W V S TUBMAN UNIVERSITY

TUBMAN TOWN, EAST HARPER, MARYLAND COUNTY

CENG401 (STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN I)

MODULE 1
1.0 Statics review

1.1What is static equilibrium?

The force of gravity Fg is constantly being applied to all objects on earth and is being
counterbalanced by a constant reaction force that is causing objects to remain in static
equilibrium.
Thus, static equilibrium is when a body that is initially at rest and remains at rest when acted
upon by a system of forces. For such state to exist it is necessary that the combined resultant
effect of the system of forces shall neither be a force nor a couple. That is, ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0
and ∑M = 0. ------ 1). Equation (1) is referred as equations of static equilibrium. For planar
structures acted upon by a concurrent system of loads, ∑Fx = 0; ∑Fy = 0.

1.2 Solving for Unknown Forces and/or Moments using Equilibrium

Knowing the equations of static equilibrium, it is a simple matter to check and see if a body is in
equilibrium or not by simply applying those equations and seeing if they are satisfied (i.e. the
forces and moments add up to zero in each direction).
Example 1
For example, Figure 1.3 shows a rigid body with only one known force (30 kN vertical), two
unknown forces (F1 and F2), and one unknown moment (Mz1), giving three total unknown

Figure 1.3: 2D Equilibrium Example

If we can assume that the object is in equilibrium, then we can solve for the unknown forces
and moment using our three equilibrium equations for 2D systems from equation. This is
equivalent to finding the forces and moment that would be necessary for the body to be in
equilibrium.
 First, vertical equilibrium:

∑ Fy=0;

30−F1sin30° = 0;

F1 = 30/sin30°;

F1 = 60kN↓

where up is considered to be the positive direction. Since the result is positive, the direction of
the arrow for F1 in Figure 1.3 was correct (down and to the left). If this value came out negative,
then we would know that the arrow should actually be drawn in the opposite direction (up and to
the right). Then, horizontal equilibrium:
∑Fx= 0;

F2−F1cos30°=0;

F2 = (60kN)cos30°;

F2 = 52kN→

where right is considered to be the positive direction. Again, since the result is positive, then it
was correct to draw F2 pointing towards the right.
Last, the moment equilibrium: ∑Mz=0;
Mz1−F1(0.5m)+F2(3.0m)+30kN(1.0m)=0; Mz1−60kN(0.5m)+52kN(3.0m)+30kN(1.0m)=0;

Mz1=−156kN

where counter clock-wise (CCW ↶) rotations are considered to be positive. Since the resulting
value for Mz1 is negative, this means that the moment arrow was assumed to be in the wrong
direction in Figure 1.3 and the moment Mz1 required for equilibrium must be in the clock-wise
(CW ↷) direction.

1.1 Boundary Conditions

A boundary condition is a place on a structure where either the external force or displacement is
known at the start of the analysis. The boundary conditions are the places where the structure
interacts with the environment through the application of some restraint that is opposing
displacement. For example, a displacement boundary condition that is zero is equivalent to a
structure being held in place at that location.
1.2 Compatibility
Compatibility refers to the shape of the structure. This includes deformations, location of
reaction points and the way that a structure is allowed to bend and deform. For example, we may
know that a structure may not move at certain locations in certain directions(called reactions).
Alternatively, when we apply a specific amount of displacement to a structure at a certain
location, we will be affecting the compatibility at that location.

1.3 Degrees of Freedom

A degree of freedom(DOF) is a single direction that a point on a structure can move freely. In
2D, each point on a structure has three different DOFs: one horizontal, one vertical and one
rotational. For example, the point can move(translate) in the x-direction, y-direction, or rotate
about the out of plane z-axis.
When doing structural analysis, we often conceptualize a real structure as a simplified stick
model with elements connected to each other at specific location called nodes.

1.4 Restraints and Supports

Restraints and supports are displacement boundary condition that restrain the movement of the
structure in one or more degrees of freedom at a point. Hence, the displacement of a structure in
the restained degree of freedom is zero.
The force that is necessary to hold the degree of freedom in a restrained position is called the
reaction force or reaction.

1.5 Types of Supports in 2D

1) Beam supported on a wall: figure (a) actual construction, and (b) representation as a roller
support.

2) Beam-to-column connection: (c) actual construction, and (d) representation as a pin

support.

3) Pole anchored to a concrete pier: (e) actual construction, and (f) representation as a fixed
support.
 1. Roller can only restrain the structure in one DOF. The roller allows translation parallel to
the roller support plane and also allows rotation at that point. Since there is one restrained
DOF, there is also one reaction force.
2. A pin restrains the structure in two DOFs, both of which are translational but allows
rotation around the support point. Since there are two restrained DOFs, there are two
associated reaction components, one in each translational direction.
3. The fixed end restrains the structure in all DOFs, translational and rotational. Since there
are three restrained DOFs, there are three reaction components: two forces and a moment
reaction.
1.6 External and Internal Forces, Directions, and Notation

External Forces are those which are applied to the boundary of a structure. This includes
externally applied forces as well as the forces that are applied by the supports to restrain the
structure (as shown in Figure 1.7).
Internal forces are those that are exerted on a portion of a structure by the rest of the structure.
You would only see these forces if you were to make a cut in the structure and separate it into
two free body diagrams. These are the forces that are represented by member shear and moment
diagrams.
 Fig1.7: External and internal forces in a structure
1.7 Force and Moment Notation
For forces at a point, unknown external forces will be shown as Ay where A is the point at which
the force acts and y is the direction (typically x-direction horizontal, y-direction vertical) as
shown for the forces in Figure 1.7.
For moments, the situation is the similar, except that in the notation MA, M just means
moment and A is the point at which that moment acts.
1.8 Sign Conventions
There are two different types of sign conventions that we will be concerned with in structural
analysis.

1.9 External Forces (or those applied to an FBD)

The first sign convention is for external forces. The sign convention for external forces is shown
in Figure 1.8. In these notes, forces towards the right (→) will be considered positive and so will
forces that point up (↑). Accordingly, forces that point to the left (←) or down (↓) will be
considered negative. For the moments, counter clock-wise (CCW ↶) rotations will be considered
positive and clock-wise rotations (CW ↷) will be considered negative.

Figure 1.8: Sign Convention for External Forces

1.10 Internal Forces

The sign conventions for internal forces that will be used in these notes are shown
in Figure 1.9. For positive axial force, the arrow will always point away from the member.
Positive shear is created by a pair of vertical forces which cause a member to shear such that the
left side of the member is pushed up and the right side of the member is pushed down. For
moment, the easiest way to think about it is that for positive moment, the compression side of the
member is on top (recall that when a structural member bends, one side is put into tension and
the other side is put into compression).
 Figure 1.9: Sign Convention for Internal Forces
2.0 STABILITY AND DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES

2.1 Introduction

Before beginning to analyse a structure, it is important to know what kind of

structure it is. Different types of structures may need to be analysed using different
methods. For example, structures that are determinate may be completely analysed
using only static equilibrium, whereas indeterminate structures require the use of
both static equilibrium and compatibility relationships to find the internal forces. In
addition, real structures must be stable. This means that the structure can recover
static equilibrium after a disturbance. An unstable structure generally cannot be
analysed. Therefore, it is useful to know if a structure is stable or unstable before a
structural analysis is conducted.

This section will explain the concepts of determinacy, indeterminacy and

stability and show how to identify determinate, indeterminate and stable structures.

2.2 Important Concepts

Stable/Unstable
A stable structure is one that will not collapse when disturbed. Stability is the
capability for a structure to recover equilibrium. For linear structural analysis, the
main concern is instability caused by insufficient reaction points or poor layout of
structural members.
Internally Stable
An internally stable structure is one that would maintain its shape if all the
reactions supports were removed. A structure that is internally unstable may still be
stable if it has sufficient external support reactions. An example is shown
in Figure 2.1.
2.3 External determinacy
If a structure is externally determinate, then all of the reactions may be calculated
using equilibrium alone. To calculate external determinacy, the following
equations are used:
Statically unstable externally: r<3+ec;
Statically determinate externally: r=3+ec;
Statically indeterminate externally: r>3+ec
where r is the number of reaction components, and ec is the number of equations of
condition.
The degree of indeterminacy is given by the following equation:

ie=r−(3+ec)
2.4 Internal determinacy

If a structure is internally determinate, then all of the reactions and internal forces
may be calculated using equilibrium alone. To calculate internal determinacy, the
following equations are used:
1) Statically unstable internally: 3m+r<3j+ec;
2) Statically determinate internally: 3m+r=3j+ec;
3) Statically indeterminate internally: 3m+r>3j+ec
where m is the total number of members in the structure, r is the number of
reaction components, j is the total number of joints in the structure, and ec is the
number of equations of condition.
The degree of indeterminacy is given by the following equation:

Ie =3m+r−(3j+ec)
Internal determinacy is generally much more important in structural analysis.

Equations of Condition
The equations of condition are release conditions within the structure that provide
extra equilibrium equations beyond the three equations of static equilibrium.For
example, if an internal hinge is added to the structure, as shown in Figure 2.2, then
there is one equation of condition. If there was no internal hinge in this example,
then the structure would be indeterminate and it would not be possible to find the
reaction forces or the internal forces (since it has four reaction components). The
addition of the hinge provides an additional equilibrium condition which forces the
internal moment to be equal to 0 at point B (∑MB=0). This may be seen if the
structure is split into two free body diagrams as shown in the lower part
of Figure 2.2. At point B, there are three internal force components that exist in
equal and opposite action/reaction pairs on either side of point B:
1. Axial Force:
2. Shear Force:
3. Moment:
So, MBAB = MBBC = 0, because they are action reaction pairs.

Figure 2.2: Structure with an Internal Hinge

Therefore, only one extra equilibrium equation is possible due to the
introduction of the hinge: either ∑MBAB=0 or ∑MBBC = 0 but not both because the
two equations are not independent. So, for each internal hinge in a structure, there
is a single equation of condition: ec=1.
For a structure with an internal roller both the force transfer in the direction of
the roller and the moment are equal to zero at the location of the roller. This
provides two extra equilibrium equations, and therefore two equations of
condition, ec =2.
Members and Joints
For the purposes of the determinacy analysis, joints should be placed at least at
the following locations:

• Free ends
• Reactions
• Intersections of three or more elements
For an example of how to calculate the numbers of members and joints,
see Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Determination of the Number of Members and Joints

2.5 Determinacy for Trusses

Trusses are structures where all of the members are connected together at pinned
joints. Since each member in a truss has a pin at the end, the members cannot take
any moment or shear. The stability and determinacy of such a structure is a special
case of the general internal determinacy equations.
Statically unstable internally: m+r<2j;
Statically determinate internally: m+r=2j;
Statically indeterminate internally: m+r>2j
The degree of indeterminacy for trusses is given by the following equation:

ie=m+r−2j
2.6 Instability

There are four main ways that a structure may be geometrically unstable.
These apply only to linear geometric stability for example, instability caused
by insufficient reaction points or poor layout of structural members.

1. There are not enough reactions: This will generally be clear from an
application of the determinacy equation.
Statically unstable internally: 3m+r<3j+ec;
2. The reactions are parallel: All of the reaction components point in the same
direction. An example of such a situation is shown in Figure 2.5. In this
 example, the horizontal equilibrium ∑Fx=0 cannot be solved and there will be a
net horizontal force on the system with no resistance.

Figure 2.5: Instability due to Parallel Reactions

3. The reactions are concurrent: All of the reaction components meet at a point.
An example of such a situation is shown in Figure 2.4. Effectively, the system
is free to rotate as a rigid body around the point that the reaction components
meet at.

Figure 2.4: Instability due to Concurrent Reactions

4. There is an internal collapse mechanism: This is any situation in which there is
an internal mechanism in the system that will cause it to deform between the
supports. An example of internal collapse mechanism is shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Instability due to an Internal Collapse Mechanism

Examples
Determine whether the structures shown in Figure 2.8 are internally determinate,
internally indeterminate or unstable. If a structure is indeterminate, determine how
many degrees of indeterminacy it has.
 Figure 2.8: Determinacy Example

a. Internal Determinacy:
ie=(3m+r)−(3j+ec); m=2,r=4,j=3,ec=1
3m+r=10, 3j+ec=10, and ie=0
This structure is unstable because if we take a free-body diagram of the left side
of the beam, and take a sum of moments about the center hinge, the sum of
moments will be non-zero due to the vertical reaction at the left pin (but we
know that it has to be zero due to the existence of the pin).

b. Internal Determinacy:
m=2, r=3, j=3, ec=0

Therefore,
3m+r=9 and 3j+ec=9
so the structure appears internally determinate, but it is still unstable due to
the concurrent reactions.

c. Internal Determinacy:
m=6,r=3,j=6,ec=0

Therefore,
3m+r=21 and 3j+ec=18
so this structure is internally statically indeterminate to three degrees (or "3⁰ S.I.").

d. Internal Determinacy:
m=5,r=5,j=6,ec=2
 Therefore,
3m+r=20 and 3j+ec=20

so this structure is internally statically determinate (or "S.D.").

2.7 TYPES OF SUPPORT AND COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS

Procedures determining reactions of plane statically determinate structures subjected to coplanar loads
1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure.
2. Check for static determinancy. Determine whether or not the given structure is statically determinate
externally. If the structure is either statically or geometrically unstable or indeterminate externally, end
the analysis at this stage.
3. Determine the unknown reactions by applying the equations of equilibrium and condition (if any) to
the entire structure. To avoid solving simultaneous equations, write the equilibrium and condition
equations so that each equation involves only one unknown.
4. Check the correctness of computations by applying an alternative equilibrium equation that has not
been used before to the entire structure.

- END OF MODULE 1 -