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Networks Test 1 Notes
Networks Test 1 Notes
Q1)
The IP (Internet Protocol) is considered unreliable primarily because of the following reasons:
A packet may be lost: In an IP network, packets are sent from a source to a destination, but there
is no guarantee that every packet will reach its destination. Packets can be lost due to network
congestion, hardware failures, or other factors. IP does not provide mechanisms for ensuring
that all packets are delivered reliably.
Packets may arrive out of order: IP does not guarantee that packets will arrive at the destination
in the same order in which they were sent. This can happen because different packets may take
different routes through the network, and they may arrive at the destination out of sequence.
Applications that require data to be received in a specific order must implement their own
mechanisms for reordering packets.
Duplicate packets may be generated: In IP networks, it's possible for duplicate packets to be
generated and delivered to the destination. This can occur due to network errors or the
retransmission of packets by routers or other network devices. IP does not have built-in
mechanisms to prevent or detect duplicate packets.
Q2)
The Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is commonly known as a "segment." This layer, often referred to as the
Transport Layer, is responsible for end-to-end communication and ensuring reliable data transfer
between two devices or hosts in a network.
Modulation index: µ
LSB = fc – fm = µAc / 4
USB = fc + fm = µAc / 4
fc = Ac / 2
1000 = 1 KHz
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
1. Representation of bits
Encoding techniques
2. Transmission Rate
3. Transmission Mode Data rate:
4. Physical topology
Is the number of bits sent in one second(expressed as bps).
PSK Technique
FSK Technique Channel Capacity:
1 bit(positive voltage) is
BFSK is less susceptible to error
The maximum compared
rate at which to
data can be transmitted over a given
represented by a phase starting
ASK. channel.
at 0 °.
High frequency in the carrier wave when the
0 bit(negative voltage) is
binary 1 is transmitted, and low frequency in the
represented by a phase starting
carrier wave when the binary is 0.
at 180 °.
ASK Technique
Data link:
Data flow and error control.
Nabil El Maaroufi-Notes
Check understanding:
Simplicity: TCP/IP is a simpler model with fewer layers (typically five: physical, data Ldb = 10 log10(SPinput /SPoutput)
link, network, transport, and application layers) compared to OSI, which has seven
layers. This simplicity makes it easier to implement and manage in real-world
networks.
Protocols: Many well-known and widely used networking protocols, such as HTTP,
FTP, and DNS, are built on top of the TCP/IP stack.
Compatibility: TCP/IP is the foundation of the internet, and virtually all modern
devices and operating systems support it. This widespread compatibility makes it the
obvious choice for global communication.