24 NOVEMBER 2023

T.C.
BILECIK ŞEYH EDEBALI UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Course Name: İM5006 Railway Engineering

MEDTARM EXAM
Name: Ala Alden YUONES
Student Number: 99553426306
Asst. Prof. Dr. Member Hasan BOZKURT
 1. Evaluate the load transfer characteristics of the railway superstructure and
their comparison according to railway superstructure types.
Superstructure

The superstructure is the part above subgrade that you can see it with your eyes. Its
components include rails, sleepers, fasteners, and ballast. Typical classification for the
superstructure is ballasted track and ballastless track, or jointed track (tracks with gaps) and
welded track (seamless track).

Ballasted track
A ballasted track refers to a track with ballast (usually made of crushed stones) under the track.
It is one of the main forms of track structure. It has the advantages of good flexibility, low price,
convenient replacement and maintenance, and good noise absorption. However, compared
with the ballastless track, it also has the disadvantages that the line plane geometry is not easy
to maintain, most of them are short, and the maintenance workload is large.

The bottom of the track is ballast, which provides flexibility and drainage for the track. Railway
sleepers are embedded in ballast and are generally laid laterally. They are made of wood,
reinforced concrete or steel. The original rails were cast-iron rails and then developed into I-
shaped steel rails. They are laid on sleepers and fixed with other track material.

Ballastless track
A ballastless track is a track structure that uses concrete, asphalt mixture and other integral
foundations to replace the loose gravel tracked. The sleepers of the ballastless track are made
of concrete, and the roadbed does not need gravel. The steel rails and sleepers are directly
laid on the concrete road.
Ballastless track is an advanced track technology in the world today. The advantages of
ballastless track over the ballasted track are in several aspects.

Advantages of ballastless track

• Low maintenance costs.
• Slow track deformation and good durability bring long service life, good line condition.
• There will be no stone ballast splashing when driving at high speed.
• It is more comfortable and the train speed can reach more than 500 kilometers per
hour.
• increase in the capacity
• unrestricted use of the eddy current brake
Disadvantages of ballastless track
• high investment costs
• bad air noise properties
• risk of changes in the position of the track due to possible difficult correction process
• high weight
• high repair costs if there is derailment damage
 2. The average slope of a constant slope section of the pass with a length of l
= 12 km is given as 3 per thousand. In the section, there are two bends with
radii of 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐦, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 m and lengths of 𝒍𝒓𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝒍𝒓𝟐 =
𝟕𝟎𝟎𝒎, two tunnels with lengths of 𝒍𝒕𝟏 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒎, 𝒍𝒕𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎 and a
station with a length of 𝒍𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎 and a longitudinal slope of 1 in a
thousand. There is no conflict between these. Calculate the application
slope of this section. For which speed value in the tunnel is the brake slope
the slope? Which (wr: 750/r wt=3 kg/t )

To calculate the average slope of the entire section, we need to consider the
contributions from each individual segment and then find the total slope.
• Constant Slope Section:

The contribution to the total slope from this section (S1) is given by:
Change in elevation 3𝑚
𝑆1 = = × 12,000 𝑚 = 36𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 1000𝑚
• Bends:

Change in elevation 𝑅1 𝑙𝑟
𝑆2 = = × (1 − √1 − 𝑅 1 )= 14.17
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 2 1

𝑅2 𝑙𝑟
𝑆3 = × (1 − √1 − 𝑅 2 )= 20.22
2 2

• Tunnels:

The contribution to the total slope from each tunnel (S4 and S5) can be calculated
using the formula:
Change in elevation
𝑆4 = 𝑆5 = = 0.002
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

• Station:
Change in elevation 1𝑚
𝑆6 = = × 1,000 𝑚 = 1𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 1000𝑚
S total=S1+S2+S3+S4+S5+S6 = 71.40m
This gives you the total slope for the entire section.
 3. Explain the survey work and features of railway lines. Compare the
capacity characteristics of the urban railway lines planned to be built in
our country.

The following types of surveys are normally conducted:

• Traffic survey
• Reconnaissance survey
• Preliminary survey
• Final location survey

• Traffic Survey
Traffic survey includes a detailed study of the traffic conditions in the area with a
view to determine the
a. most promising route for the railway in the area,
b. possible traffic the railway line will carry, and
c. standard of railway line to be followed.
Traffic surveys are normally undertaken in conjunction with reconnaissance or
preliminary engineering surveys so that the technical feasibility and relative costs of
alternative proposals can be formulated. The traffic survey team should work in close
cooperation with the engineering survey team. The survey team should visit all trade
centers in the area and consult local bodies, state governments, and prominent citizens
regarding trade and industry and propose the most suitable alignment for the new line

• Reconnaissance Survey

This survey consists of a rapid and rough investigation of the area with a view to
determine the technical feasibility of the proposal as well as the rough cost of one or
more alternatives to the new line. The reconnaissance survey (RECCE) is normally
based on contoured survey maps and other data already available without carrying out
detailed investigations in the field. With the help of the maps, different alternative
alignments of the new line are studied.
The general topography of the country is studied by the survey team and then field
data are collected.
a. Survey Instruments
The reconnaissance survey is mostly conducted using survey instruments that rapidly
measure approximate distances and heights. The survey instruments used are the
following:
Prismatic compass: To get magnetic bearings of the proposed alignment.
Aneroid barometer: To ensure relative heights of various points.
Abney level or hand level or clinometer: To measure the gradients or angles of slopes.
Binocular: To view the physical features.
Pedometer: To get an idea of the total length traversed while walking.
b. Modern Surveying Instruments and Techniques
Modern surveying instruments make extensive use of infrared beams, laser beams, as
well as computers. Using these instruments, it is possible to carry out fairly accurate
surveying efficiently at all times, eliminating human error.
c. Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments
EDM instruments rapidly and automatically measure both horizontal and vertical
distances. The readings can be displayed on built–in computer screens. Examples of
such instruments are the geodimeter and the tellurometer, which have been used in the
past for electronic distance measurement of up to 80 km during day or night.
Modern EDM instruments are much more advance and versatile.
d. Use of Computers
The results of the field survey are recorded in the form of angles and distances in the
normal field book or electronic notebook. Using computers, it is possible to do all
calculations as well as plot accurately. Thus, output from the EDM can be fed into the
computer, which in turn can plot plans and sections.
e. Use of Laser in Surveying
Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Its
property of low diversion is used for alignment purposes. The invisible line of sight in
ordinary survey instruments is replaced by the bright red beam of the Laser. This beam
is intercepted by the target composed of light-sensitive cells connected to the display
panel. Its most important aspect is that the beam is in a perfect straight line. Distances
up to 70 km can be measured using laser. For short distances infrared beams are used.
f. Field Data
The following field data are collected during the reconnaissance survey.
(a) General topography of the country
(b) Approximate heights of the different points falling on the alignment
(c) Positions of rivers, streams, and some hydrological details of the same
(d) Positions of roads and highways
(e) Nature of soil at different places
(f) Rough location of various station sites
(g) Controlling points on the alignment, through which the railway line must pass
(h) Facilities for construction
g. Project Report for Reconnaissance Survey
Based on the above data, a report should be prepared by the engineer in charge of the
project bringing out clearly from the financial point of view whether or not the
prospects of the line surveyed are such as to make it worthwhile to undertake further
investigations to construct the line. The project report should be accompanied by an
abstract estimate of the cost of the line.
The report and estimate should be accompanied by a map of the area on a scale of 20
km to 1 cm and an index map of 2.5 km to 1 cm

• Preliminary Survey
The preliminary survey consists of a detailed instrumental examination of the route
to be selected as a result of the reconnaissance survey in order to estimate the cost
of the proposed railway line. Based on the preliminary and traffic survey reports,
the railway administration decides whether or not the proposed railway line is to
be constructed.
(a) Instruments for Preliminary Survey
The instruments to be used for a preliminary survey will depend on the topography
of the country and its flora. The survey instruments normally used are the following.
(a) Theodolite for traversing and pegging the centre line
(b) Tacheometer for plotting the main features
(c) Dumpy level for taking the longitudinal and cross levels
(d) Plane table for getting details of various features
(e) Prismatic compass for measuring the magnetic bearings of a particular
alignment
(b) Field Survey
The route selected is surveyed in greater detail in the preliminary survey. The survey
normally covers a width of 200 m on either side of the proposed alignment. The
following survey work is carried out.
(a) An open traverse is run along the center line of the proposed alignment with
the help of a theodolite, tacheometer, or a compass.
(b) Longitudinal and cross levelling on the proposed route for a width of 200 m
on either side in order to make an accurate contour map.
(c) Plane tabling of the entire area to obtain various geographical details.

• Final Location Survey

Once a decision has been taken for a particular railway line to be constructed, a final
location survey is done. The instruments used are generally the same as in the case of
the preliminary survey. Final location survey is done to prepare working details and
make accurate cost estimates in certain cases. The principal differences between the
preliminary survey and the final survey are as follows.
(a) In the final location survey, the alignment is fully staked with the help of a
theodolite, whereas it is not obligatory to do so in the case of preliminary survey.
(b) In the final location survey, a more detailed project report is prepared and submitted.
(c) All working drawings are prepared in the final location survey.

The following tasks are carried out in the final location survey.
(a) The center line is fully marked by pegs at 20 m. At each 100 m, a large peg should
be used.
(b) Masonry pillars are built at tangent points of curves and along the center line at
intervals of 500 m.
(c) Longitudinal and cross levelling is done to ascertain the final gradient of the
alignment. All gradients are compensated for curves.
(d) The sites for station yards are fully demarcated.

In the final location survey, the following set of drawings is prepared.

(a) General map of the country traversed by the project at a scale of about 20 km to 1
cm
(b) Index map, scale about 2.5 km to 1 cm
(c) Index plan and sections
(d) Detailed plans and sections
(e) Plans and cross section
(f) Plans of station yards
(g) Detailed drawings of structures
(h) Plans of junction arrangements

The capacity characteristics of the urban railway lines planned

Metro/Underground Systems:
High train frequency and short headways.
Typically, high capacity due to rapid transit nature.
Short stops and fast acceleration contribute to overall efficiency.
Light Rail Transit (LRT):
Moderate capacity, often designed for medium-density urban areas.
Generally, has shorter trains and more frequent stops than metro systems.
Monorail/Elevated Systems:
Elevated systems can have higher capacity due to fewer land use constraints.
Capacity influenced by train size, frequency, and station design.
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT):
Capacity depends on the size and frequency of buses and dedicated lanes.
Flexible system with varying capacities based on design choices.
Commuter Rail:
Larger train size and longer distances between stops.
Capacity influenced by track and signaling systems, station design, and frequency.
Integrated Transport Hubs:
Connecting different modes (rail, bus, etc.) enhances overall capacity and transport
efficiency.

4. What are the deteriorations in railway tracks? Briefly explain rail joining
methods.
Deteriorations in Railway Tracks:
Wear and Tear: Continuous train movement leads to friction and wear on the railhead.
This is a natural deterioration process.
Over time, wear can result in a reduction of rail profile and compromise the overall
structural integrity of the track.
Fatigue Cracks: Repeated loading and unloading cycles, especially in areas of high-
stress concentration, can lead to the development of fatigue cracks.
Fatigue cracks, if not detected and addressed, can propagate and eventually result in
rail failure.

Corrosion: Exposure to environmental factors, such as moisture and chemicals, can

cause corrosion of the rails.
Corrosion weakens the rail material, leading to reduced load-bearing capacity and
increased susceptibility to fractures.

Alignment and Surface Irregularities: Changes in track alignment, including

deviations and misalignments, can occur due to factors like settlement or inadequate
maintenance.
Irregularities can affect ride quality, increase wear on components, and pose safety
risks.

Track Deformation: Excessive loads or poor track support can lead to track
deformation, including buckling and warping.
Impact: Track deformations can result in track geometry irregularities, affecting train
stability and safety.

Ballast Degradation: The ballast supporting the track can degrade over time due to
weathering, fouling, and displacement.
Inadequate ballast conditions can lead to poor track stability, increased vibrations, and
reduced load distribution.

Rail Joining Methods:

Thermite Welding: Involves using a chemical reaction to create a molten metal
joint between two rail ends. This method is often used for field repairs.
Advantages: Produces a strong and durable joint, with minimal heat-affected
zones.
Flash Butt Welding: Involves heating the rail ends to a plastic state and then
applying pressure to forge the ends together. This method is commonly used in rail
manufacturing and maintenance facilities.
Advantages: Results in a high-strength joint with good structural integrity.
Bolted Fishplate Joints: Involves connecting rail ends with fishplates (metal
plates) and bolts. This method is widely used for jointed tracks.
Advantages: Provides flexibility in terms of installation and maintenance.
Continuous Welded Rail (CWR): Involves welding together long sections of rail
to create a continuous rail without joints. Commonly used in high-speed and heavy-
traffic lines.
Advantages: Reduces maintenance needs, minimizes noise, and improves track
stability.
Compromise Joints: Involves creating a joint with certain modifications to
mitigate the impact of temperature-related expansion and contraction.
Advantages: Helps prevent buckling and distortion during temperature variations.
The choice of rail joining method depends on various factors, including the type of
rail line, traffic volume, maintenance considerations, and the desired longevity of
the rail joint. Each method has its advantages and limitations, and proper joint
maintenance is essential to ensure the safe and reliable operation of railway tracks.

5. Briefly evaluate the homework topic you have prepared within the scope of
the railway engineering course in terms of its importance on the railway
and the sources you used, in terms of the latest developments in railway
engineering.
I did not complete the homework because I received it late, but I had studied and
made a brief overview of some important titles in railways.
Railway Infrastructure
Railway Infrastructure as a System
Railway Infrastructure Components.
Railway Track Forces and Support System.
Maintenance of the Railway Infrastructure
Scientific Disciplines in Railway Infrastructure.
Track Systems
- Types of Track System
- Track System Cross Section
- Rails
- Fasteners
- Sleepers
Switches and Crossings
- Switch Components
- Switches Types
- Switches Construction
- Issues on Switches and Crossings.
Railway Stations
- Station Main Components and Passengers Flow
- Stations Modelling
- Station Interfaces.
Railway Alignment Design
- Railway Alignment Design Consideration
- Curves
- Main Design Elements
- Grades and Clearance Modelling and Software
Tunnels and Bridges
- Site Investigation
- Tunnel Construction Techniques
- Ground Movements and Monitoring.
- Railway Bridges