be
completely described by differential equations (Des)or by experimental test data

When the system can be described completely by a set of constant coefficient Des, the system is said to
be Linear time invariant (LTI) and the relationship between the input and output is independent of time

Mechanical systems
Mechanical elements – Use of Newtons laws of motion

For translational systems

Mass element

displacement _ y d2y
F M
dt 2

Spring

x y
F  k ( y  x)

Damper

x y
d ( y  x)
FB
dt

Similarly, for rotational systems

Inertia element
 J

,
d 2
TJ
dt 2

Torsional spring

 2 , 2
1 , 1

T  k ( 2  1 )

Damper element

1 , 1  2 , 2
d ( 2   1 )
T B
dt

Example1:
Consider the mechanical system

k B

M
x

The forces acting on the system are

By newton laws, F 0
 
F  kx  B x  M x

 
F  M x  B x kx
Example 2:

k M B

x  Displacement of moving vehicle

y  Displacement of mass wrt acceleration force

Sum of forces

d 2 ( y  x) dy   
M 2
 B  ky  0 or M y  B y  ky  M x
dt dt

Example 3:
Fixed axis rotation

Viscous fluid
Shaft stifness k

Equivalent

J T

k d
B
dt

   
The torque equation T  B   k  J  or T  J   B   k

Example 4:
Gear trains – Used to achieve mechanical matching of load to motor

Used in control systems to

 increase torque and reduce speed

 J 1 , B1 N1 _ teeth

T1
TL 2
Tm 1
T2

J 2 , B2
N 2 _ teeth

The relationship for torque

 2 N1

1 N 2

 
2 2 N1

 

N2
1 1

The moment of inertia and viscous friction referred to shaft 1 is given as:

2 2
 N1   N1 
J 1 eq  J1    J2 B1 eq  B1    B2
 N2  N2

When referred to shaft 2

2 2
 N2  N2
J 2 eq  J2    J1 B2 eq  B2    B1
 N1   N1 

Example 5
x y

d2y d ( y  x)
M 2
B  k ( y  x)  0
dt dt

Electrical systems
Use of Kirchoff KVL and KCL laws

Electrical elements include the resistance, capacitors and inductors

Example 1
R
L

e(t ) i (t ) C

Using KVL, the algebraic sum of the voltage around the loop = 0

e  v R  v L  vC

t
di 1
e  iR  L 
dt C 
idt 
Example 2

R1 R2
C1 C2
e i1 i2

Using mesh analysis

t
1
e  R1i1 
C1  (i

1  i 2 )dt

t t
1 1
0  R2 i 2 
C1 

(i2  i1 )dt 
C1  i dt

2

Thermal elements
Thermal elements include:

 Mixing of cold and hot streams

 Heat transfer

 Combustion

 Chemical reaction

From the law of thermodynamics

The rate of change of a body’s internal energy is given as

 dT
C  qi  qo
dt

C - Thermal capacity of f the body in J/K

T - Temperature

q - Heat flow rate (into or out of the body)

The thermal capacity of a body can be found from

C  MS

M - Mass of the body

S - Specific heat capacity

The heat flow rate through a body is given by

T1  T2
q
R

T1  T2 - Temperature change

R - Thermal resistance K/W

Example 1

Heater Water

Insulation thermal resis tan ce

The equation for the rise in water temperature

Let:

Tw - Water temperature

Ta - Air temperature

q i - Rate of heat supply

q o - Rate of heat loss

 dTw
Therefore C  qi  qo
dt

Tw  Ta
But q 0 
R

dTw T  Ta
C  qi  w
dt R

dTw q Tw T
   a
dt C RC RC

Fluid systems
Made up of tanks connected together by means of pipes and valves

Consider the system

qi

h
R
X

qo

Valve

q - volumetric flow rate

C - Hydraulic capacitance (equals the cross sectional area of the tank)

h - Head

R - Valve resistance

V - Volume

qo  h
R

Rate of change of fluid volume is equal to the flow rate difference

dV
 qi  q o
dt
 dh
C  qi  qo
dt

# Read about pneumatic systems

LAPLACE TRANFORMATION
Laplace transformation offers a great advantage of solving linear differential equations. The differential
equations are transformed into the complex frequency or Laplace domain.

This simplifies the mathematical manipulations since integration/differentiation associated with time
domain is replaced with algebraic manipulations of the transformed equations.

The time domain solution is obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transformation.

You are hereby advised to familiarize yourself with:

 Laplace transformation

 Inverse Laplace transformation

 Partial fraction expansion

 Laplace transform theorems

THE TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer function of an LTI differential equation system is given as the ratio of the Laplace transform
of the output to that of the input

Consider a system with the differential equations (Des)

n n 1 n2  m m1 m 2 
a0 y  a1 y  a2 y    a n1 y  an y  b0 x b1 x  b2 x  bm1 x bm x ; n  m

The transfer function

LOutput
T ( s) 
LInput zero _ initial _ conditions

Y ( s) b0 s m  b1 s m1  b2 s m2  bm1 s  bm

G( s)   gives the transfer function
X ( s) a0 s n  a1 s n1  a 2 s n2   a n 1 s  a n

In deriving the TF
 (i) Write the DE of the system

(ii) Take the Laplace transform of the equation

(iii) Take the ratio of the output to the input. This gives the TF

Comments on the TF

1. The TF of a system is the mathematical model that relates the output variable to the input
variable

2. The TF is the property of the system itself, independent of the nature of the excitation, nput or
driving function

3. The TF relates the input to the output, but does not provide any information on the physical
structure of the system

4. If the TF is known, the output or response can be studied for various forms of the inputs with a
view of understanding the nature of the system

5. If the TF is unknown, it may be established experimentally by introducing known inputs and

studying the output of the system

6. The inverse Laplace transform of the TF gives the impulse response function of the system. The
impulse response of a system s the response due to a unit impulse input, which is the system.

In time domain, the output y (t ) of a system g (t ) to an input x (t ) is given by the convolution intergral

t t

 
y(t )  x( ) g (t   )d  g ( ) x(t   )d
0 0

Using Laplace method, this expression simplifies to

Y ( s)  X ( s )G ( s )

Y ( s )  L{ y (t )};

X ( s )  L{x(t )};

G ( s )  L{g (t )}
Examples on TF

Electrical and Electronic systems

Example 1
L
R

ei (t ) C eo (t )
i (t )

Given that the input is ei (t ) and the output eo (t ) , obtain the transfer function of the circuit:

t
1
eo (t ) 
C 
i(t )dt

t
di(t ) 1
ei (t )  L
dt
 Ri (t ) 
C  
i(t )dt

Taking the Laplace transform of the two equations:

I ( s)
Eo (s) 
sC

I ( s)
Ei ( s )  sLI ( s)  RI ( s) 
sC

I ( s)
Eo (s) sC 1
  giving the TF
Ei ( s)  1  s LC  sRC  1
2
I ( s)sL  R  
 sC 

Alternatively, we can draw the s-plane equivalent of the circuit. The following transformations are
performed:

1
C
sC

L  sL

RR

e(t )  E ( s)
i (t )  I ) s )

The resulting s-plane equivalent circuit

sL
R

1
Ei (s ) E o (s )
I (s ) sC

The transfer function can be viewed as the voltage ratio given as:

1
E o ( s) sC 1
  same as above.
Ei (s)
sL  R 
1 s LC  sRC  1
2

sC

Example 2
R1 R2

C1 C2 eo (s )
ei (s ) i1 (t ) i2 (t )

Using mesh analysis:

t
1
ei (t )  i1 (t ) R1 
C1  {i (t )  i

1 2 (t )}dt

t t
1 1
0
C1 

{i2 (t )  i1 (t )}dt  i2 (t ) R2 
C2 i

2 (t )dt

t
1
eo (t ) 
C2 i

2 (t )dt

Taking the Laplace transforms

1
Ei (s)  I1 (s) R1  {I 1 (s)  I 2 (s)}
sC1

1 1
0 {I 2 (s)  I1 (s)}  R2 I 2 (s)  I 2 ( s)
sC1 sC 2
 1
Eo ( s)  I 2 ( s)
sC 2

Grouping like terms:

 1  1
Ei ( s)  I 1 ( s)R1    I 2 ( s)
 sC1  sC1

1  1 1 
0  I 1 (s)  I 2 ( s )  R2  
sC1  sC1 sC 2 

Eo (s)
Solving for I1 (s) and I 2 (s) and determining
Ei ( s)

  
  R1  1  
1 
 sC1  sC1  I 1 ( s )   E i ( s ) 
   
  1  1 1   I 2 ( s )   0 
   R2  
 sC1  sC1 sC 2  

Use either elimination method, inverse rule or crammers rule to solve. Here we use crammers rule:

R1 R R 1
Det  R1 R2   1  2  2
sC1 sC 2 sC1 s C1C 2

 1 
 Ei ( s)  
 sC 1 
  1 1   1 1 
 0   R2    Ei ( s)  R2  
 sC1 sC 2  
I 1 ( s)    sC1 sC 2 

Det Det

  
 R1  1  Ei ( s) 
 sC1  
 1  1
  0  Ei ( s)
I 2 ( s)   
sC1 sC1
Det Det

Therefore:

Ei (s)
1 1 sC1
E o (s)  I 2 (s) 
sC 2 sC 2 Det
  1 1  1  1
Ei ( s )  R2   R1   Ei ( s)
 1  1  sC1 sC 2  sC1  sC1 1
Ei ( s)  I 1 ( s)R1    I 2 (s)  
 sC1  sC1 Det Det sC1

Ei (s)
1 sC1
Eo (s) sC 2 Det

Ei (s)  1 1  1  1
E i ( s)  R2   R1   Ei ( s)
 1
sC sC 2  sC1

sC1
Det Det

1
2
s C 2 C1

R1 R 1 R 1 1
 R1 R2  1  2 2  2  2  2 2
sC1 sC 2 s C1 sC1 s C 2 C1 s C1

1

s R1 R2 C 2 C1  s( R1C 2  R1C1  R2 C 2 )  1
2

Which gives the TF

Example 3
R2

R1 
 e0
ei

Inverting amplifier

 R2
eo  ei
R1

 R2
Eo ( s)  Ei ( s)
R1

R2
G(s)  TF  
R1
Home work/Exercises
Determine the TF for the following systems:

(a)

C
R1

ei eo

R2 1
G( s)  
R1 sR2 C  1

(b)

R1

R2

ei eo
C

(c)

R1

C
R2
eo
ei

(d)
 R1

C1
R2
eo
ei
C2

(e)

C1 R2
R1

C2
ei eo

(f)

C2
C1
R2

R1
ei eo

Mechanical systems
x y

Let the input be the externally applied force that causes the displacement x (t ) and the output is the
displacement y (t )
 d 2 y (t ) dy(t ) dx(t )
M 2
B  ky(t )  B  kx(t )
dt dt dy

Taking the Laplace transform:

s 2 MY (s)  sBY (s)  kY(s)  sBX (s)  kX (s)

Y ( s) sB  k
 2
X (s) s M  sB  k

Homework
(a)

xi

k1 B1

B2 xo

k2
y

X o ( s)
Obtain the transfer function ; note that xi ; xo ; y are all displacements
X i ( s)

(b)

x(t )
M
M

B f (t )
 X (s)
Find , given that F (s) is an externally applied force.
F (s)

Servo-system
A servo system is a feedback control system in which the controlled variable is a mechanical position or
its time derivatives such as velocity and acceleration.

Consider the following armature controlled servo system:

La
Ra

if

ei
M
ia
J, B
,

J , B are referred to the motor shaft.

It is desired to obtain the transfer function relating the output position of the motor shaft to the applied
 ( s)
armature voltage such that TF  . Note that the field current is kept constant
Ei ( s )

Solution:

The air gap flux  Field current. That is   I f

  K f I f ; where K f is a constant

The developed torque  Air gap flux times armature current

Tm  K a ia K f i f

Tm = Motor torque

K a is a constant.

Since the field current i f is constant, we can rewrite the torque equation as

Tm  K T ia

The motor circuit loop is

 dia
ei  L  Ri a  eb
dt

d
eb  K b is the back emf which is proportional to the motor speed and K b is a constant.
dt

The developed torque:

d 2 d
T  Tm  J 2
B  K T ia
dt dt

Taking the Laplace transforms of the above equatons

Eb (s)  sK b (s)

Ei (s)  Eb (s)  (sLa  Ra ) I a (s)

(s 2 J  sB) (s)  Tm  KT I a (s)

Rearranging so as to obtain the TF:

K T I a ( s)
 ( s) 
s 2 J  sB

Ei ( s)  Eb ( s )
But I a (s)  and Eb (s)  sK b (s)
sLa  Ra

 E (s)  Eb (s) 
K T  i 
K T I a ( s)  sLa  Ra 
 ( s)  2 
s J  sB s 2 J  sB

 E ( s )  sK b ( s ) 
K T  i 
 sLa  Ra 
 ( s) 
s J  sB
2

We expand so that we group  (s ) together;

K T Ei ( s) K T sK b ( s)
 ( s)  

sLa  Ra s J  sB 2
 
sLa  Ra s 2 J  sB 

 sK T K b 
 K T Ei ( s )
 (s)1  

 
sLa  Ra s J  sB  
 sLa  Ra s J  sB
2 2
 
  ( s) KT

Ei ( s ) ssLa  Ra sJ  B   sK T K b

Which is the desired transfer function.

Homework
Obtain the TF of the field controlled motor shown. Note that the armature current is constant.

ia  cons tan t



,
ei
if
M

J,
B

Liquid level systems

Interacting tanks

Consider the system:

qi

C2
C1

h2
h1
R1 R2
X X
q2
q1

Q2 ( s )
Obtain the transfer function
Qi ( s)

For tank 1:

dh1
C1  q i  q1
dt

h1  h2
q1 
R1
 dh1 h  h2
C1  qi  1
dt R1

dh1
Or R1C1  h1  R1 qi  h2
dt

1  sR1C1 H1 (s)  R1Qi (s)  H 2 (s)

For tank 2

dh2
C2  q1  q 2
dt

h2
q2 
R2

Therefore

dh2 h1  h2 h2
C2  
dt R1 R2

dh2
R1 R2 C 2  R2 h1  R2 h2  R1 h2
dt

R1  R2  sR1 R2 C2 H 2 (s)  R1 H1 (s)

We eliminate H1 (s) using 1  sR1C1 H1 (s)  R1Qi (s)  H 2 (s) such that:

R1Qi (s)  H 2 (s)

H 1 ( s) 
1  sR1C1 
Thus

R1Qi (s)  H 2 (s)

( R1  R2  sR1 R2 C 2 ) H 2 (s)  R2
1  sR1C1 
R1 R2 Qi (s) R H ( s)
( R1  R2  sR1 R2 C 2 ) H 2 (s)   2 2
1  sR1C1  1  sR1C1 
R2 H 2 ( s ) R R Q ( s)
( R1  R2  sR1 R2 C 2 ) H 2 (s)   1 2 i
1  sR1C1  1  sR1C1 
 R2  R1 R2 Qi ( s)
R1  R2  sR1 R2 C 2  H 2 ( s) 
 1  sR1C1  1  sR1C1 
R  sR
1 1
2 2

C1  R2  sR1 R2 C1  sR1 R2 C2  sR1 R2 C1C2  R2 H 2 (s)  R1 R2 Qi (s)

1  sR1C1  sR2 C1  R2C2  sR1 R2C1C2 H 2 (s)  R2 Qi (s)

H 2 ( s)
But  Q2 (s)
R2

Q2 (s) 1
Therefore 
Qi (s) 1  sR1C1  sR2 C1  sR2 C 2  sR1 R2 C1C 2

Non interacting tanks

Homework:
Q o ( s)
Develop the TF for the following system:
Qi (s)

C1

h1
R1
X
q1

C2

h2
R2
X

q2
3.0 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
A control system may consist of a number of components. These systems may be complex and difficult
to analyze. Often, block diagrams are used.

Block diagrams provide a pictorial representation of the system functions performed by each
component, and the flow of the signals.

They offer the advantage of indicating more clearly and realistically the signal flows of the actual system.

Components of a block diagram:

(a) Functional block or simply block

This is a symbol for mathematical operation on the input sgnal by the block that produce the
output.
The transfer function of the components are usually entered in the corresponding block.

Input TF Output
X (s ) G (s )
Y (s )

Y ( s)  G( s) X ( s)
(b) Summing point (Difference point)
Performs the summing or subtraction operations

R(s ) 
E ( s)  R( s)  B( s)


B(s )

(c) Branch point

A point from which the signal from one block goes concurrently from one block to another or to
a summing point.

Example:
Consider the armature controlled servosystem:
 La
Ra

if

ei
M
ia
J, B
,

To draw its block diagram, we first write the equations that describe the system:

Ea (s) - voltage applied to the armature circuit

Eb (s)  sK b (s) - Back emf

E a ( s )  Eb ( s )
I a ( s) 
sLa  Ra
T  KT I a
T
T  s 2 J ( s)  sB ( s)   ( s) 
s J  sB
2

Therefore:


I a (s ) T  (s )
E a (s )  1 1 1  (s )
KT
sLa  Ra sJ  B s

E b (s )

Kb

Block diagram reduction algebra

Block diagrams can be manipulated by use of some rules. Complex block diagrams can be simplified by
certain arrangements of block diagrams. This process condenses a number of blocks into a single block.

Rule 1: Open loop system

R(s ) C (s )
G (s )

C ( s )  R( s )G ( s )
Rule 2: series/cascade blocks

R(s )
G1 ( s ) G2 (s) C (s )

G1 ( s )G 2 ( s )

C (s)  G1 (s)G2 (s) R(s)

Rule 3: Parallel blocks

R(s ) C (s )
G1 ( s )

G1 ( s )  G 2 ( s )

G2 (s)

Rule 4: Feedback element (Negative feedback)

R(s )  E (s ) C (s )
G (s )

B(s )

H (s )

Defining:
R (s ) - Input reference signal
C (s ) - Output or controlled signal
B (s ) - Feedback signal
E (s ) - Actuating error
H (s ) - TF of the feedback elements
B( s )
G( s) H ( s)  - Loop TF
E ( s)
 C (s)
We desire to obtain the expression for
R( s )
From above:
C ( s)  G( s) E ( s)
E (s)  R(s)  B(s)  R(s)  H (s)C (s)
C (s)  G(s)R(s)  H (s)C (s)
C(s)1  G(s) H (s)  G(s) R(s)
C ( s) G( s )
 ; which is the expression for a feedback element.
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

Exercise:
C ( s) G( s)
Show that for a positive feedback; 
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

Rule 5: Moving a summing point before an element or a block

R(s )
 C (s ) R(s )  C (s )
G (s ) G (s )
 

1
B(s ) G(s)
B(s )

Rule 6: Moving a summing point beyond an element or a block

R(s )
 C (s ) R(s )  C (s )
G (s ) G (s )
 

B(s )
B(s )
G (s )

Rule 7: Moving a take-off point before an element or a block

 R(s ) C (s ) R(s )
G (s ) G (s ) C (s )

C (s )
G (s ) C (s )

Rule 8: Moving a take-off point beyond an element or a block

R(s ) C (s ) R(s )
G (s ) G (s ) C (s )

1
G(s)

Rule 9: Moving a take-off point before a summing point

R(s ) 
R(s ) 
C1( s ) C1( s )



C 2( s )
B(s ) 


B(s )

C 2( s )

Rule 10: Moving a take-off point beyond a summing point

C 2( s )

R(s )  R(s ) 
C1( s ) C1( s )

 

B(s ) 
 

B(s )

C 2( s )
Examples:
Use the block diagram reduction to simplify the following system:

G5 ( s )

  C (s )
R(s )  
G1 ( s ) G2 (s) G3 ( s ) G4 ( s) G6 ( s )
 

H 1 (s)

H 2 (s)

We observe that G1 ( s) and G2 (s) are in series. Thus:

G5 ( s )

  C (s )
R(s )  
G1 ( s)G 2 ( s) G3 ( s ) G4 ( s) G6 ( s )
 

H 1 (s)

H 2 (s)

Next, shift the summing on point after G4 (s) to before G4 (s) and swap the two summing points

G5 ( s )
G4 (s)


 C (s )
R(s )  
G1 ( s)G 2 ( s) G3 ( s ) G4 (s) G6 ( s )
 

H 1 (s)

H 2 (s)
Notice the parallel and the cascade elements formed.
It is worthy to note that the block reduction is note unique since we could have chosen for example to
move the summing point ahead of G3 (s) to before G3 (s) and the results would be different. For
whatever approaches is taken, the final expression should be identical



R(s ) G5 ( s ) 
G1 ( s)G 2 ( s)  G3 ( s ) G 4 ( s ) G6 ( s )
G4 ( s) C (s )
 

H 1 (s)

H 2 (s)

We further notice the series and feedback elements. These reduces to:

 G 4 ( s )G6 ( s )
R(s )  G (s) 
G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) 5  G3 ( s )  1  G 4 ( s )G6 ( s ) H 1 ( s )
 G4 ( s )  C (s )


H 2 (s)

Finally, we observe the series(inner block) and feedback elements. Therefore the final expression
reduces to
C ( s) G1 (s)G2 (s)G6 (s)G3 (s)G4 (s)  G5 (s)

R(s) 1  G4 (s)G6 (s) H 1 (s)}  {G1 (s)G2 (s)G6 (s) H 2 (s)G3 (s)G4 (s)  G5 (s)

Example 2:
Simplify:
 H 2 (s)

   C (s )
R(s ) G1 ( s ) G2 (s) G3 ( s )



H 1 (s)

Note the reductions:

(i) Moving the summing point
H 2 (s)
G1 ( s )

   C (s )
R(s ) G1 ( s ) G2 (s) G3 ( s )



H 1 (s)

(ii) Joining the inner cascade and closing the feedback loop
H 2 (s)
G1 ( s )

  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) C (s )
R(s ) G3 ( s )
 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H 1 ( s )

(iii) The inner cascade loop

H 2 (s)
G1 ( s )

  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) C (s )
R(s )
 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H 1 ( s )

(iv) The feedback loop

  G1 ( s )G 2 ( s )G3 ( s ) C (s )
R(s )
1  G1 ( s )G 2 ( s ) H 1 ( s )  G 2 ( s )G3 ( s ) H 2 ( s )


(v) The final feedback loop yields

C ( s) G1 (s)G2 (s)G3 (s)

R(s) 1  G1 (s)G2 (s) H1 (s)  G2 (s)G3 (s) H 2 (s)  G1 (s)G2 (s)G3 (s)

Homework exercise:
Use block diagram reduction techniques to simplify the following:

G2 ( s)


R(s ) G1 ( s )
C (s )


H 1 (s)

H 3 (s)


R(s )
  
G1 ( s ) G 2 (s) G3 ( s ) G4 ( s) C (s )


H 2 (s)

H 1 (s)

MULTIPLE INPUT AND MULTIPLE OUTPUT SYSTEMS

When multiple inputs are present in a linear system, each input can be treated independently of the
others by assuming that they are equal to zero. Complete system output can then be obtained by the
principle of superposition.
Example:
U (s )

 C (s )
R(s )  
G1 ( s ) G 2 (s)

H (s )

Setting C and rearranging the circuit

C (s )
U (s )
G 2 (s)

G1 ( s ) H (s )

C ( s) G2 ( s )

U (s) 1  G1 (s)G2 (s) H (s)

Setting U ( s )  0 and rearranging

R(s )  C (s )
G1 ( s ) G 2 (s)


H (s )

C ( s) G1 (s)G2 ( s)

R(s) 1  G1 ( s)G2 (s) H ( s)

Therefore by superposition

G1 ( s)G2 ( s) G2 ( s)
C ( s)  R( s )  U (s)
1  G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H ( s) 1  G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H ( s)

C ( s) 
G2 ( s)
G1 (s) R(s)  U (s)
1  G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H ( s)
4.0 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS
Block diagrams have limitations for complicated systems because the block reduction process is
complicated

Signal flow graphs (sfg) consists of a network of nodes interconnected by directed branches. They do
contain the same information as block diagrams.

Definitions

Node: A point representing a variable or signal. Two nodes are represented as

x1 x2

Branch: A directed line segment joining two nodes. In the process, a signal travelling from one
node to another is multiplied by the gain or transmittance of the branch.

x1 x2

Transmittance : This is the gain between two nodes, usually expressed as a transfer function

x1 x2
G1 ( s )

Input node (or source): Node that has only outgoing branches. It corresponds to the independent
variable

x1

Output node (sink): Node that has only incoming branches and corresponds to the dependent
variable.

x2

When this condition is not met, an additional branch of unity gain is introduced in order to meet this
condition
x1 x2 G1 ( s ) x2 1
G1 ( s ) x2
x1

H 1 (s)
H 1 (s)

Mixed node: Contains both incoming and outgoing nodes

Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch arrows such that no
node is traversed more than once

Loop: A closed path

Loop gain: Product of the branch transmittances of a loop

Non-touching loops: Loops that do not possess any common node

Forward path: A path from the input node to the output node that does not cross any nore more than
once

Forward path gain: Product of the branch transmittance of a forward path

Construction of SFGs
Consider a system described by the following set of equations:

x 2  a 21 x1  a32 x3  a 42 x 4  a52 x5
x3  a 23 x 2
x 4  a34 x3  a 44 x 4
x5  a35 x3  a 45 x 4

Where x1 is the input and x5 is the output

a 42

x1 a 44 x5
a12 x2 a 23 x3 a 34 x4 a 45 1

a 35
a32
a 52
Example 2:
x1  a11 x1  a12 x 2  a13 x3  b1u1
x 2  a 21 x1  a 22 x 2  a 23 x3  b2 u 2
x3  a 31 x1  a 32 x 2  a 33 x3

a13

x1 a 22
a11 a 21 x2 a32 x3
u1 1
b1
u2
a 23
a12

a31

Example 3:
Construct the SFG for the system represented by the block diagram

H 2 (s)


C (s )
R(s )   
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )
 

H 1 (s)

We first identify unique signals

H 2 (s)


C (s )
R(s )    x5
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )
x1 x2 x3 x4
 

H 1 (s)
x1  R ( s )  C ( s )
x 2  x1  x5 H 1 ( s )
x3  x 2G1 ( s )
x 4  x3  C ( s ) H 2 ( s )
x5  x 4G 2 ( s )
C ( s )  x5G3 ( s )

 H2

R(s ) x1 x2 x3 x4 G2 x5 C (s )
1 1 G1 ( s ) 1 G3 ( s ) 1

H 1 (s)

1

MASONS GAIN FORMULA

Used to obtain the transfer function from a SFG and is given as:

P 
1
TF 

k k
k 1

Pk - Path gain or transmittance of the k th forward path

 - The determinant of the graph given by

1 - (sum of individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all combination of any two non touching
loops) - (sum of gain products of all combination of 3 non touching loops) + …

 k - Cofactor of the k th forward path gven by the determinant of the graph with the loops touching the
k th forward path removed

Example:
Obtain the transfer function of the system described by the SFG
  H2

1
1 1 G3 ( s )
G1 ( s ) G2
R(s ) C (s )

H 1 (s)

1

Paths – Only one forward path given by

P1  G1G2 G3

Loops – Three loops given by

L1  G1G2 G3

L2  G1G2 H1

L3  G2 G3 H 2

Non-touching loops – none

Determinant

  (1  G1G2 H 1  G1G2 G3  G2 G3 H 2 
  (1  G1G2 H 1  G1G2 G3  G2 G3 H 2 )

Cofactor of the path

1  1

1
TF  P1  1


1
  G1G2 G3  1
(1  G1G2 H1  G1G2 G3  G2 G3 H 2 )

C ( s) G1G2 G3

R(s) (1  G1G2 H 1  G1G2 G3  G2 G3 H 2 )
Example 2
G7 ( s )

G6 ( s)

G1 ( s ) G2
R(s ) G3 ( s ) G4 (s) G5 ( s ) 1
C (s )

 H 1 (s)

 H2

Forward paths

P1  G1G2G3G4G5

P2  G1G6 G4 G5

P3  G1G2 G7

Loops

L1  G2 G3G4 G5 H 2

L2  G6 G4 G5 H 2

L3  G2 G7 H 2

L4  G4 H1

Non-touching loops

L3 and L4 do not touch

Determinant of the graph

  1  ( L1  L2  L3  L4 )  L3 L4

Cofactors

1  1
2 1
 3  1  L4

Closed loop TF
TF 
1
P11  P2  2  P3  3 

G1G 2 G3 G 4 G5  G1G6 G 4 G5  G1G 2 G7 (1  G 4 H 1 )

1  G 2 G3 G 4 G5 H 2  G 6 G 4 G5 H 2  G 2 G 7 H 2  G 4 H 1  G 2 G 4 G 7 H 1 H 2

Homework:
a 42

x1 a 44 x5
a12 x2 a 23 x3 a 34 x4 a 45 1

a 35
a32
a 52

a12 a 23 a34 a45  a12 a 23 a35 (1  a 44 )

TF 
1  a 23 a32  a 23 a34 a 42  a 44  a 23 a34 a 45 a52  a 23 a35 a52  a 23 a32 a 44  a 23 a35 a52 a 44
5.0 TRANSIENT ANS STEADY STATE RESPONSES
Time response of a control system consists of

Transient response: That which goes from the initial state to the final state

Steady state: How the system behaves as time tends to infinity

Usually, standard test signals are used to analyse the systems characteristics. The choice of the test
signal to a control system depends on its suitability as a test signal and the environment under which
the system normally operates i.e the kind of signals the system will be more likely be subjected to.

Standard test signals:

Impulse signal

 (t )  0; t  0


  (t )dt  1


L (t )  1

Unit step signal;

1 t  0
u (t )   ;
0 t  0

Lu (t ) 
1
s

Unit ramp signal

t t  0
r (t )   ;
0 t  0

Lr (t ) 
1
s2

Parabolic / accelerationsignal

t 2 t0
a(t )   ;
0 t0
La(t ) 
1
s3

Sinusoidal signal


sin t 
s  2
2

s
cos t 
s 2
2

FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

Consider the unity feedback system:

R(s ) 1 C (s )
 Ts


1
TF 
Ts  1

(a) Response to a unit impulse response

R( s)  1
1 1
C(s)=
T 1
s
T
t
1 T
c(t )  e ; t 0
T
(b) Response to unit step input
1
R( s) 
s
1 1 
C ( s)   
s  Ts  1 
1 T
Using partial fraction expansion, C ( s )  
s Ts  1
t

c(t ) 1  e T
 Step Response
1

0.9

0.8
c(t )
0.7

0.6
Amplitude

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (sec)

The output rises from zero to unity as time tends to infinity. At t  0 , the initial slope of the
1
curve is given by
T
T is referred to as the time constant and indicates how fast the system tends to reach unity. A
small time constant corresponds to a fast system.

Step Response
1

0.9
T1
T2
0.8 T3
0.7

0.6
Amplitude

0.5
T1  T 2  T 3
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (sec)

At The system response is at

t T 63.2%
t  2T 86.3%
t  3T 95%
t  4T 98.2%
In practice, the reasonable estimate of the response time is the length of time it takes the
response curve to reach and stay within 2% line of the final value given by 4T
Error response
t

e(t )  r (t )  c(t )  e T

The steady state error is given by

ess  lim e(t )
t 

 lim sE ( s)
s0

0
 Thus a first order system tracks the unit step input with a zero steady state error
(c) Response to a unit ramp input
1
R( s )  2
s
1  1 
C ( s)   
s 2  Ts  1 
By partial fraction expansion
1 T T2
C ( s)   
s 2 s Ts  1
t

c(t )  t  T  Te T ;t  0
Error response e(t )  r (t )  c(t )
  
t
e(t )  T 1  e T 
 
 
ess  lim e(t )  T
t 

Step Response
6

5 r (t )  t

4
T
Amplitude

3
c(t )

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (sec)

The first order system tracks a unit ramp input with a steady state error equal to the time
constant. The smaller the time constant, the smaller the steady state error

SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

It is convenient to represent the overall TF of a second order system in the form

C (s) n 2
 2
R( s ) s  2n s   n 2

Where
 n = The undamped natural frequency

 = Damping ratio

2n = Attenuation

This is called the standard form of a second order system.

The denominator polynomial s 2  2n s  n 2  0 is called the characteristic equation.

The roots of this equation is given as

s1 , s 2   n  j n 1   2   n  j d

 d   n 1   2 = Damped natural frequency

If 0    1, the closed loop poles are complex conjugate and lie on the LHS of the s-plane. The system is
referred to as underdamped and the transient response is oscillatory.

If   0 , the transient response does not die out

If   1 , the system is called critically damped

  0 , the system is overdamped

UNDERDAMPED CASE
C (s) n 2
 2 ,
R( s ) s  2n s   n 2

For this case, (2n ) 2  4n 2  1 and the roots are given by

C ( s) n 2

R( s) ( s  n  j d )( s  n  j d )

Response to an impulse input R( s )  1

n 2 
1  n 2 

C ( s)  and the time response c (t )  L  2 2 
s  2n s   n  s  2n s   n 

2

2


n
Is given as c(t )  e  nt sin  d t
1 2
 Impulse Response
20

15

10
Amplitude

-5

-10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time (sec)

Figure1: Second order system response to an impulse input

1
The response of the system to a step input R( s) 
s
n 2
C ( s) 
s( s  n  j d )( s  n  j d )

By partial fraction expansion

1 s  2n n
C ( s)   
s ( s  n )   d
2 2
( s  n ) 2   d
2

And the time response is given as the laplace inverse as


c(t )  1  e  nt (cos  d t  sin  d t )
1 2

Which can also be expressed as?

e  nt 1 2
c(t )  1  sin(  d t  tan 1 )
1 2 
 Step Response
1.5

1
Amplitude

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time (sec)

Figure2: Second order system response to an step input

e  nt e  nt
Note the upper envelope 1  and the lower envelope 1 
1 2 1 2


The error signal e(t )  1  c(t )  e  nt (cos  d t  sin  d t ) exhibits a damped sinusoidal
1 2
oscillation.

The steady state value =  c ss  Lim c(t )  1

t 

The steady state error = ess  Lim e(t )  0

t 

UNDAMPED CASE
If   0 , the oscillations become undamped and continue indefinitely

c(t )  1  cos n t

Step Response
2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (sec)

Figure3: Response of a second order system (undamped) to a step input

CRITICALLY DAMPED CASE
 1

Response to a unit impulse

C (s) n 2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s   n 2

n 2 n 2
C (s)   ; c(t )  n 2 te nt
s 2  2 n s   n
2
(s   n ) 2

Impulse Response
10

6
Amplitude

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Time (sec)

Figure4: Response of a second order system (critically damped) to an impulse input

Response to a step input

n 2 1 n 1
C (s)  ; C (s)   
s(s   n ) 2
s (s   n ) 2
(s   n )

c(t ) 1  n te nt  te nt

Step Response
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Amplitude

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Time (sec)

Figure5: Response of a second order system (critically damped) to an step input

OVERDAMPED CASE   1
The roots are real and distinct

Response to an impulse input

n 2 n e nt (   2 1 )  2 1 ) 
C ( s)  ; c(t )    e nt (  
s  2n s   n 2  1  
2 2 2

Impulse Response
6

4
Amplitude

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time (sec)

Figure6: Response of a second order system (overdamped) to an impulse input

Response to a step input

The response consists of a sum of two decaying exponentials

n
e nt (   2 1 )  2 1 ) 
c(t )  1    e nt (  
2  1 
2 

Step Response
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Amplitude

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time (sec)

Figure7: Response of a second order system (overdamped) to an step input

 Step Response
2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Time (sec)

Figure 8: Comparison of the responses for different values of δ

Pole location
Locus of the poles for a second order system

 0


0    1

 1  1
  
 1


0  1


 0

Figure9: Location of the poles for a second order system

  0 No damping
0    1 Underdamped

For  1    0 The response increases without bound

Step Response
15

10

5
Amplitude

-5

-10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time (sec)

Figure10: response for  1    0

n d  n 1   2

   n

Figure11: Relationship of the damping coefficient, damped natural frequency and undamped natural
frequency.

TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATION – TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATION

Control systems are designed with a damping ratio   1. Therefore, the time response of a second and
higher order control systems are damped oscillatory in nature
 Step Response
1.6

1.4

1.2 Mp

2% / 5%
1
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 td
0 tp 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time (sec)
ts

(a) Delay time t d – This is the time required for the response to reach half of the final value for the
first time. Note that for when the damping ratio is small, the oscillatory response can reach half
the value more times
(b) Rise time t r - This is the time required for the response to rise from 0-100% of the final value
(for underdamped systems) or the time required to rise from 10-90% of the final value for
overdamped case. Note that in overdamped case, the system respose approach 100% as time
tends to infinity, that is why we specify 10-90%
(c) Peak time t p - This is the time required for the response to reach the first peak of the
overshoot. Note that an underdamped system has several overshoots
(d) Peak overshoot M p - This indicates the normalized difference between the peak value and the
c(t p )  c ss
steady state output. Peak overshoot =
c ss
c(t p ) = peak value at t  t p ;
c ss = steady state value= c( ) = lim c(t )
t 

(e) Settling time t s - This is the time required for the systems response to reach and stay within a
specifiedband range. This is usually specified as 2% or 5%
 (f) Steady state error ess - Error between the actual output and the desired output as time tends to
infinity = lim e(t )
t 

COMMENTS ABOUT THE TRANSIENT RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS

(i) Not all these specifications apply to any given case e.g in overdamped case, peak time t p
and peak overshoot M p donot apply
(ii) In case of underdamped oscillations, the damping ration must be between 0.4 and 0.8 for
sufficiently fast and sufficiently damped response

Derivations for the expressions – for underdamped systems

(a) Rise time t r

Recall c(t )  1  e  nt (cos  d t  sin  d t ) .
1 2

At t  t r ; c(t r )  1  e  ntr (cos  d t r  sin  d t r )  1 ie it reaches 100%
1 2

Or e  nt r (cos  d t r  sin  d t r )  0
1 2
The exponent term cannot be zero and

cos  d t r   sin  d t r ;
1 2
1 2 d
tan  d t r   
 
1 
tr  tan 1 ( d )
d 
Note:
d  n 1   2
  n
This can be graphically expressed as

d



 d   1 2
  tan 1 ; tr     tan 1
 d 
(b) Peak time t p
At peak time, the derivative of c(t ) =0

d d   

c(t p )  1  e  nt (cos  d t  sin  d t )
dt dt 
 1 2 

 n t p   n t p 
 n e (cos  d t p  sin  d t p )   d e (sin  d t p  cos  d t p )  0
1 2 1 2
The cosine terms cancel out, remaining with
 2 n  n t p  n t p
( e  d e ) sin  d t p  0
1 2

sin d t p  0
d t p  n ;   0,1,2, 

tp 
d
n  2,3,4,  corresponds to the other peaks
(c) Maximum overshoot M p
M p  c(t p )  1

 n
d    
c(t p )  1  e (cos  d t sin d )
d 1 2 d
The cosine term = 1, while the sine term equals 0
 
 n  n
d d
M p 1 e 1 e
  
 n  
d d d
e e per unit 0r  e  100 per cent
(d) Settling time t s
The response is bounded by exponential envelopes. The upper and lower envelopes are given as
e  nt
1
1 2
Note that e 3T  0.95 e 4T  0.982
1
T
n
4 4
For 2% criterion, t s  4T  
 n
3 3
For 5% criterion, t s  3T  
 n
 1  0.7
(e) Delay time t d  ,
n

Example 1.
Given δ=0.6, ωn=5rads/sec, obtain

(i) Rise time = 0.55S

(ii) Peak time = 0.785S
(iii) Peak overshoot = 9.5%
(iv) Settling time = 1.33S (2%), 1S (5%)

Example 2.
1
A second order system has a transfer function given by . A step input is applied to it.
s  2.4s  9
2

Determine

(i) Tp=1.14S
(ii) Tr=0.72S
(iii) Ts=3.3S (2%)
(iv) Mp=25.38%

Example 3
25
The open loop TF of a unity feedback control system is given by G( s)  . Find
s( s  5)

(i) Mp=16.3%
(ii) Tr=0.485S
(iii) Ts=1.6S
(iv) Tp=o.72S

Higher Order Systems

The response of higher order systems is the sum of the responses of first and second order system
responses

STEADY STATE ERRORS IN UNITY FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

C(s)
R(s)
G(s)

E(s)

H(s)

ess  lim e(t )

t 
 In Laplace transform, we make use of the final value theorem which states
ess  lim e(t )  lim E ( s)
t  s 0

Consider a second order system response to a ramp input

1
r (t )  t; R(s)  2
s
n 2
C (s) 
s 2 ( s 2  2n s   n )
2

 n 2  2 e  nt
c(t )  L1  2 2  ; c (t )  t   sin(  d t   )
 s ( s  2n s   n 2 )  n  1   2
n

2
ess  lim e(t )  lim r (t )  c(t )  lim t  c(t ) 
t  t  t  n

Step Response
1.4

1.2

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Figure: Transient response of a second order system to a ramp input

The response of a second order system to a ramp input is oscillatory. However, the steady state error is
not zero as in the case of the step input we saw in the analysis of the second order system

A system may have zero steady state error to a step input but may exhibit a non zero steady state error
to a ramp input.

Steady state error is a measure of the system accuracy. Whether a given system will exhibits steady
state error for a given type of input depends on the type of the open loop TF

The difference between the steady state response and the desired response gives the steady static
error. A control system has steady state error for changes in position, velocity and acceleration.

Kp - Position error constant

Kv - Velocity error constant

Ka - Acceleration error constant

These error constants are known as static error coefficients. They have the ability to minimize the steady
state errors.

For unity feedback, H ( s )  1

C ( s) G( s)
 and
R( s ) 1  G ( s )

E ( s) 1

R( s ) 1  G ( s )

Position Error constant

This is the steady state error for a step input

1 1 1 1
E ( s)  and ess  lim sE (s)  
1  G( s) s s 0 1  G(0) 1  Kp

1
ess ( position) 
1  Kp

The steady state error is controlled by the position error coefficient

Velocity Error constant

This is the steady state error for a ramp input

1 1 1 1
ess (velocity)  lim sE (s)  lim s  lim
s 0 s 0 1  G( s ) s 2 s 0 1  G( s ) s

1
= lim s  Kv
s 0 sG(s)

1
e ss (velocity) 
Kv

Acceleration Error constant

This is the steady state error for a parabolic input

1 1 1 1
ess (acceleration)  lim sE (s)  lim s  lim
s 0 s 0 1  G( s) s 3 s 0 1  G( s) s 2

1
= lim 2
 Ka
s 0 s G( s )
 1
e ss (acceleration) 
Kv

Step Response
1.5

1
Amplitude

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time (sec)

Figure: Response of a second order system to a unit step input

Step Response
1.4

1.2

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Figure: Response of a second order system to a unit ramp input

Step Response
350

300

250

200
Amplitude

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Figure: Response of a second order system to a parabolic input

Relationship between the type of system and the steady state error
A type of system means the number of poles present at the origin of the open loop TF G ( s ) H ( s )

K (1  T1 s)(1  T2 s)...(1  Tm s)
G( s) H ( s)  . The poles at the origin are s j
s (1  Ta s)(1  Tb s)...(1  Tn s)
j

If j  0 , the system is called type zero, j  1 , type 1 j  2 , type 2

The table below summarizes the steady state static errors

Step r(t)=1 Ramp r(t)=t Parabolic r(t)=t2

Type 0 1  
1  Kp

Type 1 0 1 
Kv

Type 2 0 0 1
Ka

As the type of system becomes higher, more steady static errors are eliminated. Types 0, 1 and 2 are
commonly used. In practice, system with types more than 2 are not employed (More than two
intergrations)

This is because:

(i) They are difficult to stabilize

(ii) The dynamic errors tend to be larger although their steady state response is desirable.

Effects of adding a zero to a control system

Lets add a zero at s   z to a second order control system such that

( s  z ) n
2
C (s)
 2
R( s ) s  2n s   n 2

The numerator is adjusted such that

C
(0)  1 for c ss  1 when the input r (t )  1 and ess  0
R

By partial fraction expansion

Cz( s ) n s n 2 2
 2   2
R( s ) s  2n s   n 2
z s  2n s   n 2

1 d
Or c z (t )  c(t )  c(t )
z dt

Step Response
2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Time (sec)

Figure: Plot of c(t ) and c z (t )

The zero contributes to a pronounced early peak with increased overshoot. The smaller the value of z,
the more pronounced the peaking phenomenon.

Design specifications for a second order system

A control system should meet certain time response specification of:

(i) Steady state error

(ii) Damping ratio

(iii) Peak overshoot

(iv) Settling time etc

The system can only meet one specification exactly while conflicting with another specification.

In order to meet two independent specifications, the second order system has to be modified. This is
known as compensation,
6.0 STABILITY
An LTI (linear time invariant) system is stable if

(i) When excited with a bounded input, the output is also bounded

(ii) In the absence of the input, the output tends to zero, irrespective of the initial conditions
(asymptotic stability)

Unstable system – When excited with a bounded input, the output is unbounded

Critically or marginally stable system-When a bounded input is applied to a marginally stable system, the
output does not decrease to zero or increase without bound.

Conditionally stable systems-These are systems that are which are stable only for some certain
conditions of some parameters. Should this parameter(s) change, the system becomes unstable

p( s) bo s n  b1 s n 1  ....  bn
G( s)  
q( s) a 0 s m  a1 s m1  ...  a m

The roots of q (s ) gives the location of the poles while the roots of p (s ) gives the location of the zeros

Location of the poles and stability

Impulse Response
1

0.9

1 0.8

sa 0.7

0.6
Amplitude

0.5

X
e  at
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (sec)

Impulse Response
14
1
sa 12

10

X 8
e at
Amplitude

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (sec)
 Impulse Response
0.5

0.4
1
0.3
s 2
s
X 0.2
sin(t )
0.1

Amplitude
0

X -0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4

-0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Impulse Response
2

1.8

1.6

1 1.4 u (t )
s 1.2
Amplitude

X 1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

1
s2

XX

Double pole

X
 X
X

Double pole
X
X

From above, we can define stability interms of the locations of the poles in the s plane.

A system is stable if its poles lie on the LHS of the s plane (or if its roots have negative real part)

In terms of impulse response, a system is stable if its impulse response tend to zero as time tends to
infinity

For poles that lie on the jω axis, the system is marginally stable.

Concept of relative stability

When the poles are located far away from jω axis, the response decays to zero faster than those close to
the jω axis. Poles close to the jω axis take long to settle

Step Response
1.4

1.2

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (sec)

Relative stability is a measure of how fast the transients die out in the system.
ROUTH’s STABILITY CRITERION
For systems of orders higher than 2, we need not get the roots of the characteristic equation q (s )
inorder to determine the stability of the system. Routh’s and Hurwitz criteria provide a simple way of
judging whether a pole of a system lie on the RHS or LHS of the s plane.

p( s) bo s n  b1 s n 1  ....  bn
G( s)   mn
q( s) a 0 s m  a1 s m1  ...  a m

By factoring the characteristic equation and determining the position of the roots, we can determine the
stability of the system.

Routh’s Criterion (Stability test)

Procedure

Write the polynomial in the form q(s)  a0 s m  a1 s m1  a2 s m2  a3 s m3  ...  am1 s  am  0

The necessary condition for stability is that

(a) The coefficients of q ( s )  0 must be real and must have the same sign

(b) None of the coefficients is zero

If one of the coefficients is zero, it implies that

(i) One or more roots have positive real parts

(ii) There is a root or roots at the origin

(iii) Presence of roots on the jω axis

These two conditions are necessary but not sufficient.

Example 1.
q(s)  s 5  5s 4  3s 3  2s 2  s  8  0

Unstable – sign change

Example 2.
q(s)  s 5  5s 4  3s 3  2s 2  s  0

The constant term (corresponding to s 0 ) is zero and thus there is a root at s=0 and the system at its best
is marginally stable

Example 3.
q(s)  s 5  5s 4  3s 3  2s 2  8  0
Unstable – coefficient of s=0

Example 4.
q(s)  s 5  5s 4  3s 3  2s 2  s  8  0

No sign change and all coefficients are present. The two necessary conditions are met, and the stability
of the closed loop poles can be determined by arranging the coefficients in the Routh’s array

sn a0 a2 a4 a6 

s n1 a1 a3 a5 a7 

s n2 b1 b2 b3 b4 

s n 3 c1 c2 c3 c4 

s1 y1 y2

s0 z1

Where

a1a 2  a0 a3 a a  a 0 a5 a a  a0 a7
b1  ; b2  1 4 ; b3  1 6
a1 a1 a1

b1 a3  a1b2 b a  a1b3 b a  a1b4

c1  ; c2  1 5 ; c3  1 7
b1 b1 b1

c1b2  b1c 2 c b  b1c3

d1  ; d2  1 3
c1 c1

This process is continued until the nth row has been completed.

Routh’s stability criterion states that the number of roots with positive real parts is equal to the number
of the changes in sign of the coefficients of the first column in the array. That is for a stable system, the
first column should have no sign change.

Example 1
q(s)  a0 s 3  a1 s 2  a2 s  a3  0

s3 a0 a2
s2 a1 a3

a1a 2  a0 a3
s1 0
a1

s0 a3

For no sign change, a1a2  a0 a3 for stability

Example 2
q(s)  s 4  s 3  s 2  2s  3  0

s4 1 1 3

s3 1 2

s2 -1 3

s1 5 0

s0 3

Note that the first column has 2 sign changes from 1 to -1 and -1 to 5. Therefore, the system is unstable
and has 2 poles on the RHS of the s plane

Exercise
q(s)  s 4  2s 3  3s 2  4s  5  0

(unstable)

Special cases
(i) Case 1 – A zero appearing in any row of the first column while the other terms are non zero

When this happens, we replace the zero with a small positive constant  , so as to avoid
dividing by zero.
Example
q(s)  s 3  2s 2  s  2  0

s3 1 2

s2 2 2

s1 0 0

2  0
s0 2


The zero appearing indicates instability or marginal stability. For this case, the system is marginally
stable since there is a root at s   j

Example 2
q(s)  s 5  s 4  2s 3  2s 2  3s  5  0

s5 1 2 3

s4 1 2 5

s3 0 1 -2 0

2  2
s2  5


 4  4  5 2
s1 0
2  2

s0 5

 4  4  5 2
lim  2
 0 2  2

We are interested only in sign change and the system is unstable.

Exercise:
q(s)  s 3  3s  2  0 ; Disregard the fact that this does not meet the necessary conditions for stability

Case 2 –
(ii) If all the coefficients in any derived row are zero, it indicates that there are roots of equal
magnitude lying radially opposite in the s plane
In such a case, the evaluation of the rest of the array can be continued by forminy an auxiliary
polynomial by using the coefficients of the derivative of the polynomial of the next row.

Example 2
q(s)  s 5  2s 4  24s 3  4s 2  25s  50  0

(Disregard the fact that this does not meet the necessary condition for stability)

s5 1 24 -25

s4 2 48 50

s3 0 0 0

We form an auxiliary polynomial

P(s)  2s 4  48s 2  50

dP( s )
 8s 3  96s and proceed
ds

s3 8 96 0

s2 24 -50

s1 112.7 0

s0 -50

Exercise
q(s)  s 6  2s 5  8s 4  12s 3  20s 2  16s  16  0

Hurwitz criterion
We arrange the coefficients into the Hurwitz determinant as:
 a1 a3 a5 a7 
a0 a2 a4 a6 
0 a1 a3 a5 
H
0 a0 a2 a4 
    
0 0 an

To have all the roots in the LHS of the s plane, the n-sub determinantsof the Hurwitz determinant should
be positive

D1  a1

a1 a3
D2 
a0 a2

a1 a3 a5
D3  a0 a2 a4
0 a1 a3

The disadvantage with this method is that

(i) As the order of the system increases, it is difficult to solve individual determinants

(ii) The number of the roots on the RHS are unknown

(iii) Difficult to predict marginal stability

Example
Use Hurwitz to determine the stability of

q( s )  s 3  s 2  s  4  0

1 4 0
H1 1 0
0 1 4

D1=1; D2=-3; D3=-12, hence unstable

Exercise
q(s)  s 3  8s 2  14s  24  0 (stable)

Application of Routh’s stability to Linear Feedback Control systems

Consider a closed loop system with the open loop TF

K
G( s) 
s(s  s  1)( s  4)
2

C(s)
R(s)
G(s)

E(s)

H(s)

G( s)
The closed loop TF
1  G( s) H ( s)

K
s( s  s  1)( s  4)
2
K
  and the characteristic equation
1
K s(s  s  1)( s  4)  K
2

s( s  s  1)( s  4)
2

q(s)  s 4  5s 3  5s 2  4s  K  0

The Routh array

s4 1 5 K

s3 5 4 0

21
s2 K
5

84  5 K
s1 5 0
21
5

s0 K

For stability

K 0
84
 5K  0
5

84
Or K
25
This implies that the gain of the system cannot be increased infinitely

Example 2

s 3  ( K  0.5)s 2  4Ks  50  0

s3 1 4K 0

s2 K+0.5 50

4 K 2  2 K  50
s1 0
K  0.5

s0 50

For stability, K  0.5 , and there cannot be a negative gain

4K 2  2K  50  0

K1  3.29, K 2  3.79

And 3.29  K  

Exercise
(i) Determine the number of poles on the RHS if any for the system

s 6  s 5  3s 4  3s 3  2s 2  s  1  0 (4 no)

K (s  2)
(ii) Open loop TF with G(s)  and unity feedback. (K>0)
s(s  1)

(iii) s 3  3Ks 2  ( K  3)s  4  0

7.0 ROOT LOCUS
Feedback systems pose the problem of potential instability

Transient response of a closed loop system has relation to the location of the closed loop poles

For a variable loop gain system, the location of the closed loop poles depend on the loop gain chosen.

Root locus method provides a graphical technique of plotting the locus of the roots in the s-plane as a
given system parameter is varied over a range of values eg, gain, addition of a pole or zero etc

The value of a particular parameter can be determined from the locus.

Root locus helps to determine the value of the loop gain that will make the damping ratio of the closed
loop poles as desired.

Similarly, if the open loop poles and zeros are variable, the root locus suggests the way to choose the
location of these poles and zeros.

ANGLE AND MAGNITUDE CONDITION

Consider a feedback system

C(s)
R(s)
G(s)

E(s)

H(s)

C ( s) G( s )
The closed loop TF  and the characteristic equation 1  G ( s) H ( s)  0
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

Or G ( s) H ( s)  1

G(s) H (s)  1 magnitude condition and

 G(s) H (s)  180o (2k  1), k  0,1,2, the angle condition

The values of s that fulfil this condition are the roots of the characteristic equation

CONSTRUCTION

Consider the system shown above with the characteristic equation G(s) H (s)  1. For example

K (s  z1)
G( s) H ( s )  , p 2, p3 are complex conjugate for example
(s  p1)( s  p2)( s  p3)( s  p4)
The pole-zero plot in the s plane

Test _ po int_ 1


A2 2

A4 A3 B1 A1 p 2

4 1 1
  
p4 z1
p1

3

p3

A1, A2, A3, A4, B1 are the magnitude of the distance from the poles and zero to a chosen test point

 1,  2,  3,  4, 1 are the angles measured anticlockwise from the horizontal axis

To find out whether test point 1 is part of the locus, it must fulfill both the angle and magnitude
condition

KB1
G( s) H ( s) 
A1A2 A3 A4

And  G ( s) H ( s)  1  ( 1   2   3   4)

Otherwise, if it doesnt, then it is not part of the locus.

RULES FOR PLOTTING THE ROOT LOCUS

Locate the poles and the zeros of G ( s ) H ( s )

1. The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis

2. As K is varied from zero to infinity, each branch of the root locus originates from an open loop
pole at K  0 , and either terminates at an open loop zero or at infinity at K  

The number of branches terminating at infinity equals (Number of open loop poles – number of
open loop zeros). Note that it is assumed that number of poles equals number of zeros only that
the other zeros are located at infinity
3. A point on the real axis lies on the locus if the number of open loop poles and zeros to the right
of this point is odd

4. The branches of the root locus which tend to infinity do so along straight line asymptotes given
2k  1)180 o
by Angle _ of _ asymptote   ,
nm

n = number of finite poles of G ( s ) H ( s ) , m = number of finite zeros of G ( s ) H ( s )

5. Asymptotes cross the real axis at a point called known as centroid given by

Centroid=
Sum _ of _ real _ parts _ of _ poles  Sum _ of _ real _ parts _ of _ zeros  Re( poles)   Re( zeros)

number _ of _ poles  number _ of _ zeros nm

6. Break away/ Break in point (points at which multiple roots of the characteristic equation occur)
dK
is given by 0
ds

7. The angle of departure from a complex pole is given by ±180o-(sum of angles of vectors to a
complex pole in question from other poles)+(sum of angle of vectors to a complex pole in
question from zeros)

The angle of arrival from a complex zero is given by ±180o-(sum of angles of vectors to a
complex zero in question from other zeros)+(sum of angle of vectors to a complex zero in
question from poles)


Departure angle

1 1
 

2


8. Intersection of the root locus branches with the imaginary axis is determined from the Routh’s
criterion

9. The loop gain K at any point so on the root locus is given by

 product _ of _ phasor _ lengths _ from _ so _ to _ open _ loop _ poles
K
product _ of _ phasor _ lengths _ from _ so _ to _ open _ loop _ zeros

EXAMPLE 1

K
s ( s  1)( s  2)

K
G( s) H ( s) 
s(s  1)( s  2)

2k  1)180o
Asymptotes =  = ±60o, ±180o, ±300o
nm

 Re( poles)   Re( zeros)  1  2

Centroid =  = -1
nm 30

dK
Break away point 0
ds

K  s 3  3s 2  2s  0

dK
 3s 2  6s  2  0 , s1, s 2  0.4226,1.574 we take -0.4226 since it lies between two poles
ds
and K is positive for this case (K=0.3849). For s=-1.574, K is negative (K=-0.3849) and cannot be
negative gain

Points at which K crosses the imaginary axis

s3 1 2

s2 3 K

6K
s1 0
3

s0 K

For stability

K 0
K 6
And K=6 at the crossing.

The value of s at the crossing point is s   j 2 . This can be gotten from solving for s in
s 3  3s 2  2s  6  0 by equating s  j and solving the real and imaginary parts

Root Locus
4

1
Imaginary Axis

-1

-2

-3

-4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis

EXAMPLE 2

From the above example, determine the value of K for which the damping ratio is 0.5

Root Locus
4

1 60 o s1  0.3337  j 0.5780

Imaginary Axis

A3 A2 A1
0

-1  s1  0.3337  j 0.5780

-2

-3

-4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
cos   0.5 Real Axis

  60 o
 To determine K, we replace s=0.3337+j0.5780 in the equation K  s 3  3s 2  2s  0 to get
K=1.0383. Alternatively K= A1A2 A3 (the phasor products)

K
(Note: In example 1, the transfer function can be written as G( s) H ( s)  which
s  3s 2  2s
3

0s 3  0s 2  0s  1
can be written in descending powers of s as G(s) H (s)  K
s 3  3s 2  2s  0

Using Matlab, define the numerator as num = [0 0 0 1] and the denominator den = [ 1 3 2 0] with
descending coefficients of s. Use the matlab command rlocus(num,den) and observe the plot.
Use matlab in the similar manner for step,and impulse responses as step(num,den)
impulse(num,den) etc

MORE EXAMPLES

Assume same block diagram with unity feedback with

Root Locus
2

1.5

0.5
Imaginary Axis

-0.5

-1

-1.5

K ( s  2) K ( s  2)
-2
-4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0

1. G(s)   Real Axis

s  2 s  3 s ( s  1  j 2) ( s  1  j 2)
2

Angle of departure = 145o and breakaway point = -3.7320, -0.2680

Root Locus
10

2
Imaginary Axis

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

K (s  3) -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4

2. G( s)  Real Axis

s(s  1)( s 2  4s  16)

 Root Locus
5

Imaginary Axis
0

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
K
3. G(s) 
Real Axis

s(s  3)( s  2s  2)
2

asymptotes 45o, 135o, 225o, 315o centroid -1.25, breakaway poit 4.54 departure angle -71.6o,
K=8.16 and s=j1.1 at crossing point

Root Locus
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Imaginary Axis

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1

K (s  2)( s  3)
-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0

4. G(s) 
Real Axis

s(s  1)

Root Locus
10

2
Imaginary Axis

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
K
5. G(s) 
Real Axis

s(s  6s  25)
2
 Root Locus
2.5

1.5

0.5

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
-4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
K
6. G(s) 
Real Axis

s(s  4s  5)
2

Root Locus
8

2
Imaginary Axis

-2

-4

-6

-8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
K
7. G(s) 
Real Axis

s(s  1)( s  4s  13)

2

Root Locus
4

1
Imaginary Axis

-1

-2

-3

-4
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
K (s  1)
8. G(s)  2
Real Axis

s (s  3.6)
 Root Locus
8

Imaginary Axis
0

-2

-4

-6

-8

K (s  0.4)
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0

9. G(s)  2
Real Axis

s (s  3.6)

NOTE:

 From the root locus, we can determine the loop gain of a system for a specified damping
ratio

 The determination of roots for a specified loop gain is done using trial and error

ROOT CONTUORS
When a parameter other than the gain K varies, the corresponding plots are called root contours.
K
Consider the system G(s)  2 , where a is a variable pole position, the characteristic equation
s ( s  a)

K
1  0 or s 2  as  K  0 . Allowing both K and a to vary leads to root contours. For the
s( s  a)
K
system 1  0
s(s  1)( s  a)

Root Locus
10

2
Imaginary Axis

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis
POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
C ( s) G( s)
The closed loop TF  and the characteristic equation 1  G ( s) H ( s )  0
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

G(s) H (s)  1 magnitude condition and

 G(s) H (s)  0  k 360o , k  0,1,2,  the angle condition

Exercise: Read about the changes in the rules for positive feedback systems. Also note that positive
feedback systems are unstable

CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN BY ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Design by root locus is based on reshaping the root locus by addition of poles and zeros to the system
open loop transfer function.

System compensation

Sometimes it is necessary to modify the structure of a system so that the overall system behavior will be
as desired. Such a redesign or addition of a suitable device is called compensation.

A compensator is a device that is incorporated into the system for the purposes of satisfying the
specifications.

Commonly used controllers are the lead, lag, lead-lag and the PID controllers.

Compensation schemes

(a) Series compensation

A compensator Gc (s ) is placed in series with the plant

Gc(s) Plant G(s)

H(s)

(b) Parallel or feedback compensation

A compensator Gc (s ) is placed in parallel with the plant

 G1(s) G2(s)

Gc(s)

H(s)

If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network and the sinusoidal steady state output has a
phase lead, the network is called a lead network. If the output has a phase lag, it is called a lag
network. If the output has both a lead and a lag phase occurring at different frequencies, the
network is called lead-lag network

Effects of addition of a pole to a system

 It pulls the locus to the right tending to lower the system relative stability and slow down
the response settling time

 Achieved using an intergral controller

Root Locus Root Locus

1 0.4 Root Locus
5
0.8
0.3 4
0.6
3
0.2
0.4
2
0.2 0.1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis

1
Imaginary Axis

0 0
0
-0.2
-0.1 -1
-0.4
-2
-0.2
-0.6
-3
-0.8 -0.3
-4
-1
-2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 -0.4 -5
-2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
Real Axis Real Axis

Figure Effect of adding one and two poles on the root locus

Effects of addition of a zero

 Pulls locus to the left

 Makes the system more stable

 Speeds up the settling time of the system

 Root Locus Root Locus
Root Locus
5 5
8

4 4
6

3 3
4
2 2

1 2

Imaginary Axis
1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0 0 0

-1 -1
-2

-2 -2
-4
-3
-3
-6
-4
-4

-5 -8
-5 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis Real Axis
Real Axis

This is equivalent to a derivative controller

LEAD COMPENSATION

1
s
A lead compensator has the transfer function Gc( s )  Kc T , 0   1
1
s
T

Example:

4
s ( s  2)

Root Locus
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Imaginary Axis

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
-2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0
Real Axis

Closed loop poles at s1, s 2  1  3 ,   0.5 ,  n  2 , Kv  2

It is desired to design a lead compensator such that   0.5 and  n  4 rads/sec

Solution

Plot the root locus

Openloop pole position S1 , S 2  0,2
Centroid = -1
Asymptotes =±90o
dK d
Breakaway point  ( s 2  2s)  2s  2  0 Or s = -1
ds ds
cos1 0.5  60o
Draw a line 60o to cross the locus at point marked S
Draw a circle from centred at origin from point S to cut the jω axis at point T

T
o
S
60

Position S=  1  j 3 gives position of open loop poles or use the quadratic formula on
s 2  2s  4
Damping factor.   cos 60o = 0.5 or equate s 2  2s  4 = s  2n s   n
2 2

Undamped natural frequency represented by poit T,  n  2rad sec1 or equate s 2  2s  4 =

s 2  2n s   n
2

4
Velocity error constant = lim sG(s) = lim s. 2
s0 s 0
s(s  2)
Draw a circle radius 4 to cut the constant δ line at point P
The angle condition at point  1 3 =180o -(120o+90o) = 30o
This does not meet the angle condition because of the deficiency of 30 degrees
 P
T
o
S
60

 Draw an horizontal line to point PA

 Bisect angle APO
30 o
 Draw lines PC and PD, on either side of PB.
2
1 1
 Point C=-5.4 equals  , Point D=-2.9 equals 
T T
( s  2.9)
 The controller is given by Gc ( s )  K c
( s  5.4)

P
A

C O
D
B
 (s  2.9)
 The magnitude condition must fulfil K c 1
s(s  2)(s  5.4) s 1 j 3

 Kc=4.68
( s  2.9)
 Finally Gc ( s)  4.68
( s  5.4)

Root Locus
15

10

5
Imaginary Axis

-5

-10

-15
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis

The resulting root locus satisfies the design requirements.

We can now synthesize our lead compensator whether electronic, electrical, mechanical etf.

Note that the design is not unique, since we could have chosen a compensator with a zero at s=-2 and a
pole at s=-4. This satisfies the angle condition and the gain can be adjusted to satisfy the magnitude
condition.

The above design method gives the highest Kv for good system response performance.

The comparison of the step responses:

 Step Response
1.4
uncompensated
compensated
1.2

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (sec)

LAG COMPENSATION
Lag compensation improves the steady state accuracy of the system but reduces the speed of the
response. If the transient response is satisfactory but the steady state response is unsatisfactory, we use
a lag compensator

Compensation for such case consists of improving the open loop gain without changing the transient
response characteristics

To avoid an appreciable change in the root loci the angle contribution of the lag network should be
limited to a small amount not greater than 5%, ie place the pole and zero of the lag network very close
to the origin of the s plane.

This way, the closed loop poles of the compensated system will be shifted slightly from their original
locations.

1
s
A lag compensator takes the form Gc( s )  Kc T ,  1
1
s
T

For a lag network, the following conditions are to be met

 1
s
Gc( s)  Kc T  Kc
1
s
T

1
s
5 T 0
1
s
T

Increase in gain means increase in the static error constants

Kv  lim sG ( s) . For a compensated system,

s0

Kvc  lim sG(s)Gc(s)  lim Gc(s) Kv  KcKv

s 0 s 0

Example

1.06
Consider the system G(s) 
s(s  1)( s  2)

1.06
s ( s  1)( s  2)

1.06
s ( s  1)( s  2)

C ( s) 1.06
The closed loop transfer function 
R(s) s(s  1)( s  2)  1.06

C ( s) 1.06

R(s) (s  2.3386)( s  0.3307  j 0.5864)( s  0.3307  j 0.5864)

With the root locus

 Root Locus
4

3
Position of closed loop poles
2

1 
Imaginary Axis

0 


-1

-2

-3

-4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis

  0.491

 n  0.673

Kv  0.53

Since Kvc  KcKv ,

Usually Kv is approximately equal to unity.

We chose   10 such that Kvcincreases by a factor almost equal to 10

s  0.05
We place the pole and the zero very close to the origin such that Gc( s)  Kc
s  0.005

The angle contribution of the network is about 4o.

The overall transfer function of the compensator-system cascade

s  0.05 1.06
G(s)Gc(s)  Kc
s  0.005 s(s  1)( s  2)

Whose new root locus is

(Note: The left curve is the uncompensated system while the right curve is the compensated system)
 Root Locus
4

1
Imaginary Axis

-1

-2

-3

-4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis

The new closed loop poles are determined from the root locus as s=-0.31±j0.55 and the gain

s( s  0.005)( s  1)( s  2)
K  1.0235
s  0.05 s  0.31 j 0.55

This value of K can also be determined from the graph when drawn to scale by measuring the distance
of the vectors

K=1.06Kc or Kc=0.9656

s  0.05
Gc( s )  0.9656
s  0.005

The new velocity error constant is given as lim sG(s)Gc(s)  5.12 sec 1
s 0

LEAD-LAG COMPENSATION

These combines the advantages of both the lead and the lag compensators.
8.0 FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS
Time domain approaches suffer the disadvantage that they become difficult to analyse as the order of
the system increases.

Frequency response implies the steady state response of a system to a sinusoidal input.

In these methods, the frequency of the input signal is varied over a certain range and the response is
studied.

These methods offer the advantage that the mathematical model of the system is not necessary.

Consider the system

x(t ) y (t )
G(s)
X (s ) Y (s )

Let the input be sinusoidal such that x(t )  X sin t

The steady state output of the system is also sinusoidal with the same frequency but with a different
magnitude and phase angle.

Replacing s  j in G (s )

G( j)  Me j

Where M is the amplitude ratio of the output and input signals

 is the phase shift between the input and the output.

y ss  X G( j) sin( t   )

1
x(t )  X sin t
0.8

0.6
X Y
0.4
y (t )  Y sin(t   )
0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Y  X G ( j )
G ( j ) is called the sinusoidal transfer function. A positive phase angle is called a phase lead, while a
negative phase angle is called a phase lag.

Example.

x(t ) K y (t )
X (s ) Ts  1 Y (s )

If x(t )  X sin t , find the steady state output y ss (t )

Solution

K
G( j ) 
jT  1

K T
G ( j )  ;    tan 1 = G ( j )
 T 1
2 2 1

K
yss(t )  X sin( T  tan 1 T )
1  (T ) 2

Homework

1
s
1   2T1
2
T1 T
G (s)  ; show that y ss (t )  X 2 sin( t  tan 1 T1  tan 1 T 2 )
1 T1 1   T2
2 2
s
T2

Generally, frequency response methods have both the magnitude and phase vary as a function of
frequency ω.

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN AND RELATION WITH TIME

DOMAIN

C ( s) G( s)
Resonant Peak M r - For a closed loop system transfer function   M (s) . The
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
maximum value of M ( j ) as ω is varied is called the resonant peak. A larger value of M r corresponds
to a large maximum overshoot

Resonance frequency  r -This is the frequency at which resonance peak occurs.

Bandwidth BW - This is the range of frequencies beyond which the magnitude M ( j ) falls below -3dB.
A large BW means higher frequencies can easily be passed through the system and it gives an idea about
the transient response characteristics.
Cut off rate – Slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off frequency. It indicates the ability of the
system to distinguish a signal from noise

Phase margin – 180o+phase angle at the gain crossover frequency. The phase margin indicates how
much the system angle can be increased to make the system unstable.

Gain cross over frequency – frequency when the gain is unity

Gain margin – reciprocal of the gain at phase cross over frequency. It indicates how much the gain can
be increased to make the system unstable.

Phase crossover frequency – frequency at which the phase =-180o

For the canonical second order systems, there is a direct correlation between the time domain
specifications and the frequency domain specifications.

8.1 BODE DIAGRAMS

Also called logarithmic plots

It consists of two plots

(i) Logarithm of the magnitude of G ( j ) given as 20 log G( j) in dB against frequency

(ii) Phase of G ( j ) in degrees against frequency

These are plotted on a semilog paper. That is the x-axis is logarithmic and the y-axis is linear.

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-1 0 1
10 10 10

Semilog paper: Note the x axis is logarithmic while the y axis is linear.

Factors of G ( j ) H ( j )

The sinusoidal transfer function can be factored as

(i) Gain K

The contribution of the gain is 20 log K dB.

Positive for K  0 and negative for K  0

The phase angle is tan 1 0  0

Bode Diagram K 5
15

14.5
Magnitude (dB)

14
f
13.5

13
Magnitude _ plot
12.5
1

0.5
Phase (deg)

0
f

-0.5

Phase _ plot
-1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

1
(ii) Integral factors
j

1
Magnitude: 20 log  20 log j  20 log  dB
j


Phase:  tan 1  90 o
0
 Bode Diagram
40

Magnitude (dB) 20

-20

-40

-60
-89

-89.5
Phase (deg)

-90

-90.5

-91
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

The logarithm base is usually base 10. Therefore, the integral factor has a slope of -20dB/decade or -
6dB per octave

(iii) Derivative factors j

Magnitude: 20 log j  20 log  dB


Phase: tan 1  90 o
0
 Bode Diagram
60

40
Magnitude (dB)

20

0
f
-20
Magnitude _ plot
-40
91

90.5
Phase (deg)

90

89.5
f
Phase _ plot
89
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

1
(iv) First order factors 1  jT and
1  jT

1
We consider only since the phase and magnitude for 1  jT is equal, safe for change of
1  jT
sign.

1
Magnitude: 20 log  20 log 1  jT  20 log 1   2T 2 dB
1  jT

1
At   such that 1   2T 2  1 , the magnitude is approximately  20 log 1  0
T

1
At   such that 1   2T 2  T ; the magnitude is approximately  20 log T
T

1
At   ; such that 1   2T 2  2 ; the magnitude is  20 log 2  3dB
T
 T
Phase angle:    tan 1
1

1 1 1 0
At   such that  , the phase is approximately  tan 1  0
T 1  jT 1 1

1 1 1 jT
At   such that  ; the phase is approximately  tan 1  90 o
T 1  jT jT 0

1 1 1 1
At   ; such that  ; the phase is  tan 1  45 o
T 1  jT 1  j 1

The plot is

Low _ frequency _ asymptote Bode Diagram

0
f
Actual _ plot
-20
Magnitude (dB)

-40

-60 High _ frequency _ asymptote

Magnitude _ plot

-80
0
f
Phase _ plot
Phase (deg)

-45

-90
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

1
 is referred to as corner or break frequency since the two asymptotes have the same value ie
T
the low frequency asymptote and the high frequency asymptote

The asymptotes are easy to draw and are sufficiently close to the exact curve

Varying the time constant T shifts the corner frequency to the right or left but the shape of the curve
remains the same.

An advantage of the Bode diagram is that reciprocal factors need only a sign change.
(v) Quadratic factors

2
 j   j  1
1  2      and
  n    n   j   j 
2

1  2     
  n    n 

In a similar manner, the curves for the magnitude and phase can be obtained as

Bode Diagram
20
  0.1
0   0.5
 1 f
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-60

-80 Magnitude _ plot

-100
0
  0.1
  0.5
-45
 1
Phase (deg)

-90 Phase _ plot

-135

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Resonant frequency  r and Resonant peak value M r

G( j) has a peak value at some frequency called the resonant frequency. This occurs at

 r   n 1  2 2 ; 0    0.707

1
And Mr  . For   1 , Mr  1
2 1   2

Plotting Bode Diagrams

(a) Rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function G ( j ) H ( j ) as a product of the basic factors
 (b) Identify the corner frequencies associated with these basic factors

(c) Draw the asymptotic curves with proper slopes

(d) Add up the curves

Example

Plot the Bode plot for the system

10(s  3)
G( s) 
s(s  2)( s 2  s  2)

10( j  3)
Rewrite G( j )  . This can further be factored as
j ( j  2)( j   j  2)
2

j
 1) 7.5(
G ( j )  3
j (
j
 1)(
 j 2  j  1)
2 2 2

This is composed of

Gain =7.5

Bode Diagram
19

18.5
Magnitude (dB)

18

17.5

17

16.5
1

0.5
Phase (deg)

-0.5

-1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

1
Intergral factor
j
 Bode Diagram
40

20
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-60
-89

-89.5
Phase (deg)

-90

-90.5

-91
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

j
First order factor 1  , corner frequency = 3
3

Bode Diagram
60

50
Magnitude (dB)

40

30

20

10

0
90
Phase (deg)

45

0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
 1
First order factor , corner frequency = 2
j
1
2

Bode Diagram
0

-10
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60
0
Phase (deg)

-45

-90
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

1
Quadratic factors , corner frequency = 2
 j  2

j
1
2 2
 Bode Diagram
50

0
Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-150
0

-45
Phase (deg)

-90

-135

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Adding up the three yields

Bode Diagram
100

50
Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-150

-200
-90

-135
Phase (deg)

-180

-225

-270
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Note:

You can also draw a table with ranges of frequencies and calculate the magnitude and the phase to use
in plotting.
 0 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.5 10 100 5000 etc

G( j)

G ( j )

Fill in the table and use to plot the Bode plot

You need not have two plots, the same plot with two different y-scales for the log magnitude and angle.

Notice that the figure has two curves with the LHS scale is for the magnitude and the RHS scale for the
phase

Exercise:
Read how you can obtain the static error constants Kp , Kv and Ka from the Bode plots

8.2 POLAR PLOTS (NYQUIST PLOTS)

In polar plots, the magnitude G( j) is plotted against the phase angle G ( j ) on polar coordinates as
 is varied from zero to infinity. Positive phase angles are measured counter clockwise from the positive
real axis.
 90
1
120 60
0.8

0.6
150 30
0.4

0.2

180 0

210 330

240 300
270

These are called Nyquist plots / diagrams

1
(i) intergral factors G( j ) 
j

1 
G ( j )  , G ( j )  tan 1  90 o
 0

 0 1 2 5 100 

G( j)  1 0.5 0.2 0.01 0

G ( j )  90o  90o  90o  90o  90o  90o

This is generally a straight line

90
1
120 60
0.8

0.6
150 30
0.4

0.2

180 0

210 330

240 300
270
 1
(ii) First order factors G( j ) 
1  jT

1
G ( j )  ; G ( j )   tan 1 T , which is generally a semi circle
1  T 2 2

1
Consider G ( s )  ;
s 1

1 1
G( j )  and G ( j )  ; G ( j )   tan 1 
1  j  1
2

 0 1 2 5 10 100 

G( j) 1 0.707 0.45 0.19 0.1 0.01 0

G ( j ) 0o  45 o  63o  78 o  84o  89o  90o

-0.05

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2

-0.25

-0.3

-0.35

-0.4

-0.45

-0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

1
Quadratic factors 2
takes the general form
 j   j 
1  2     
 n   n 
 0

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08

-0.1

-0.12

-0.14

-0.16

-0.18
-0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Exercise

10( s  1)
(i) Plot the Bode diagram for the following system G( s) 
( s  2)( s  5)

s
(ii) Plot the Polar diagram for G( s) 
( s  1)

1
(iii) Plot the Nyquist diagram for G( s) 
s( s  1)

8.3 LOG MAGNITUDE VERSUS PHASE PLOTS

This is also called Nichols plot

It plots the logarithmic magnitude against the phase or phase margin

Phase margin is the difference between phase angle and -180o ie   180o

It has the advantage that relative stability of the closed loop can be determined quickly and that the
compensation can be worked out easily

Example

1
G( j ) 
1  j
  0 0.1 0.5 1 10 100 

20 log G( j) 1 -0.04 -0.96 -3 -20 -40 

G ( j ) 0o - 5.7 o - 26 o - 45 o  84o  89o  90o

Magnitude

Phase

8.4 STABILITY ANALYSIS

NYQUIST STABILITYCRITERION
Consider a closed loop system

C(s)
R(s)
G(s)

E(s)

H(s)

C ( s) G( s )

R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

For stability, the roots of 1  G ( s) H ( s) must lie on the Left Hand Side of the s-plane
Nyquist stability criterion determines the stability of a closed loop system from its open loop frequency
response and open loop poles.

Although the poles of the open loop TF G ( s ) H ( s ) may lie on the RHS of the s plane, the systemis stable
if the closed loop poles lie on the LHS of the s plane.

Therefore the Nyquist stability criterion relates the open loop frequency response G ( j ) H ( j ) to the
number of poles and zeros of 1  G ( s) H ( s) that lie on the RHS of the s plane

MAPPING THEOREM
A function F (s) maps a complex variable in the s-plane to produce another complex number. For
example, let F (s)  s 2  2s  1 be the mapping function. A complex variable s  4  3 j in the s-plane is
mapped onto F (s)  F (4  3 j )  (4  3 j ) 2  2  (4  3 j )  1  16  30 j

We extend this mapping to contour mapping where a collection of points that form a contour in the s-
(s  z1 )( s  z 2 )...(s  z n )
plane is mapped under some arbitrary mapping F (s)   1  G(s) H (s) in the
(s  p1 )( s  p 2 )...(s  p m )
F(s)-plane.

s  plane
F ( s )  plane
A


A' 

Such that point A maps onto point A' and so on A contour in the s-plane maps onto a contour in the
F(s) plane which may be stated as for a given continuous closed path in the s plane, there corresponds a
closed curve in the F(s) plane.

The direction of the contour (clockwise or anticlockwise)in the F(s)-plane depends on whether the
contour in s-plane encompasses the zeros and/or poles of F (s)

Applying the mapping theorem for the determination of the system stability, our interest will be to find
the closed path contour in the F(s)-plane for corresponding RHS of the s- plane.

We chose our contour as the clockwise path encompassing the entire RHS of the s-plane. This is called
the Nyquist path.
If there exists a pole or a zero on this path , we make a detour of infinitesimal radius 

j

 j

Detour _ of _ inf initesmal _ radius _ 

This path is chosen to enclose all the poles and zeros of F ( s )  1  G ( s ) H ( s ) that have positive real
paths

The condition for a physically realizable system is that the degree of the denominator polynomialmest
be higher than that of the numerator polynomial such that

lim 1  G(s) H (s)  cons tan t _ or _ zero

s 

(i) The semicircle of radius  maps onto a zero or a constant value

(ii) As  is varied from   to   in the clockwise direction, the contour in the F(s) plane may
circle the origin
 F ( s ) _ plane

Cons tan t

Since 1  G ( j ) H ( j ) if the vector sum of the unit vector 1 and the vector quantity G ( j ) H ( j ) , the
curve of 1  G ( j ) H ( j ) is identical to that of G ( j ) H ( j ) with the origin translated to - 1  j 0 for
the latter case.
1  F ( s ) _ plane F ( s ) _ plane
1  G ( j ) H ( j )
G ( j ) H ( j  )


Constant 1  j0

This forms the basis of the Nyquist stability criterion which states

For stability, as ω is varies from   to   , the locus of G ( j ) H ( j ) must encircle the point -1+j0 k
times in the counter clockwise direction, where k is the number of poles in the RHS of the s plane.

Example1
K
For the system G(s) H (s) 
(T1 s  1)(T2 s  1)
  1  j0


 The open loop transfer function has got no open loop pole in the RHS of the s plane

 The locus does not encircle point -1+j0

 The system thus is stable

Example 2
K
G( s) H ( s) 
s(T1 s  1)(T2 s  1)

 1  j0
  1  j0


 No pole lies in the RHS of the s plane

  For small values of K, the path doesn’t enclose point -1+j0, hence stable

 For large values of K, the path encloses the point -1+j0 in the clockwise direction, hence is non
stable

Example 3
Consider the system

K ( s  3)
G( s) H ( s) 
ss  1

Its Nyquist plot is

 For K=1, It has one open loop pole at s=1

 It encircles point -1+j0 once

 The system is stable.

What happens if K>1? (Exercise)

Exercise
2( s  3)
Determine the stability of the system G ( s) H ( s) 
ss  1

INVERSE POLAR PLOTS

1
The inverse polar plot of G ( j ) H ( j ) is the graph of . The Nyquist stability criterion
G( j ) H ( j )
applied to the inverse plot states that
For a closed loop system to be stable, the encirclements, if any, of the -1+j0 point by the locus of
1
must be counter clockwise and the number of such encirclementsmust equalto the
G( j ) H ( j )
1
number of poles of that lie on the RHS.
G( j ) H ( j )

Example
3( s  0.5)
G( s) 
s3  s2  1

1 s3  s2  1

G ( s ) 3( s  0.5)

And its inverse polar plot

 1  j0

8.5 RELATIVE STABILITY

Nyquist plots indicate both the absolute stabilityand the relative stability

The closeness of the locus of G ( j ) H ( j ) to the point -1+j0 is a measure of the margin of stability.

It is common to represent this closeness in terms of phase and gain margins

Gain Margin – This is the reciprocal of the magnitude G( j) H ( j) at the frequency at which the phase
angle is -180o

Phase crossover frequency – This is the frequency at which the phase angle of the open loop TF equals -
180o
 GH _ plane

1
1
Kg Kg 
G ( j )
In dB K g (dB)  20 log G ( j )

A positive gain margin means the system is stable. It indicates how much the gain can be increased (for a
stable system) to make the system unstable or how mush the gain must be decreased (unstable system)
to make the system stable.

Phase margin – This is the amount of the additional phase lag at the gain crossover frequency required
to bring the system to the verge of stability   180   , where  is the phase angle

Gain cross over frequency – Frequency at which the gain is unity

Phase and gain margins are also obtained from Bode plots and Log magnitude Vs Phase plots
 Unit _ circle

1



1
Kg

Phase _ m arg in  

Cut off frequency

Consider the plot

dB  0

 3dB

b 

Cut off frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of the closed loop frequency response is -3dB

Bandwidth

This is the frequency range 0    b where the magnitude of the frequency response does not go
below -3dB. A large bandwidth corresponds to a small rise time or fast response.
Cut off rate

This is the slope of the log magnitude curve near the cut off frequency. A closed loop frequency
response with a steep cut off characteristics has a large resonant peak magnitude.

8.6 CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF UNITY FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Consider
C ( s) G( s)
 ; since H ( s )  1
R( s ) 1  G ( s )

The polar plot

Im
GH _ Plane

 1  j0
0

P 
Re

 

A

OA
OA represents G( j) while PA represents 1  G( j) . The ratio represents the closed loop
PA
frequency response and the phase angle is the angle   

C ( j )
We can represent  Me j , where M is the magnitude and α the phase angle
R( j )

 M2  M
We can construct loci for constant M centered at   2 ,0  and radius
 M 1  M 2 1
 Cons tan t _ M _ circles

 1 1  1 1
Similarly, We can construct constant phase angle circles centered at   ,  radius 
 2 2N  4 (2 N ) 2

Cons tan t _ N _ circles

The use of constant M and constant N circles enable us to find the entire closed loop frequency
response from the open loop frequency response.

It is convenient to construct the M and N loci in the log magnitude versus phase plane. The resulting
chart is known as the Nichols chart.

Nichols chart gives both the gain characteristics and the phase characteristics at the same time.
One can determine the following from the chart easily

 Phase margin

 Gain margin

 Resonant peak magnitude

 Resonant frequency

 Bandwidth etc of the closed loop system from the plot of the open loop system

0.5dB

2dB

12dB

90
120  180  120  90
150  150

Nichols chart

CONROL SYSTEM DESIGN BY FREQUENCY RESPONSE

In frequency response approach, the specifications are in the form of

 Phase margin

 Gain margin

 Resonant peak magnitude

 Gain crossover frequency

 Resonant frequency
  Bandwidth

 Static error etc

These specifications have a correlation to the transient response performance

The approaches used in the design are polar plots and the Bode plots

Polar plots are more complicated because the shape of the plot changes. Bode plots provide a
convenient approach because the compensator plot is simply added onto the original diagram

LEAD COMPENSATION

1
s
A lead compensator takes the form Gc( s )  Kc T , 0   1
1
s
T

Whose Bode plot is

Bode Diagram
35

30
Magnitude (dB)

25

20

15
40

30
Phase (deg)

20

10

0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

1
The maximum phase angle  m occurs at    m where sin  m 
1

1
And  m 
T
Example

Consider the system

4
s ( s  2)

It is desired to design a lead compensator for the system such that the static velocity error constant is
20sec-1 with a phase margin of atleast 50o and the gain margin atleast 10dB.

Solution

Step 1

Determine the value of K that satisfies the static velocity error constant Kv

1
s
T 4
GGc( s)  Kc
1 s ( s  2)
s
T

Kv  lim GGc( s)  2Kc  20

s 0

Kc  10

Step 2

Plot the Bode plot with the adjusted gain so as to determine the phase and gain margin of the
uncompensated system

40
Now G( s) 
s( s  2)
 Bode Diagram
Magnitude (dB) 50

-50
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

17 o
-180
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

The phase margin is 17o

Step 3

Determine the amount of phase required to bring the phase margin to the required value

=50o-17o=33o

This phase lead must be contributed by the compensator

We usually add between 5o and 12o to account for the shift in the gain crossover frequency. Therefore
the required phase lead = 33o+5o=38o

Step 4

1
sin  m  ,  =0.24
1

Determine the frequency where the magnitude of the uncompensated system G ( j ) is equal to
1 1
 20 log . This becomes the new gain cross over frequency which corresponds to  m 
 T

1 1
  6.2dB
 0.24

Step 5
Determine the corner frequencies

from the Bode plots, it corresponds to   9rad / sec

1
This frequency corresponds to
T

1 1
c  ;   c   4.41
T T

1 
 c  18.4
T 

From Kc  10 , Kc  41.7

s  4.41 4
GGc(s)  41.7
s  18.4 s(s  2)

The final Bode plot for the compensated system is

Bode Diagram
30

20
Magnitude (dB)

10

-10

-20
0
Phase (deg)

-45

-90
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Note: Obtaining the phase and gain margins from

Bode diagram

dB

Gain _ m arg in

 90

 180

Phase _ m arg in
 270

Log magnitude Vs phase plot

dB

Gain _ m arg in
0
 180

Phase _ m arg in