Unit 1-6

Department of Distance and Continuing Education
University of Delhi
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B.A. (Hons.) Political Science

Semester-I
Course Credits-4
Discipline Specific Core Course (DSC-2)
IDEAS AND INSTITUTIONS IN
INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
As per the UGCF - 2022 and National Education Policy 2020
Ideas and Institutions in Indian Political Thought
Editorial Board
Dr. Mangal Deo
Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout
Content Writers
Dr. Mangal Deo, Dr. Harsh Meena,
Virender Kumar, Vishal Kumar Gupta
Academic Coordinator
Deekshant Awasthi
© Department of Distance and Continuing Education

ISBN: 978-93-95774-79-6
Ist edition: 2022
E-mail: ddceprinting@col.du.ac.in
politicalscience@col.du.ac.in
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Printed by:
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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

This Study Material is duly recommended in the meeting of Standing Committee

held on 17/11/2022 and approved in Academic Council meeting held on 22/11/2022
Vide item no. 1012 and subsequently Executive Council Meeting held on
08/12/2022 vide item no. 38 {38-1(38-1-13)}
• The study material framed and written according to the new syllabus UGCF 2022.
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Table of Contents
Sl. No. Title Writer Pg. No.
Unit-1 Statecraft in Ancient India Dr. Mangal Deo 01

Dr. Harsh Meena
Unit-2 Dharma, Dhamma, Danda Dr. Mangal Deo 13
Unit-3 Nyaya, Niti Virender Kumar 24

Vishal Kumar Gupta
Unit-4 Sabha and Samiti Dr. Mangal Deo 38
Unit-5 Rajya and Rashtra Dr. Mangal Deo 47
Unit-6 Varna, Jati Dr. Mangal Deo 62
About Contributors
Contributor’s Name Designation
Dr. Mangal Deo Assistant Professor, PGDAV College, DU

Dr. Harsh Meena Assistant Professor, Pondicherry Central University
Vishal Kumar Gupta Research Scholar, Department of Adult, Continuing Education &
Extension, DU

Unit-1
STATECRAFT IN ANCIENT INDIA

Dr. Mangal Deo
Dr. Harsh Meena
STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Nature and Historical Development of Political Institutions in Ancient India
1.4 Theories of Origin of Kingship and Statecraft
1.5 The State in Ancient India: Kautilya in Particular
1.6 The State in Ashoka’s Dhamma
1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Self-Assessment Question
1.9 References
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• After reading this chapter we can understand, what is statecraft in Ancient India
• Evaluation and Nature of Statecraft in Ancient India
• Difference between Ancient Indian and Modern Indian statecraft
1.2 INTRODUCTION
To begin the discussion on Statecraft in Ancient India first we need to understand and discuss
What is Indian Political Thought? (Singh & Mohapatra, 2010) there are very less efforts
being made to re-contextualise theoretical ideas of western political theory into Indian
realities and experiences. Bhikhu Parekh (2010) in his article The poverty of Indian Political
Theory, had suggested that the western political theory is ethnocentric and has very limited
applicability outside the western world. He insisted further that ‘No contemporary non-
western society has produced much original political theory’ (Parekh, 2010). According to
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him to understand what is Indian Political Thought, one need to understand the following;
Firstly Indian Political Theory means as the work of Indian writer and philosophers
irrespective of the fact that weather they have lived in India or not. Secondly, it should be
more concerned with theory rather than the theorist and Thirdly, a political theory should be
culturally neutral.
While defining political theory Bhikhu Parekh suggested that a political theory
provide a coherent and systematic understanding of the political life in three dimensions,
namely conceptual, explanatory and normative dimensions. The conceptual dimension of
political theory means that it defines and analyses different concepts by providing a
conceptual frame work of them. It defines the different constitute of political life, how these
different constitutes conducted each other and how they are related with each other, all these
comes under the explanatory dimension. In normative dimension either it criticize or justifies
that way political life was constituted.
The above understanding signifies two things, Firstly there are conceptual differences
between the western political theory and non-western political theory, which also means that
the western political theory is not universally applicable. Secondly Political theory is very
crucial to understand the different dimensions of Political life.
This chapter will attempt to understand the Statecraft in Ancient India from non-
western perspective, the chapter will be divided into two parts:
1. Nature Historical development of Political Institutions in Ancient India
2. Theories of origin of Kingship
We shall discuss these points in some detail.
1.3 NATURE AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL

INSTITUTIONS IN ANCIENT INDIA
In order to get adequate information about the Statecraft in Ancient India, we need to study
the Historical development of the political institutions in Ancient India. It is really difficult to
trace the actual beginning of development of political institutions in Ancient India but with
some historical enquires we can trace some aspect of beginning of statecraft and political
Institutions in Ancient India. On the basis of Archaeological researches and the historical
remains found, one can say that about 4000 B.C the origin of Indian culture can be found.
This age was called as Samhitā age.
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The remains found from the Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro sites suggested that this
was fairly flourished and developed urban civilisation. The people of these cities have
commercial and cultural relations with then contemporary civilisations such as Egypt, Sumer
and Greece. The reasons for extinction of this civilisation in 2000 B.C is still unknown.
Similarly historian and Anthropologist also has diverse opinion on the origin of the
Aryan Civilisation. But we have more or less sufficient historical references to understand the
nature and structure of Ancient Indian Political Institutions. It is established by the references
that the character of Indo-Aryans institution was primarily Kingship.
The king use to rule over one or several Rasthras. It is important to note that the Vedic
Rashtra cannot be defined in purely political terms or they are not like that modern legal-
democratic- welfare states, rather the principle bind them was the Dharma. The word Raja is
ancient Sanskrit word, which is derived from the word Raj which means rule. Hence Raja
means the one who makes people delighted and satisfied.
Rashtra’s means territorial Unit or State, Its structure include the clan, the tribe and
the families. The kingship erose in Vedic times with the development and integration of
families, tribes, clans and villages into the Rashtra.
The Vedic kingship was marked parallel to Vedic Gods such as Varuna and Indra. But
there were still limitations to the kings rule, two such fundamental limitations are as follows:
1. In the beginning the kingship was not hereditary but its elective, but the detailed
process of election of king and who are those people who used to take part in kings
election is unknown. However in the later Vedic period as quoted by historian become
hereditary. Hymns in Rigveda and Atharvaveda mentions about the election of the
king:
“Gladly you come among us, remain firmly without
faltering; all the people want you; you may not fall off the state”.
Vedic literature talked about strong kingdoms and compare kingship like lord Indra,
and asked the king to hold the state strong like him. The firmness of king compared
as earth, universe and mountains and expected that the king should be equally firm
and conquer his/state. It will not be appropriate if the Rasthra compared with modern
state because modern state is very recent creation, it inception can be traced around
16th Century Europe and it had developed parallel legal and political institutions
within itself. Whereas the Vedic Rashtra is very normative in its formation, it might
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be legal and political and its legality and polity is contextualized in the 5th Century
B.C Vedic society.
In Classic text Aitareya Brahmana Rāshtram is identified as kshatra-rule or the place
of regime whereas in Tittiriya Samhitā it is identified as people. Kautilya cautiously
differentiate between Rashtra, the king, the fort and the kingdom. As he mentioned in
his detailed theory of Rajmandala Rashtra he as countryside. Shukra mentioned
Rashtra as one of the seven element of the kingdom and which means people or
population. It is clear that in Ancient India we did not have the theoretical conception
to define the state, or the Ancient State doesn’t fall in the same structural framework
of modern welfare State but it is clear that we do have core understanding about
territory, people, fort and government, which signifies that important state structures
were known to the people.
British defined Indian Statecraft as ‘Oriental Despotism’ (Metcalf, 2001), Because
they have to build the vision about India’s past for its future administration. They
said “Asian countries had no laws or property, and hence its people no rights”
(Metcalf, 2001). By Oriental Despotism they meant that people have no will, and
hence no law exists apart from the laws made by despot himself. Hegal also
suggested that there could not be any state in ancient India, “Hindu Political
existence present us with a people but no state”. Hence this colonial established
understanding about India and Asian countries prevailed in the world, it not just
misunderstand the Ancient India’s knowledge heritage but it also created a mythical
supremacy of European political knowledge about politics and state. But with this
above discussion one can clearly understand acknowledge that Ancient India do have
sense of Politics and Statecraft. To support this claim one also take example of
political system under Ashoka’s rule.
There is elaborate discussion about the judiciary and administrative powers of the
king.
2. The second important limitation is about the use of political power by the king,
Ancient Vedic king have authority to administer two important institutions namely
Samiti and Sabha. Samiti can be defined as the general assembly of all the people who
might took part in the election process of the king. It was believed that these Vedic
Samiti were sovereign assemblies. The Sabha on the other hand was a council of
prominent powerful men and Nobel elders. Ludwig says that Sabha was especially for
Brahmins and rich people, while Samiti is for the commoners. Sabha might be the
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meeting-place of village council according to Zimmer. Hence they are two different
Institution and their purpose and composition is also different. Atharvaveda
mentioned that Sabha and Samiti are two daughters of Prajapati. Sabha was
significant because they advised and council the king on various matters related to
administration.
Apart from Sabha and Samiti, Vidatha are the third kind of institutional bodies which
are assemblies for various purposes such as for religious matters, non-religious
matters and for war issues. Vidatha itself means as order or order issuing body. They
might not be the regular kind of assemblies like Sabha and Samiti but were made for
special purposes on special occasions.
1.4 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP AND STATECRAFT
Post the phase of Samhitā it was the age of Brāhmanas from roughly around 1000B.C to 7 th
Century B.C. There are three great Brāhmanas whose accounts are very crucial for knowing
the socio-political institutions of this phase, these are the Satapatha, the Aitareya and the
Taittiriya. And the ancient text of Rāmaāyana and Mahābhārata will also be useful to
understand the different theories of Kingships.
There are two different streams of this period:
First, Age of strong monarchical power and the decline of Sabha and Samiti.
Second, Rise of republican forms of government in 4th-5th century B.C.
The political centre in this phase is shifted to Punjab region to the Gangetic planes.
The main text which provides the details of Aryan civilisation is Rig Veda, it is roughly
assigned to 1500BC. In place of Sabha and Samiti the council of ministers were appointed
and the administration became more centralised. At village level Gramani, the village head
was appointed who was the nominee of the king and at the village level.
Aitareya Brāhmana has classified or mentioned the different kind of polity which was
prevailed at that age.
(a) Samrajya at the eastern side – these were not very strong empires in which only one
state can have supremacy. It might be ‘a combination of monarchies ‘or federal
imperialism (Jayaswal)
(b) Kurus and Panchala in the middle country – it was primarily kingship based
administration.
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(c) Uttara-Kurus and Uttara-Madras in the north beyond the Himalayas – Vairaja, which
means sovereignty or king lessness.
(d) Niches in the west- had Swarajya Kind of Polity.
(e) Satvants in the south- has Bhujya type of polity, which means non-hereditary
leadership, it can also means ‘paramount rule’.
After a brief discussion on the types of polity, let’s discuss various theories of origin of
Kingship and statecraft:
1.5 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP AND STATECRAFT
The State in ancient (as is true about the medieval) India was not, as it was with the 17th-18th
centuries. English individualists, a necessary evil, though maintenance of law and order was
one of the important functions of the state then. More than, or at least as important as the
security of the people, dharma was an essential aspect of the general conception of the polity.
Accordingly, the state was considered a political instrument to promote the cause of the
Dharma. It was a necessary benefactor, rather a necessary evil; it was an agglomeration of
power with absolute authority over the lives of the people, but was one where the absolute
authority was rarely or never used; it was though not a state chosen by the people, but it was
certainly a state which existed or cared the welfare of all dharma, in ancient India, was the
basis of the state. The king, referred to as dhritavarla, was regarded as the upholder of the
sacred law whose duty was to promote religion, encourage morality, and patronise education.
That was why he is called dharmapati in Satapatha Brahmana. This makes dharma being
described as the end of the staíc, view generally accepted by most of the Indologists. This is
not to state that the king, in ancient India was concerned mainly with the moral well-being of
the people; he was also responsible for the promotion of the material well-being of the people
as well. The state, we may therefore say, in India, provided for both material and moral
development of the individual, leading ultimately to the fullest development of the society as
a whole, all sanskrit literature of the ancient India, emphasising on Moksha through Dharma,
Artha and Kama. The ancient Indian society, wedded to Dharma, was one where the state,
through the office of the king assisted by his council and ministers, was to realise the over-all
welfare of the individual.
The State in ancient (in medieval times) India personified itself with the king; the king
was, thus, the personification of the state. The origin of the state is closely related in all
ancient writings to the origin of the kingship-be it Manu’s theory of the divine origin or
Kautilya’s theory of social contract. With regard to the origin of kingship Varma believes that
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it arose in the vedic period as a part of the process of integration of families, tribes, clans, and
villages into rashtra or a state. Law (Aspects of Ancient Indian Polity), on the other hand,
regards kingship as the handiwork of the magicians who gradually turned themselves into
kings, Hopkins (The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India)
observes that the kings were related from aristocrats, heroes and commanders of the army.
But once kings came, kingship, and state became one; the office of the king was the
institution of the state.
There is the reference of the institution of state in Vedic literature. The Ramayana
refers to the origin as well as the institution of the state:” A kingdom without a sovereign is
like a river without water, a forest without vegetation, a cow without a cowherd. The king
leads his people on the path of righteousness and guides them in integrity; he is the parent of
his subjects and their benefactors. The king, discerning good and evil, protects his kingdom;
bereft of him, the country is enveloped in darkness.” The importance of the state has also
been noted in the Mahabharata, for the Arajaka states are regarded not worth dwelling. The
end of the state, in the Mahabharata, is referred to as the attainment of the four objects of life-
Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, in a way, both material as well as moral. The Puranic
state makes Dharma as its basis; by Dharma is meant truth; it exists to promote/protect
Dharma, thus it is more or less a law upholding state. Also are referred to the three bases of
the Puranic state : Varta, Dharma, Danda, Varta, implying agriculture, cattle-rearing and
trade; Dharma signifying the eternal which holds, the world; Danda, consisting of
government, sovereignty and obedience—all rolled into one, the state, in Manu Smriti, is one
that postulates a perfect social and economic organisation. Adeveating the divine origin
theory of the state, the Manu Smriti makes the state a Saptanga having limbs such as the
Lord, Minister, Capital, Rashtra, Treasure, Army, Ally, mentioning swarashtra (friendly and
enemy states) and Mandal rashtra. The functions of the state, in the Manu Smriti are : make
all Varna observe their duties (Dharma) observance of general laws, maintenance of peace
within the state and keep the state free from external control, make laws to control the prices,
settle disputes, impart education, levy taxes, punish the criminals. Manu’s state exists to help
the people accomplish moral righteousness, wealth and pleasure. The state, in the Shukraniti,
consists of seven limbs, i.e., the state being a kingdom, the organisation of seven limbs:
(1) The sovereign is the head (2) The minister is the eye (3) friend is the ear (4) the treasure is
the mouth (5) the army is the mind (6) the fort is the arms and (7) the state is the legs. The
Shukra state seeks to attain functions such as (a) protection of person and property (b) the
administration of justice (c) spread of religion and culture, philanthropy and charity
(d) realisation of revenues.
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Kautilya’s, views, as stated in Arthasastra, are, indeed, vivid. Though he has not
defined what the state exactly is, but he does refer to the seven elements of the state be free
from wilderness, tigers and Swami (the king with qualities such as bravery, quickness of
decision, strength of mind, easily approachable sharp intellect), Amatya (the ministers-in-
charge of the entire administration), Janapada (population and land; land devoid of rocky,
saline, uneven and thorny tracts and wild animals, and abound in fertile lands, timber and
elephant forests); Durga (fortress, the military establishment to protect the people from
natural calamities, also a kind of arsenal, a storage of military artilleries and communication);
Kosa (treasury, filled with gold, silver, precious jewels, and gems, should be able to
withstand any calamity); Danda (consisting of hereditary and hired soldiers, i.e. force,
soldiers be skilled); Mitra (friendly states). Every element is regarded at par with another in
the Arthasastra.
With regard to the origin of the state, Kautilya seems to have advocated social
contract theory. He says that the state originated when people got weary of the law of the fish
(Matsyanyaya). The people selected Manu to be their king. It was, he explains, settled that
the king should receive one-sixth of the grain and one-tenth of the merchandise and of gold as
his due share. The revenue so collected would enable the king to ensure the security and well
being of the subjects.
The state, in Kautilya’s Arthasastra, is presided over by the Swami, the king; there are
officials who advise him on matters relating to the administration; he rules over his territory
from a fortified capital; the treasury and the army ensure stability and security while the allies
help him keep the kingdom safe. This is what is the crux of the Saptanga theory, and yet,
while discussing the troubles of the king, Kautilya seems to regard the two elements as
primary ones in the state: the King and the kingdom, the king symbolising sovereignty and
the kingdom, the state.
The Kautilyan state is monarchical, for he desired to establish a strong and powerful
monarch with a view to protect the life and property of the state. And yet, he demands of the
king to protect customs, religion and morality, embracing, thus, the whole range of human
life-social, economic, cultural, religious, political. The protection of Dharma remains,
however, the most important function of the Kautilyan state.
In Kautilya’s views, the promotion of the welfare of the people is an essential task of
the king personified in the institution of the state. Kautilya says in the Arthasastra, power is
necessary and it means strength, but it is not the end; the end, according to Kautilya, is
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happiness of the people. While the state, he argues, has to possess power, its role object is to
promote the happiness of the people.
The Kautilyan state looks after the material well-being of the state, but it does not stop
there; do also protects the social, religious and the moral lives of the subjects. It supports, the
poor, the orphan, the aged, the helpless, the infirm, the pregnant women and the newly born
babies.
Sanitation and hygiene did not escape Kautilya’s eyes. The villages and the cities
were to be built according to plan; every house had to have a dunghill and an outlet; throwing
of garbage on the roads was an offence; dumping of carcass or dead bodies on the road, was a
grave offence; adulteration of grains, oils, alkalies, salt, medicine was a punishable offence.
The Kautilyan state ram a few important industries, though it could not be labelled as
a socialist state; there did run private enterprises. It would be safe to all the Kautilyan
economy as more or less, a mixed one. The state regulated trade and commerce with a view
to promote the welfare of the people : the market towns were established and the market
hours fixed.
To conclude, one may say that the ends of the state, according to Kautilya, were
confined not merely to the maintenance of law and order or the protection of the people, but
extended to enable the individual attain the highest development. It appeared, more or less, as
a welfare state of our times. There was no other greater object than the happiness of the
people. Aristotle adveates emphatically, this function is a Sutra which reads: “In the
happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the king and what is beneficial for the subjects
is his own benefit”. The order of the state, we may argue, is not merely for the sake of order;
it also is, as Kautilya puts it, for protection, conversation, development and distribution : the
state must create what is there, and distribute what has been increased.
1.6 THE STATE IN ASOKA'S DHAMMA
The sources of information about Ashoka's kingdom and governance are his inscriptions,
which allow us to guess what the kingdom and governance were like at the time of Ashoka.
The rules laid down by Ashoka through Dhamma mainly included topics such as social
responsibility, tolerance, and support for non-violence. These rules were mentioned by
Ashoka in inscriptions in the form of Dhamma. Their purpose was to be read and complied
with by individuals from different fields. By doing so, Ashok was trying to come into direct
contact with his people. All these inscriptions were made during his reign, which is the basis
of information about the then-society, state, and governance.
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To understand the reasons for the rise of Ashoka's Dhamma, we need to understand that
Dhamma was a serious attempt to solve the problems faced by the heterogeneous population
of Magadha. The imperial system of Magadha had a variety of social, political, and cultural
formats, as the population of Magadha was heterogeneous and full of diversities. Ashoka was
also forced to use force to maintain a diverse structure, which would have cost a lot of
money, but he did not do so. Created a system of social rules that would be accepted by all
people, regardless of their social customs or religious beliefs. Dhamma came as an answer to
all the above questions.
Sects like Buddhism, Jainism, and Aajeevika opposed Brahmanism in society. But since the
Brahmins continued to dominate society, Ashoka started Dhamma to create an atmosphere of
harmony and mutual trust. There were many tribal areas in the entire empire where people
were not fully familiar with heretical and Brahminical concepts. Amidst such diversity, in
order to ensure the survival of the empire and to promote some degree of harmony within the
empire, dhamma was introduced. Therefore, it can be said that Dhamma was brought by
Ashoka in the context of the state to deal with these challenges. In which his state policy can
be seen. A very important Dhamma policy statement is described in prominent inscription IV.
The inscription states that Ashoka's Dhamma policy curbed immorality, contempt for
Brahmins and Shramanas, aggression, improper treatment towards friends, family members,
and others, and other such sins.
Characteristics of Ashoka's Dhamma
In society, Dhamma emphasised tolerance and normal behaviour, and all sections of people
should be treated equally with respect. Ashoka's Dhamma attempted to promote a sense of
harmony in society and argued for tolerance towards different religious groups. Ashoka's
Dhamma laid special emphasis on non-violence, and non-violence should be followed in real
form by prohibiting war, victory, and the killing of animals. Dhamma also included adopting
some welfare measures of the state and society, such as planting trees, digging wells,
providing education and health facilities for all, etc. Unfair rituals, such as the practice of
sacrifice prevalent in the then-society, were attacked, and a complete ban on them was
supported. Thus, Dhamma is the main basis of Ashoka's rule and the characteristics of the
state.
Spread of Ashoka's Dhamma
Ashoka also wanted to spread Dhamma as an ideal ruler. So he sent missions to many states
because he wanted to leave an impact on the world through compassion and faith. Dhamma
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policy was considered to be the best method of conquest as this policy was peaceful, and the
emperor is also said to have conquered Pulind, Bhoja, Andras, Chola, and Pandya through
dhamma policy. Outside India also, Ashoka sent campaigns to spread the Dhamma policy,
which included far-flung places like Egypt, Greece, Sri Lanka, etc.
Therefore, Ashoka's Dhamma was not just a compilation of high words. Rather, according to
him, "all mankind" are His "children," and all his efforts are merely an attempt to repay His
debt to all living beings. He made a very conscious and intensive effort to adopt it as an
official policy. It was a vision of kingship that was inspiring and brand new. It can be said
that to understand Ashoka's kingdom and governance, one needs to understand the policy of
Dhamma and its meaning. It is also necessary to understand the historical context of the then-
system of governance, as well as the necessary information from the books of Buddhist,
Brahmanical, and many other traditions that explain the social standards of their time.
1.7 CONCLUSION
To conclude, one may say that the Dhamma of Ashoka assumes a state of non-violence,
incorporating a number of ideals and practices. Abstinence from killing was an important
one, so was also the insistence of considerate family relationships and social ones, whether
these were between parents and children, elders and younger people, friends or various
ideological sects. Also was important in Ashoka’s Dhamma’s social and political theory, a
programme of social welfare such as providing medical facilities, good communications and
prohibiting useless expenditure on superstitions. Moderation was, in his theory of State, the
keynote of thoughts and action; there was no attempt of coercion of any kind, principles for
suggested and it was left to the conscience of each individual to make a choice. Dhamma, the
righteousness, remains the very basis of Ashoka’s theory of State.
1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION
1. Explain the State of Ashok Dhamma.

2. Describe the theories of origin of kingship and statecraft.
3. Briefly explain the Nature and Historical Development of Political Institutions in
Ancient India.
4. Critically analysis the State in Ancient India based on Kautilya. .
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1.9 REFERENCES
• Prasad, Benny. The State in Ancient India, Prayagraj. The Indian Press. Ltd. 1928.
• Verma. V.P., Studies in Hindu Political Thought and It’s Metaphysical Foundations.
• Ghoshal, U.N., History of the Indian Political Ideas, Bombay: Oxford University
Press, 1959.
• Law, NN., Aspecis of Ancient Indian Polity, London : Oxford University Press, 1921.
• Sen, AK., Studies in Kautilya, Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Lal, 1958.
• Sharan, P., Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions Meerut : Meenakshi
Prakashan, 1978.
• Thapar, R., Ashoka, Delhi Oxford University Press, 12th edition, 1992.
• Thapar, R., Early India, From the Origins to AD 1300, London: Penguin Book, 2002.
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Unit-2
DHARMA, DHAMMA, DANDA

Dr. Mangal Deo
STRUCTURE

2.2 Introduction: Dharma, Dhamma, and Danda
2.3 Dharma
2.4 Dhamma
2.5 Danda: Kautilya, Manu and Shukra
2.6 Significance of Dharma, Dhamma, Danda in Ancient India
2.7 Conclusion
2.8 Self-Assessment Questions
2.9 References
In the chapter we can understand the meaning of Dharma, Dhamma and Danda.
• Study of Dharma, Dhamma and Danda in Ancient Political thought
• Study of the role of Dharma, Dhamma and Danda in Ancient era.
• Study of Nature of the Dharam, Dhamma and Danda.
2.2 INTRODUCTION: DHARMA, DHAMMA, AND DANDA
“The subject of our study has been called by many names in ancient India. In ancient India, it
has been addressed as Dharma, Raj dharma, Danda, Ethics, and Dhamma, etc. In the ‘Shanti
parva’ of the Mahabharata, it has been called “Raj dharma”. Monarchy was the most
prevalent in ancient India, so the study of state and rule was called the Dharma of the king.
The Raj dharma included all the duties and governance-related things of the king. All the
knowledge used to come into raj dharma.
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According to certain thinkers, it was both the science and art of governance. Danda was
considered a “science of administration” in ancient India, which was related to the actions of
the government or the system of governance. According to Kautilya, Dand-Niti is one of the
four Vidyas recognised by Manu, Brihaspati, and Shukracharya. Indian thinkers had long ago
come to consider sovereignty as the basis of the state. According to him, no state can be
maintained without the use of force or Danda. Regarding the importance of Danda, Manu
said that when all people are sleeping, Danda protects them. Out of fear of him, people take
the path of justice. Dr. Jaiswal has called the Danda policy the principles of government. As a
result of this immense importance of Danda in the state, the scriptures describing the actions
of the rulers and the welfare of society were known as Danda policy. The book written by
Ushanas and Prajapati on the system of governance is also known as Danda-Niti.
During Ashoka’s reign, the word Dhamma was used to refer to Dharma, Danda, and
governance, and the word “economics” was also used for these terms. Dr. Jaiswal has called
economics the “Code of the Commonwealth. By the way, at present, the term economics is
often used for economics, whose study subject is the means of obtaining wealth and meaning
and is used in the interest of human beings. On the contrary, the study subject of Rajshastra is
state and governance, so there is a big difference between the two, but Kautilya’s statement is
that just as the words’ meanings are directed by the business and wealth of a human being,
the land on which they live and run their business can also be addressed, so can the means of
acquiring and following the land. It is also fair to call it economics. Since the most famous
group written in ancient India on the subject of state and governance was called economics,
economics came to be taken in the sense of ethics or penal policy. Shukra policy also states
that the field of economics is not only to discuss the ways to obtain wealth or wealth, but also
to establish the principles of governance. In Amarkop, semantics and penal policy have been
considered synonyms. Even from the observation of the first chapter of Arthashastra, it seems
that Kautilya wanted to give him the name ‘Danda Policy’.
2.3 DHARMA
Political principles are an integral part of Dharma. In ancient India, political principles
developed as a part of Dharma. As a result, Hindu politicians did not distinguish between
politics and Dharma. This is the most prominent feature of Indian politics and a major gift to
the world. The main duty of the king and the ruler was understood to be to follow Dharma
and they were instructed to fight the enemy too. For this reason, morality was included in the
politics of ancient India, and raj shastra was called ethics. Protection of Dharma was the
primary responsibility of the state. Dharma and political thought are intertwined.
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The fact that the texts considered to be the main texts of ancient Indian politics are
also important enough from a religious standpoint demonstrates the close relationship
between politics and Dharma. Vedas, Brahmins, Upanishads, and Smritis Literary texts such
as the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas, and others are regarded as more important for
religious purposes than for understanding ancient Indian politics. Many texts of Buddhist
people and people’s Dharma are useful and meaningful from the religious point of view as
well as guiding the political institutions and ideologies of that time.
In Indian culture, dharma, which is incorrectly translated as "religion," has many
connotations. They include morality, duties, the nature of reality, some supernatural beliefs,
etc. It pervades all aspects of human life. The word dharma is derived from the root धृ,
meaning to uphold. Dharma is defined as that which upholds. In the Mahābhārata, dharma
has been explained as that which helps in the upliftment of living beings. Therefore, that
which ensures the welfare of living beings is surely dharma. It also helps in achieving societal
harmony. Bhishma explains to Yudhishthira in the Karna Parva of the Mahabharata: "Dharma
sustains society; it maintains the social order; it ensures the well-being and progress of
humanity. Dharma, without a doubt, achieves all of these goals. In the Shanti Parva, it is
written, "The nine rules of the dharma persons belonging to all the varnas are: (1)
truthfulness; (2) being free of anger; (3) sharing wealth with others; (4) forgiveness; (5)
procreating children only from one's wife; (6) purity; (7) absence of enmity; (8)
straightforwardness; and (9) maintaining persons dependent on oneself.
In Manusmriti, Manu explains the ten tenets of dharma as: (1) patience; (2)
forgiveness; (3) rational control of the senses; (4) honesty; (5) sanctity; (6) continence; (7)
reason or knowledge; (8) philosophical wisdom; (9) truthfulness; and (10) absence of anger.
In his commentary on the Yogsütra, Vyäsa defines dharma as "universal goodwill."
Buddha also uses it in the sense of morality and actions. It has been elaborately discussed in
the Dhammapada. From these definitions, it is clear that dharma provides us with solutions to
problems in our everyday practical lives. It is based on reasoning, logic, and rules. From it,
one can discern what is to be done and what is not. Everybody must imbibe ideas such as the
absence of anger, speaking the truth, forgiveness, simple living, etc. This will help us
understand which is the right path and which is not. As a result, dharma instructs us on what
is and is not acceptable behaviour. It is not based on any illogical premise.
In addition to these morality-based definitions, dharma is also used to explain the
nature of all inanimate things, animals, and human beings. Here, by "nature," we do not mean
habits or accidental characteristics. Rather, by dharma, we mean the essential nature of all
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things and of living beings. We can say that it is the dharma of a deer to be herbivorous; the
nature of fire is its extreme heat, etc. This interpretation of Dharma is common in Jainism.
Dharma also explains the duties at specific ages and stages of life. Duties are attached to
varna, sect, professions, relations, and behaviour in daily life. Here, some duties can be
related to supernatural beliefs as well.
2.4 DHAMMA
Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma, meaning the universal law or
righteousness or, if one likes to extend, one may say, the social and religious order found in a
society. The word, in a way, has a much more general connotation judging by the way in
which the word, Dhamma was used in his edicts, though Ashoka gave it a wider meaning.
Ashoka’s inscriptions consist of two types: the small group, the edicts, describe his adherence
to Buddhism, two larger group, as inscribed on rock surfaces, include Major and Minor Rock
edicts, and the Pillar edicts, propagating his ideas, in the manner of exhortations to his
subjects. All these define what he understands by Dhamma, a concept of utmost self
introspection, utmost obedience, and utmost enthusiasm, including in it deeds such as
compassion, liberality, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodness and notions such as
noble and pure intentions, proper maintenance of social relationship and absentation from
animal slaughter.
A brief summary of the Major Rock Edicts and the Pillar Edicts gives Ashoka’s
theory of state, the Minor Rock Edicts dealing purely with his Buddhist activities. The first
Major Rock Edicts contains the prohibitions of animal sacrifice, and festive gatherings: “Here
no living thing is to be killed and sacrificed, and no assembly is to be held.” The emphasi be
noted, is more in the sacrificing of animals rather than their killing, i.e. prohibition of the
ritual of sacrificing animals.
The second Major Rock Edict relates to certain measures of social welfare including
such as medical centres for men and animals, the construction of roads supplied with wells
and lived with shady trees, and the planting of medicinal herbs.
The third Rock Edict contains that liberality to Brahmans is a virtue: tolerance and
broad-mindedness towards other sects. The fourth Rock Edict assumes that the policy of
Dhamma has improved the general conditions of the people and there has been a tremendous
moral advancement, suggesting almost an ideal state: a period of prosperity and righteousness
when men lived as Gods and when Gods were not afraid to mingle with men.
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The fifth Rock Edict is devoted to matters of social and administrative welfare,
making prisons as reformatories, not a place of torture or a house of doom. It also refers to
the appointment of the dhamamahamattas whose work was concerned with the general
welfare of the populace with emphasis on the teaching and practice of Dhamma..
The sixth Rock Edict makes the relationship between the king and his subjects via the
mahamattas even more clear. The mahamattas are told to make their reports to the king at any
time. The edict gives an impression that Ashoka exercised control over the state through a
well-organised system of officers and couriers. His experience of kingship, his knowledge of
it from the theoretical works of the period and his own personality have made him aware of
the responsibilities of being king of such a vast territory.
The seventh Rock Edict pleads for toleration among all sects, the king realising the
harm these sectarian conflicts would produce. .
The eighth Rock Edict stresses the importance of tours, i.e., the Dhammayatas.
Ashoka himself states, the purpose of these tours was manifold, visiting the brahmanas and
making gifts, visiting the aged and supporting them with gold, visiting the people of the
country and instructing them in high morals.
The ninth Rock Edict maintains that the practice of morality is infinitely more
valuable than the observance of the ceremonies, i.e., ceremonies performed during illness, at
the birth of the child, or when setting out on a journey etc.
The tenth Rock Edict denounces fame and glory and reasserts that the only glory the
king desires is hat his subjects follow the principles of Dhamma, the reason being (a)
obtaining merit in next world and che elimination of danger to man in this.
The eleventh Rock Edict contains the explanation of the Dhamma. The Dhamma, for
Ashoka, is a way of life and the essence of what he had culped from his moral teachings. This
edict also stresses the importance of the family, caste system accelerating the development of
the family as an institution of primary importance...,
The twelveth Rock Edict is a direct and emphatic plea for toleration amongst the
various sects, adding, thus the overall progress of the essential doctrines of all the sects.
The thirteenth Rock edict is important in so far as it considers deplorable the deaths
and deportations that accompany war, upsetting in the process all normal rules of social
behaviour. Ashoka insists that the idea of Dhamma is opposed to the idea of war.
The last Rock edict is a short one, explaining the intentions of the king to spread the
teachings of the Dhamma to all the subjects in every form.
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The Minor Rock edicts, associated with Ashoka’s Buddhism, do not reveal his ideas
on the theory of the state, though the Pillar edicts do. The first Pillar edict states the progress
achieved through Dhamma,
“For this is my principle: to protect through Dhamma, to administer affairs according
to Dhamma, to please the people with Dhamma to guard the empire with Dhamma.” The
second Pillar edict, continuing along with the first, describes Dhamma as a minimum of sins,
many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, and purity. The idea, in this edict, attempts
to convey the idea of social and personal relationships, leading, thus, to a better
understanding of social life. The third Pillar edict makes a distinction between virtuous deeds
and evil doings, latter leading to ruins and destruction.
The fourth Pillar edict insists on the uniformity of judicial proceedings and of Dandas,
the principle being equality of all subjects in the eyes of law, and also equality of law
throughout the empire. The fifth Pillar edict orders that certain animals are not to be killed on
certain days (considered, for example, sacred in Buddhism), and others are not to be killed at
all. The sixth Pillar edict explain the purpose of the edicts, that being a concern for the
welfare and happiness of the king’s subjects. The seventh Pillar edict mentions the
implementation of the reforms carried out in the well-being of the people.
What appears, following the study of the major Rock and the Pillar Edicts, to be
Ashoka’ theory of state, as incorporated in his Dhamma, may be summed up in his view of
kingship as (i) a theory of kingly exertion and efforts, (ii) a theory of the well-being of all,
and (iii) the paternalist theory conceiving of people as children of the king, the father : “All
men are my children, and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain welfare and
happiness, both in this world and the next, so do I desire for all men.” He expects king
possessed with qualities such as truthfulness, uprightness, freedom from malice,
compassionateness and forbearance. He also institutes a set of officers, called Dhamma-
mahamatta, as officers of righteousness to ensure the norms and rules of Dhamma are
implemented by all.
To conclude, one may say that the Dhamma of Ashoka assumes a state of non-
violence, incorporating a number of ideals and practices. Abstinence from killing was an
important one, so was also the insistence of considerate family relationships and social ones,
whether these were between parents and children, elders and younger people, friends or
various ideological sects. Also was important in Ashoka’s Dhamma’s social and political
theory, a programme of social welfare such as providing medical facilities, good
communications and prohibiting useless expenditure on superstitions. Moderation was, in his
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theory of State, the keynote of thoughts and action; there was no attempt of coercion of any
kind, principles for suggested and it was left to the conscience of each individual to make a
choice. Dhamma, the righteousness, remains the very basis of Ashoka’s theory of State.
2.5 DANDA: KAUTILYA, MANU, AND SHUKRA
Kautilya
Kautilya has discussed the judicial system as well as the Danda system. Regarding Danda,
Kautilya has emphasised that the Danda given by the king to bring the people on the right
path should neither be more than the need and justification nor less. The king should decide
for proper Danda thoughtfully. Kautilya does not follow the principle of equality about
Danda. In this regard, keeping in mind the weak condition of women and children, they have
arranged for relatively less danda for them and in this regard, discrimination has also been
made based on the varna system. Kautilya is of the view that the Danda should be conducive
to the crime and the Danda should be given with proper knowledge of the gender and stage
and circumstances of the crime. He has provided three types of Dandas for criminals:
corporal Danda, economic Danda, and prison. Under physical danda, flogging, hanging hands
and feet upside down, brahmin and upper-class criminals should go, marking the criminal
mark on the forehead by hanging upside down, tying their hands and hanging upside down.
Arrangements have been made to ensure that there is no death penalty for serious crimes.
Monetary danda is mainly classified into three categories: first, medium, and good courage
danda. The range of the first courage Danda should be 48 to 96. The position, gender, and
position of medium from 200 to 500 p.m. and best from 500 to 1,000 p.m. are stated. Apart
from this, penalties of different amounts have been prescribed for various offences. In this
way, strict Danda have been arranged by Kautilya, and should be done. As a physical Danda,
the Danda of rust piercing, flogging, hanging inverted, etc., has been expressed. Theology
seems to be inhuman in nature. But it cannot be denied that these methods of Danda were
prevalent in ancient India and other acharyas of ancient India supported harsh Danda even by
relative primacy. Therefore, it has to be said that Kautilya is more practical than idealistic in
arranging Danda.
Next important element in order of priority is army. Kautilya suggests the need for a
standing army and non-dependence on mercenaries. The basic qualities of a good army
according to Kautilya are that recruitment is fair and based on inheritance, they should be
loyal, strong, full of vigour and energy. The army must be invincible and endowed with the
power of endurance, trained in fighting various kinds of battles, skilful in handling various
forms of weapons. The army should not bring in any state of instability in the kingdom, but it
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should be ready to share the sorrow of the king in time of calamities. He also mentions that
the army men should be paid well, and families should be cared so that the soldiers are not
worried about their future while at war. Soldiers must be ready to die for the country, but
king also must ascertain that they are well equipped with right kind of weapons and are
provided with whatever is required to keep them happy and loyal.
Indian philosophers acknowledge the predominance of demonic tendencies in human
life and that is why the power of Danda has been given a lot of importance by them. The
importance of Danda in politics can be gauged from the fact that it has been named as a
Danda policy by many writers. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, he gives the highest importance to
penal policy and makes all other sciences subordinate to him. According to Manu’s
statement, Danda is the ruler.
Manu
The Law and Justice System: According to the system of Danda, Danda is the king because
he has the power to rule. Scholars consider Danda the purpose of religion. If the king does
not punish the criminals, then the strong people will start treating the weak as they cook fish
by piercing them with iron rods. By using Danda properly, the king is oriented towards the
attainment of religion, meaning, and work. The king should arrange for a just Danda in the
state. Whoever is distracted by his religion from the Clan, Caste, Gana, and district, the king
should re-establish his religion by giving them their due Danda. There are four types of
Danda: Dhigdanda, Vagdand, Dhandand, and Vadhdand.
Source of law: According to Manu, the most important source of law is the Vedas.
Other sources include Smitis, the Vedas, the conduct of gentlemen, and the Strutsantosh.
justice system The justice system has also been described in Manusmriti. According to Manu,
there are two types of disputes: those arising out of violence and those arising out of non-
payment of land or money. As Manusmriti describes, if the king himself does not decide the
disputes, then a learned Brahmin should be appointed to look after that work. The Brahmin
appointed by the king should also decide the disputes in the court along with three other such
persons. Judges should decide all disputes with complete impartiality, because only the
members of the House (Court) in which truth suffers from untruth are destroyed by sin.
According to Manu, judges should be Brahmins. Under no circumstances should they be
Shudras. Judges should be people who can read people’s inner feelings through external
symbols like tone, color, and effort. In Manusmriti, the evidence is divided into two parts:
Manush Sakshya aur Divya Praman. There are three types of man-made evidence: written,
written, and witnessed. According to Manu, more importance should be given to the evidence
written by the judges, but the articles written by force should be invalidated. These are also
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reliable due to the eye-catching presence in the evidence, but according to Manu, the
statements of the untruth-speaking servant, enemy, sannyasi, and leper should not be
believed. Oaths should be legislated before the evidence and those who give false witnesses
should be severely punished. Women’s evidence should be taken for women. The Brahmin
should be given the highest importance by taking him as an expert.
Shukra
In the words of Dr. Beniprasad, “Shukra has adopted politics (ethics) as the art of
governance, Like Kamandak, Shukra has considered four disciplines: anvikshiki, trilogy,
dialogue, and dandaniti, which are necessary for the yogaksham of human beings. Dandaniti
is said to be the beginning of all learning. Policy and immorality are located in Dandniti
itself. The name of restraint or repression is Danda. The king is situated in Danda, and his
policy is Danda. It is called a policy because it is able to run the path properly. According to
Shukra, the king should always practise these four vidyas. There is jurisprudence and
Vedanta etc. in Anvikshiki; there is dharma, adharma, kama, and moksha in the trilogy;
meaning and evil are in dialogue, and justice and injustice come into Danda. The suppression
of the wicked is called “Danda. That is why the king is the form of Danda and the king’s
policy is Danda. According to Shukra, the king should study ethics with great diligence. The
observance of the subjects and the destruction of the wicked are both the ultimate religions of
the king, both of which cannot be followed without policy. The king should follow such a
policy for the purpose of his own interest so that the whole nation is ready in the interest of
the king without inspiration.
2.6 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DHARMA, DHAMMA AND

DANDA IN ANCIENT INDIA
In ancient India, political knowledge, by whatever name, has been called, such as Dharma,
dhamma, and danda Rajshastra has been given the status of supreme knowledge in many
ancient texts describing its glory. According to Kautilya, dand-niti is one of the three major
vidyas, anvikshiki, trilogy, and talk depend on the happiness and prospering Danda of all
these vidyas. It has been said in the Mahabharata that just as everyone comes at the feet of
Hami, in the same way all the scriptures come in Dharma, Dhamma, and Danda. Regarding
the importance of the penal policy, Bhishma has said that if the penal policy is destroyed,
then all three Vedas will disappear. Shukra has also said that the essence of the Rajshastra
composed by Brahma has been summarised by Vashishtha and other writers like me for the
prosperity of the rulers and other people of the earth. He has also said that the king should
diligently practise ethics. With the knowledge of this scripture, the king is skilled in beautiful
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policy, and without it, the king cannot perform his major duties and the destruction of the
wicked.
According to Manu, Danda is Dharma and the king. Through this, the king protects
the people and makes all the people in the four ashrams perform their duties. When everyone
is asleep, the Danda remains awake. According to The Commander, policy and immorality
are located in penal policy itself.
In ancient India, Dharma, dhamma, and dand were not narrow subjects but wide
subjects. State-related matters were not kept separate from Dharma. Adherence to Dharma
depends on the state. For this reason, the importance of Dharma, dhamma, and dand was
considered more than all others. Dhamma and Dand encompass social order, Dharma, kingly
power, and many other things. These topics can also be called Rajasthan. This includes inter-
state relations, friends, indifferent and enemy kings and their characteristics; income-
expenditure; duties of nation, subjects, planting trees, building temples, law and justice
system, forts, forests, army. Everything was contained. That is, it can be said that they were
the main basis of ancient rule.
2.7 CONCLUSION
Compared to western philosophers, ancient Indian political tradition and thinking exhibit a
distinct style of government. This system was initially founded on Dharma and Danda, which
some thinkers referred to as Dhamma. Dharma had a significant impact on the development
of religion and the functioning of the state in ancient India, although some academics view
Danda in the framework of religion due to this. It can be claimed that Dharma, Dhamma, and
Danda were crucial in establishing a welfare and pious state in ancient India because they not
only provide a thorough account of Danda but are also regarded as moral standards in
politics.
2.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the Dharma, Dhamma, Danda in Indian Political Thought.

2. Discuss the significance of Dharma in Ancient Political System
3. Explain the Nature of Dhanda in Ancient Political Thought.
4. Describe the view’s Ashoka on Dhamma.
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2.9 REFERENCES
1. Altekar, A.S. (1949) State and government in Ancient India, Banaras.

2. Bandyopadhya, (1927) N.C., Kautilya, Calucutta.
3. Singh, S.P., (2018) Politics for a New India: A Nationalistic Perspective, Rupa
Publication Pvt. Ltd.
4. Ghoshal, U.N. A History of Indian Political Ideas.
5. Varma, V.P. Studies in Hindu Political Thought, and It’s metaphysical foundations.
6. Prasad, Beni. The state in Ancient India.
7. Appadorai, A. Indian Political thinking.
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Unit-3
NYAYA, NITI
Vishal Kumar Gupta
Virender Kumar
STRUCTURE
3.1 Learning Objective

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Definition of Nyaya
3.4 The Concept of Niti and Nyaya
3.5 Nyaya and Niti in Ancient India
3.6 Nyaya and Niti - According to the Thinkers of Ancient India,
3.6.1 Kautilya’s Views on Nyaya and Niti
3.6.2 Kautilya’s Judge Selection
3.6.3 Manu’s Views on Nyaya and Niti
3.6.4 Manu’s Views the Idea of Punishment
3.7 The “Principle of Nyaya” Presented by Rawls
3.8 Second Principle of Nyaya
3.9 Comparative Nyaya: A Critical approach
3.10 Sen’s Philosophy of Nyaya as a Model of Nyaya
3.11 Conclusion
3.13 References
3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
• After reading this chapter, students will be able to understand what is Nyaya and Niti.
• Nyaya and Niti from Antiquity to the Present.
• Difference between Rawls’ justice and Amartya Sen’s Nyaya and Niti.
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3.2 INTRODUCTION
“Nature of Nyaya” by Amartya Sen the renown professor of economics, is a very important
book on the development of Nyaya and a guiding work on the concept of Nyaya. Amartya
Sen took a “Niti and Nyaya” approach based on Indian culture and jurisprudence and,
through the breadth of literature, Amartya Sen tried to present his Nyaya-centric approach to
the Niti-centric approach of “Rawls”. His book not only reflects the philosophy of Nyaya that
Sen developed but is also a critique of the book “Theory of Justice/ Nyaya” written by John
Rawls. His book shows about what the “principle of Nyaya” presented by Rawls should have
been. He talks about Niti and Nyaya. In this chapter, given the theoretical research of Sen’s
work, we will decode the basic ideas of Nyaya presented by Sen. According to Sen, Niti is an
abstract method that, if implemented fully, then the result will be in maximum public welfare
and Nyaya. On the other hand, Nyaya deals with the enforcement of laws and regulations.
Amartya Sen has shown two cornerstones, Niti and Nyaya in the context of comparative
Nyaya theory. Sen discussed the concept of Nyaya in a very comprehensive manner. Prof.
Sen wants to investigate whether we can address concerns about increasing Nyaya and
eradicating Nyaya, rather than addressing the essence of a full Nyaya.
3.3 DEFINITION OF NYAYA
Nyaya is a term of vague import. The concept of Nyaya is one of the most complex concepts
that consumes much scholarly ink yet remains esoteric and impeccable. Also In the Bible,
Nyaya is considered to be in line with the general quality, but there is a vague concept
because one can see that all values are vague and rejected in favour of common standards.
Plato’s concept in relation to Nyaya, placed more emphasis on the real part rather than the
procedural aspect. Marx considered Nyaya to be a sham, a mask that facilitates capitalist
exploitation. Some people believe that Nyaya is equality, but equality is also a vague concept.
It is a relative concept. For me, the notion of equality may not be equal for everyone.
Therefore, it would not be appropriate to set standards of Nyaya for each. According to the
utilitarian, Nyaya is the greatest task done for the largest number of people. When it comes to
the question of the progress of Nyaya, the process of comparison somehow creates space for
debate, allowing a variety of views to be accepted so that the concept of Nyaya can be
disrupted by being unipolar and one-sided.
Prof. Sen quotes Charles Dickens to give an idea that ‘in a small world where children
exist, Nyaya is not so perceived and felt so well.’ The important manifestation of Nyaya
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further strengthens the strong notion of revelation in Nyaya. This identification of

preventable Nyaya is not only for the animation of Nyaya, but also for the principle of central
Nyaya. Although Nyaya is a complex idea, it is concerned with the proper treatment of all.
Prof. Sen has built his idea of Nyaya on the silence left on the principle of Nyaya presented
by Rawls’. His theory deals with a utopian just society where perfectionism exists, where
perfectionism is basically related to the ideal.
Social contract theory, mainly propounded by Rousseau, Hobbes and Locke, which
focused primarily on the institutional arrangements of a society. This approach, which might
be called “transcendental institutionalism,” has two distinctive features. First, it focuses
attention on being identified as absolute Nyaya rather than a comparative comparison of
Nyaya and Niti. Second, in its search for perfection, transcendental institutionalism focused
primarily on getting institutions right, not real societies.
Sen goes back to the concepts of Niti and Nyaya to explain what real Nyaya is. He
distinguishes between ethics and Nyaya based on jurisprudence based on Sanskrit literature.
Unlike Niti, actual social cognitions are represented by the term Nyaya, which goes beyond
institutions and rules. In India, for example, classical legal philosophers derided matsynyaya,
or “Nyaya in the fish world,” reflecting the type of society seen among fish, where a large
fish can swim freely.
What is Nyaya? To understand this, it is very necessary to understand what is Nyaya
and how to reduce it. A man turns to the meaning of Nyaya when he has experienced it
himself. The History is full of such examples. Even Mahatma Gandhi started searching for it.
So, Nyaya, a powerful tool that allows a person to comprehend the significance of Nyaya by
connecting himself to Nyaya performed on others. Thus, we can see that Nyaya is an active
process, a process that helps us to stop the wrong. By experiencing Nyaya, a person tries to
bring about Nyaya by correcting what is Nyaya or at least by developing methods so that
Nyaya can be stopped further.
3.4 THE CONCEPT OF NITI AND NYAYA
The whole idea of Nyaya presented by Sen has initiated a dialogue based on the terms of
ancient jurisprudence in Niti and Nyaya. Both words in Sanskrit mean “Nyaya” in their
narrow sense, but going into its explanatory values, both words are focused on two different
perspectives. Before proceeding, it is relevant here to explain the moral and jurisprudential
meaning of these two terms.
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“Niti” can also be described as a “theory of the state” or political knowledge. It is an

abstract exercise whose implementation will maximise public welfare and Nyaya. It would be
fair to say that the Niti deals with just rules and institutions, according to Sanskrit ethics and
ideas. On the other hand, is the “broad concept of real Nyaya,” which is essentially connected
to the world that actually emerges, not just the entities or rules those we have. According to
Sen, this distinction between Niti and Nyaya can be seen in European philosophy. Hobbes,
Locke, Rousseau, Kant, and Rawls all insist on the establishment of institutions, while Adam
Smith, Wollstonecraft, Bentham, Marx, and Mill all take a more comparative approach,
looking at the social realities as a whole that are certainly the result of institutions, but also of
other factors such as human behaviour.
Sen gives an example to illustrate the difference between Niti and Nyaya. This is an
example of an extremely rigid kind of Niti that promotes bringing disaster but without
considering how Nyaya will be achieved if the whole world is destroyed. The realization-
centric approach, According to Professor Sen, makes it easier to understand the need to
prevent apparent Nyaya in the world rather than seek Nyaya as a whole. The distinction
between Niti and Nyaya is similar to another well-known distinction in Western legal
thought. This incidentally exemplifies one of the Sen’s many values: it shows that concepts
considered original in the West were already influential in many provinces of the world in
ancient times.
The philosophy of Nyaya is based on incorporating human values of compassion and
inclusion. The political concept of Nyaya is contrary to Niti as it is based on the choice of
institutions to determine the basic structure of society as well as the political concept of
Nyaya. Sen cites the example of Gautam Buddha to illustrate the philosophy of Nyaya as a
paradigm of compassion. According to him, when young Gautama Buddha left his
aristocratic home in the foothills of the Himalayas in search of enlightenment, he was
particularly impressed by the sight of death, disease, and infirmity around him, which greatly
disturbed him. Sen claims that Gautam Buddha’s suffering is easily understandable and it is
possible to “appreciate the relevance of human life in the argumentative judgments of the
world we live in.” This, he claims, is a key feature of the traditional Indian perspective.
Nyaya’s (Nyaya) is the opposite of Niti’s (rule), so Sen made “Nyaya” the centre of his
model of Nyaya.
3.5 NYAYA AND NITI IN ANCIENT INDIA
Overwhelmed by the influence of the traditions of the section where ethics presented by
Anglo, the ancient society of India often ignored the moral traditions of ancient India. After
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independence, some satisfactory judicial approach in the present system of the country, the
system of Nyaya is now following the path of simple and direct Nyaya. In the field of Indian
ethics also, very little important study of ancient law has been done. It has now become
necessary to do exploratory research into the glorious Nyaya and Niti systems of ancient
India, which are the gold mines. So that we can know that we can get complete information
about the Niti and Nyaya systems of our past and shed light on Niti and Nyaya.
Any welfare state seeks to distance itself from autocracy and arbitrary governance,
rejecting the interests of society as subordinate to any kind of other interest. In ancient times,
the Indian Niti and the judicial system highlighted or looked at these particulars. The
supremacy of Niti and Nyaya, which is also the main point and basis of every modern
democratic system, on which the building of the administration of ancient India was built.
Even before the birth of modern writers, this theory existed in the moral concept of ancient
India.
In ancient India, many such methods can be seen in the Niti and judicial systems,
through which the conduct of every person was regulated. For example, in the field of
criminal law, appropriate guidelines were presented for punishment, and the quantum of
punishment was determined according to the seriousness of the allegations. It is also known
from the study of ancient scriptures that even in the period of ancient India, there was no
definite opinion of any kind regarding the “death penalty”. Even in Ancient India, there were
provisions in the scriptures for punishing the consumer and the customer’s resistance, as well
as for the violation of the producer and consumer’s interests. Environmental values were also
given prominence.
3.6 NYAYA AND NITI ACCORDING TO THE THINKERS OF

ANCIENT INDIA
Looking at the judicial system of ancient India, it would have been known that today’s
administrative and judicial systems are still following in the same footsteps. The study of
ancient texts like Grantha- Arthashastra and Manusmriti, presented by Kautilya also gives
knowledge and presentation of how the government used to perform its functions with its
departments and somehow deliver Nyaya and Niti. The idea was that, just as a doctor uses
tools to remove a piece of a patient’s body, a judge may also dig out an unfair matter using
the same logic.
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3.6.1 Kautilya’s Views on Nyaya and Niti

According to ancient Indian thinkers, Kautilya also laid great emphasis on the observance of
everyone’s religion. His opinion was that by following swadharma, not only the system of the
present is created but then hereafter also improves. In spite of these things, the average
citizen violates the law in many ways. Kautilya also makes judicial arrangements to punish
them. According to his opinion, without Nyaya, the people are deprived of religion, meaning,
work, and salvation, so only through Nyaya can the ultimate goal of the subjects be fulfilled,
which is why Kautilya has given a lot of emphasis on Nyaya and Niti. According to him,
Nyaya is the life blood of the state.
3.6.2 Kautilya’s Judge Selection
Kautilya has given the basis of Nyaya in economics to the king. According to him, there is a
worthy, dutiful and public-welfare king. Despite this, he selects judges to strengthen the
judicial system. He believed that there should be three religious judges and an Amartyas in
the higher court, who could sit together and decide the disputes properly. Kautilya gave the
responsibility of appointing these judges to the king.
The whole legal system of Kautilya is contemporary. He placed a lot of emphasis on
the decentralisation of the legal system as well as on fair Nyaya. He emphasised that the three
judges who make up the Higher Court’s pillars, which consists of a multi-member judicial
bench at the moment, must be chosen by consensus or majority.
3.6.3 Manu’s Views on Nyaya and Niti
Apart from the provision of a council for the creation of Manu law and the Nyaya system, the
public was free to make their own rules through their federal institutions. It includes overall
caste, and category. He also used to put the impression of the king’s consent on the rules
made by these self-made institutions and follow them. Manu describes in his views the
composition of the legislature in an extended form. According to him, the number of
members of the Legislative and Council should be about ten, but according to him, the basis
of the composition should be intellectual and not in the form of numbers.
3.6.4 Manu’s Views the Idea of Punishment
According to Manu, there are two types of tendencies in human beings: one devilish and the
other divine. Under the divine tendency; peace, good, and the rights of others were also kept
in mind, and work was also motivated to bring happiness to others. On the contrary, in the
devil’s nature; the judicial rights of others can be seized solely for self-interest. Therefore,
according to Manu, this tendency only creates excitement, unrest, and disorder in society; and
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this tendency creates a sense of development in man, and thus he is not able to follow his
religion. Therefore, Manu clearly gives his opinion that the power of punishment is very
much needed to purify the conduct of human beings and to follow their religion. Therefore,
God has arranged punishment for which the king has been appointed to conduct. According
to Manu, Danda is the son of religion. He has been born by God. Punishment is a process that
disciplines all subjects in every society, forces them to follow the path of religion, and
protects all beings, even when they sleep. According to Manu, if the system of punishment is
not introduced in society, then people forget their religion by engaging in the conduct of
inequity for many reasons, and all kinds of rules and dignity are destroyed, but they also
express their views on not arbitrarily using punishment. According to him, punishment
should be arranged according to the amount of guilt and the guilty part has because if this
system is not followed, then there will be a feeling of dissatisfaction in society and the peace
and security of society can also be destroyed.
3.7 THE “PRINCIPLE OF NYAYA” PRESENTED BY RAWLS
The “theory of Nyaya” presented by John Rawls came to the force when everyone talked
about the utilitarian concept of maximising the welfare of society or maximising the
happiness of the majority of people. “Nyaya” as a concept was the least talked topic. Rawls’
Nyaya principle was viewed as a kind of alternative to the classical utilitarian principle.
Rawls’ theory of distributive Nyaya is based on the fact that Nyaya is a system of
cooperation for mutual benefit between individuals, living within a society. As such, it
presents a conflict between the interests of individual, individuals and the identification of
shared interests. The benefits and burdens of social cooperation must be defined on the basis
of the principles of Nyaya. No one should fail to observe the fact that the principle of Nyaya,
introduced by Rawls through social contract theory, has its roots in the form of fairness.
Rawls argued that it is necessary to distinguish between actual judgments about Nyaya
(which people have) and their subjective self-determination. There will be inevitable
differences when one resorts to such a measurement, so it is important to modify one’s own
judgement in such a way as to reach a stage of equilibrium in which these two conditions are
the same.
Starting with his complex theory, Rawls begins with a moral presumption that Nyaya
is linked to fairness. He adopts this position to arrive at the fundamental principles of member
Nyaya, called the “basic condition”. Rawls calls the “original situation” merely the
imagination of people in the imaginary situation and places the restraint of the “veil of
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ignorance” on them. This veil deprives them of acquiring knowledge of their status (e.g.
gender, ethnicity, economic status, intelligence, etc.) and their perception of the ‘good life or
well-being’. In Rawls’ speeches, no one knows their place in society, their social status, their
class, nor does anyone know their fate in the distribution of worth, intelligence, power,
natural resources, etc. I also assume that the parties do not know the perceptions of their own
psychological tendencies or their own goodness. The principles of Nyaya are achieved only
behind the veil of ignorance. This ensures that no one gains or loses in the choice of
principles by the consequence of social circumstances or the contingency of natural
opportunity. Since all are equally situated and no one is able to design principles in favour of
their particular position, you can say that the principles of Nyaya are only the result of a
primary agreement or bargain. The “basic position’ is designed by Rawls as an unbiased
approach that is to be adopted in the context of the fundamental principles of Nyaya and
excludes individual interests when choosing the “basic principles of Nyaya” to ensure
comprehensiveness and legitimacy.
Once the veil of ignorance is lifted, the contract will be maintained and once people
leave their original position, it is basically a kind of radical egalitarian liberalism with the
necessary attention paid to the fact that one person should not resort to maximum benefit so
much that it leads to the downfall of the other person.
3.8 SECOND PRINCIPLE OF NYAYA
Rawls’ basic principles of Nyaya are generally a means of achieving the goal. If people are
faced with the question behind the veil of ignorance of whether they will accept the utilitarian
principle that deals with the distribution of wealth, then the answer will not be certain,
because under the veil of ignorance, any person would prefer to behave with dignity once he
goes above the veil of ignorance. He will lay down basic freedoms like consciousness,
religion, freedom, and the right to life, etc. and so will all those basic freedoms demanded by
a member of the minority community. Atrocities against minorities are being committed by
the majority. Rawls included this (political liberalism) principle in his book as a guarantee of
the fair values of political freedom. The need for a fair value for political freedom is because
“equally talented and motivated citizens have a common chance to influence government Niti
and gain authority positions, even if not by social and economic class.”
According to Rawls, economic and social inequalities should be structured so that
they benefit the person with the least inconvenience. Those under the veil of ignorance do not
know in what system they will be placed. If the veil is lifted, they will be healthy or unwell,
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rich or poor. Therefore, it is advisable to put in place an arrangement whereby there is an

equitable distribution of wealth to ensure that each member is on the safe side, according to
which only those economic and social inequalities that operate for the least benefit will be
allowed.
Rawls negates the idea of feudal elites. Rawls' says that a person should not only have
the right to opportunity but also have opportunity in an equal form of natural potential. Proper
equality of opportunity ensures that “office and position” should be open to every individual,
irrespective of his social background, ethnicity, or gender. Formal equality of opportunity is
satisfied when there are no discriminatory legal barriers that prevent many groups of society
from accessing offices and social institutions.
3.9 COMPARATIVE NYAYA: A CRITICAL APPROACH
Sen’s main argument against Rawls’ theory is that “transcendental institutionalism” is

nothing more than a moral conjecture, a hypothesis on which he advances his theory and
which later becomes influenced by certain limitations.
According to Sen, the most serious flaw in the theory of Nyaya presented by Rawls is
its transcendental institutionalism. Rawls’ theory, based on the social contract tradition, aims
to explain a set of principles that will be of considerable help in creating the public
institutions of a just society. He emphasises that many Nyaya principles, rather than focusing
on the characteristics of just societies, should include ways to reduce Nyaya and advance
Nyaya. Therefore, the main problem that Sen had with the theory presented by Rawls’ was
the perfection theory. According to Sen, the Rawlsian doctrine loses touch with reality: it
ranges from the Bengal famine of 1943 to the devastating earthquake in Haiti in January 2010
that killed more than 150,000 people and left more than two million homeless. Such a
catastrophe meant preventing starvation and saving people’s lives rather than looking for
ideal transcendental institutions.
Prof. Sen has regarded Nyaya as a genuine approach, which makes it easier to
understand the need to prevent manifest Nyaya in the world. He calls it the exact opposite of
Rawls’ theory of a utopian or just society. Rawls says that Nyaya is “Nyaya equal to
fairness.” However, in what sense does Rawls consider Nyaya justifiable? What are the
conditions for treating Nyaya as “fairness”? Rawls provides us with two basic or fundamental
principles of Nyaya in this respect. Rawls was influenced by Kantian theological ethics when
formulating the concept of Nyaya. Kantian deontological ethics is a type of ethics that is
universal in nature and is primarily guided by moral principles. Rawls’ concept of Nyaya
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reveals despotism in nature. In this context, Rawls uses the metaphor of the “veil of
ignorance” to express his concept of Nyaya as “fairness.” He also used the term ‘fairness’ to
describe his concept of Nyaya as ‘fairness’. But what exactly is fairness? In all evaluations,
fairness is a demand that we avoid personal preferences and the concerns of others in terms of
biases, vested interests and asymmetries.
The “basic situation” that Rawls is talking about creates a hypothetical situation, but
practically it is never multidimensional, diverse, conflicting, or able to encompass the real
and concrete demands of a larger plurality. Sen presented his point beautifully with the help
of the example of three children and a flute. Anne, Bob and Clara are all raising their real
arguments well, and these real demands cannot be dismissed by giving a superficial argument
of being groundless that is based on the pursuit of human fulfilment or the removal of
poverty, or the right to enjoy products. Due to limited resources, we may not be able to meet
the multiplicity of real voices that meet their real demands. Prof. Sen wants to propose is that
the concept of Nyaya should not be indifferent to the lives of people who are actually living
them.
Discussing further the “principle of Nyaya”, Sen argues that there is an internal
dichotomy in Rawls’ freedom theory. As stated earlier, priority has been given to the liberty
principle over the second principle, which deals with equality of certain common
opportunities and equality in the distribution of common-purpose resources. In other words,
freedom is the sacred principle that people will not compromise on, even if it relates to better
wealth distribution or the ease of advancing wealth, i.e., the concept of freedom cannot be
reduced to a level of mere convenience. But if we look at when Rawls treats the “primary
argues that there is an internal dichotomy in Rawls’ freedom theory. As stated earlier, priority
has been given to the independence principle over the second principle, which deals with
equality of certain common opportunities and equality in the distribution of common-purpose
resources. In other words, liberty is the sacred principle that people will not compromise on,
even if it relates to better wealth distribution or the ease of advancing wealth, i.e., the concept
of liberty cannot be reduced to a level of mere convenience. But if we look at when Rawls
treats the “primary,” it includes things like liberty, opportunity, income, wealth, self-respect
and authority. We can see that liberty has entered, but only as a feature. One can see that the
concept of liberty is being treated like a king and a slave together. Then, why is there such an
unrestrained priority being given to freedom? Are hunger, starvation, medical neglect, etc. no
less important than individual freedom? It is critical to note that in his attempt to improve his
Nyaya principles, he excluded the concepts of virtue and property ownership. He only gives
room for inequalities from which incentives can be given so that it creates a new vigour and
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new vitality among the members that can motivate them to do their job more efficiently,
which can help in the worst case scenario. Sen’s statement here is that the principles which
have gone to the original position should not eliminate the need for encouragement of those
principles. Somehow, we can see Rawls taking one step forward and then two steps back
simultaneously.
Sen’s concern is essentially three times Rawls’ theory: the first is the inevitable
relevance of actual behaviour; the second is the contractual choice; and the third is the
relevance of the global approach.
Sen casts his vote on the fact that mainstream political and Western society have
overlooked the importance of real human life and social behaviour in search of Nyaya, as
well as the real-world effects of various actions and decisions. When it comes to Nyaya, real
human behaviour and institutional systems must be considered. “There is a two-way
interaction between social Nyaya and institutional need-based rethinking and offering
incentives to practise to enhance the pursuit of social Nyaya. The Institutional reforms can be
successful only through changes in actual social behaviour, as these aspects are inextricably
linked.
3.10 SEN'S PHILOSOPHY OF NYAYA AS A MODEL OF NYAYA
Sen’s book places great emphasis on the human element, as is evident from the different
themes portrayed and the different stories used by them. Some of these tales are from the
past, while others are from the present; some are true, while others are made, but they are
above all people. On Nyaya, Sen’s vision involves anthropological sensitivity: of course,
understanding human nature is insufficient to explain all the questions raised by the theory of
Nyaya, but Sen bases his opinion on the fact that there is a shared understanding of human
beings embedded in many competing conceptions of Nyaya and the readiness to resist Nyaya
and the tendency to do so by participating in meaningful public debates. These are the main
aspects of Nyaya.
There is also a sense-centred view of Nyaya in which to appreciate the need to
prevent manifest Nyaya (e.g., matsynyaya) in the world rather than imagine creating a fully
just society or establishing an innocent set of social orders. Slavery abolitionists in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries did not believe that abolishing slavery would make the
world perfectly just. Rather, he claimed that it was based on a society.
Slavery was completely unjust, and it needed to end immediately. The anti-slavery
movement saw the search for that cause as an essential imperative based on a diagnosis of
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intolerable in Nyaya. Mostly, Slavery prioritised freedom from the intolerable in Nyaya and
did not necessitate seeking consensus on what a perfectly just society would look like.
Sen asserted that his concept of Nyaya is not just a matter of consequences. In fact,
his definition of Nyaya includes a holistic approach to both processes and outcomes. He
demonstrated his point by referring to the classic Bhagavad Gita conversation between
Krishna and Arjuna. Even though he is on the side of good and Nyaya; Arjun, a famous
warrior, hesitates on the eve of the war as he doesn’t want to kill his cousins from the
opposing side. Krishna encourages Arjuna to carry out his responsibilities and duties,
irrespective of the consequences. This debate is frequently framed as a clash between the
theorist and consequentialist schools of thought, with Krishna representing the former and
Arjuna representing the latter. However, he claimed that Arjun is not only a consequentialist
in that way but he is concerned not only about the fact that many people will be killed in the
conflict he is debating but also because he will be killing the people, he cares about the most.
In the Gita argument, Krishna emphasises the basic Niti of carrying out one’s work, while
Arjuna both challenges the Niti and questions the Niti (Why should I kill so many people,
even if it appears to be my duty?) and ponders the nature of the society that will emerge as a
result of war (Is mass murder required to establish a just world?) Sen wants to focus on these
resulting debates rather than the Niti-focused debates. They are coming out of our ancient
literature.
To further shed light on his idea of Nyaya through the philosophy of Nyaya, Sen
focuses on the story of Indian democracy. In fact, India is a great example of both the
remarkable victory of democracy and the conspicuous failures of democracy associated with
the inadequate use of democracy. Therefore, Sen’s view is more focused on Nyaya. Using his
own life experiences, such as living through the Bengal famine in 1943 and later conducting
an extensive study on the same, Sen included how we as human beings move towards ideas
of Nyaya before Nyaya.
Prof. Sen believes that all transcendental systems of Nyaya are imbued with a basic
flaw that does not emphasise Nyaya reduction and instead emphasises the advancement of
Nyaya. The multiplicity of demands will not allow this entire Nyaya system to stand on its
feet. According to Sen, the presence of treatable in Nyaya can be linked to behavioural
violations rather than institutional deficiencies. Ultimately, Nyaya is connected to people’s
ways of life, not just to the nature of the entities around them.
Professor Sen took the example of early Indian jurisprudence to shed light on many
concepts of Nyaya, such as ‘Niti’ and ‘Nyaya’. ’The idea of Niti deals with organisational
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justification as well as behavioural correctness, while the latter, Nyaya, deals with what
emerges and how in particular, how people are able to live their lives. In other words, it is
necessary to assess/access the role of institutions based on how much inclusivity is reflected
in them.
Sen acknowledges the fact that institutions play a vital role in intensifying our ability
to scrutinise the values and priorities we can consider, crucially through public conversation
and that democracy is an institution that is evaluated in the context of the public. An
institution of democracy must be judged to the extent of how different voices of different
classes are able to raise their voices and whether their voices are actually heard, because if
the democratic institution fails to make the people have their say, fails to provide the
necessary opportunities to raise their voices, this institution is useless.
3.11 CONCLUSION
It is impossible to determine if Rawls’ “concept of Nyaya” is superior to Sen’s “idea of
Nyaya,” hence it is not a good idea to debate on this point. On the other hand, it may be
claimed that Sen’s interpretation of Nyaya, “completes and develops Rawls’ idea of Nyaya.”
Sen’s work should be seen as a modification of Rawls’ political theories rather than as an
alternative strategy.
Sen’s approach to Nyaya is not only institutionalist because the state is seen as an
institution, engaging with the former issue with a Niti approach and insisting on rejecting
dogma, but it is also exclusion. Domestic local perspectives on Nyaya are constrained in at
least two ways. First, the nature of Nyaya in our world is often global, and national law is too
narrow as a lens through in which it can be studied and analysed, as well as a tool to combat
it. Secondly, the only concentration on national law excludes international perspectives, one
of the most rigid obstructive aspects in the struggle against Nyaya. It’s focus on comparative
extension by Sen. In any case, Sen encourages legal education to meet a greater number of
comparative, international and most importantly the international perspectives. This may
result in a (potentially significant) reorganisation of Western legal education, which is related
to the idea of the “impartial audience” that keeps coming up.
Although Sen’s work criticises the notion of absolute Nyaya and advocates the
removal of Nyaya, the idea that the pursuit of absolute Nyaya aspires to incredible perfection
can be debated, but the problem is that many plausible cases of Nyaya are much more
complex. If we look at the complex question of gender inequality, we may find conflicting
opinions about what we actually think. As today, so many questions are being raised in
society about whether men should be encouraged in the same way that women are because
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men also contribute to child rearing and home care, and whether there should be a concept of
paternity leave. The reason why it is very difficult for both men and women to answer these
questions, may be because Nyaya is being done to them.
Karl Marx’s theory was about an ideal society in which the workers were no longer
subservient classes. The theory was rejected as being imaginary and sustainable, and yet it
did not lead to the establishment of the setup that Marx had envisioned, but it paved the way
for economic reforms to be annulled. Legislation like workers’ compensation acts, labour
laws, etc. were possible there. Nyaya also decreases from the point of view of the full society.
However, both Rawls and Amartya Sen are treading the same path and have similar opinions
in this regard that the concept of utilitarianism, or a system that promotes only the welfare of
the majority or the happiness of the greatest number, is not correct. Sen uses an analogy of
old Hindu jurisprudence with regard to decisions of matsynyaya, or fish, where big fish eat
small fish, which is largely the same as the utilitarian theory that exists today, and cannot be
said to be anxiety-free.

1. Discuss the principle of Nyaya presented by Rawls’ and Give a comment on an ideal
Nyaya.
2. Explain the difference between Niti and Nyaya.
3. In the criticism of the theory of justice, what do you understand by comparative
justice/nyaya.
4. Critically study the Rawls’s theory of Nyaya.
5. Highlights the key features about the philosophy of Nyaya by Amartya Sen.
3.13 REFERENCES
• Priya, Ankita, Vol.-11 (2022), ‘Nyaya before Niti–The Cornerstone of Amrita Sen's
Idea of Comparative Justice’, Lex Manthan, Galgotias University.
• Charles Dickens, Great Expectations, Chapter 8
• Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice
• We are. Krishna Iyer, Social Justice - Sunset or Surya Bhor 28 (Eastern Book
Company, Lucknow 1987).
• Amartya Sen, Idea of Justice, page no. 20
• Introductory remarks in the Amartya Sen, Hiren Mukherjee lecture
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Unit-4
SABHA AND SAMITI

Dr. Mangal Deo
STRUCTURE
4.1 Learning Objective

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Origin and Development
4.4 Sabha
4.5 Samiti
4.6 Relationship between “Sabha and Samiti”
4.7 Comparison with Existing Representative Organizations’
4.8 Conclusion
4.10 References
4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
• A Study of representative institutions of popular governance in ancient India,

• A study of the structure and functioning of the then representative bodies, such as the
“Sabha and Samiti,”
• Comparison of representative institutions of ancient governance with existing
institutions.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
The development of human civilization began with the concept and use of a better
governance system. This concept leads to the development of the individual’s state and the
state’s state within society. It is believed that democracy, the republic, and parliament are the
three concepts of the modern Western political system. But in ancient Indian thought and
literature, there is a mention of political institutions related to governance. The word
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“republic” is mentioned 40 times in the Rigveda and 9 times in the Atharvaveda. The
functioning of the Sangh or Parliament has been described in detail in the Shanti Parva,
Theology, Smriti, Granth, and Buddhist texts of the Mahabharata. It would not be an
exaggeration to say that the development of political institutions like republics and
democracy started in India from the Vedic era itself. In the Vedic political system, “sabha,”
“samiti,” and “Vidath” are mentioned as representative institutions. It is described in the
Rigveda and Atharvaveda. Just as ‘Arcopegus’ was the role of the Sabha and the Samiti in
India, in the Greek people, in the ‘Curia’ Romans. The Sabha was also called the “people and
the council. In ancient Sanskrit texts, popular institutions like Sabha, Samiti, Vidath,
Sangram, and Parishad have been mentioned.
4.3 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
Thinkers have different opinions about the origin and development of “Sabha and Samiti”. In
this regard, Altekar believes that it appears that the public understood that the Sabha and the
Samiti were God-made institutions. With the development of man’s political life, “Sabha and
Samiti” emerged. Altekar has mentioned three types of meetings – Sabha, Samiti, and
Vidath– but said that it is difficult to give a definite meaning to these words. It is possible to
change its meaning according to time and time. In ‘Parashar Madhava’, Jupiter has described
four types of meetings—
1. Achal Sabha, which used to take place in the village,
2. Chal Sabha - The Sabha of learned persons who used to visit,
3. The Empowered Samiti—the Superintendent was its head,
4. Sabha as per command—The king was its head.
Bhrigu has also mentioned some simple meetings in this book which were of certain castes.
Charaka has also mentioned two types of meetings; the first is the meeting of learned people,
and the second is the meeting of the public. From this, it appears that in addition to important
state assemblies like the House and the Samiti, there was also a less important Sabha which
belonged to a particular class and which determined the social and religious matters of that
society.
Shende has written that the word ‘Parliament’ has been used in place of the House in
Atharvaveda and its members have been called corporators. The divine authority of the king
is not discussed in the Atharvaveda. The king was elected as the head of state. The body by
which the king was elected was called the “Sabha and Samiti”. There is also a mention of
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witchcraft in the Atharvaveda, which was used to win the house in debates. Shende believes
that “Sabha and Samiti” were mentioned together.
Ludwick believes that the meeting was attended by upper class people, such as priests
and wealthy people. Ordinary people were members of the Samiti. Zimmer writes that the
Samiti functioned as a village institution and as a central council for the entire people.
Hillebrand believes that both the Sabha and the Samiti were the same. The place where
people gathered was called the Sabha, and the gathering group was called the Samiti. N.N.
Law writes that various words have been used for these institutions in Sanskrit texts, such as
council, Vidth, Sangati, “”Sabha and Samiti”. In Vedic texts, the gathering is generally
described in two ways, the first is the gathering of Vedic people, and the second is the place
where people used to gather. In this way, the Samiti also reflects the house, which Hillebrand
also writes that the Samiti was a meeting in a way. Ghosal, however, called “Sabha and
Samiti” a parallel institution and described the work of the house as deliberative. Ghoshal
further writes that there were two people-loving legislative councils in India in the Vedic
period, but it is not possible to describe their work and role with certainty. Generally, it can
be said that the Samiti was the highest institution of the Vedic people and held an important
place as the advisory institution of the king. The reputation of the Sabha as a common
institution was also similar, but initially its role was limited. Both the “House and the Samiti”
had the right to debate.
Thus, on the basis of the arguments and opinions given by various scholars, it can be
concluded that the Sabha was a village institution where debate on both social and political
issues was possible. The Samiti was a political body of scholars whose function was similar
to that of the legislature of the central government. It was very effective from the point of
view of governance because the future of the king was determined by its cooperation and
support. If the Samiti was against the king, it was like a crisis for the king. That is, the
influence of the Samiti was also more on the central government and army, including the
king. However, there is no clear knowledge of what the situation in practise was.
4.4 SABHA
In the Vedic and post-Vedic periods, the workings of political and national life were revealed
through the then people-loving meetings and institutions. The Sabha was an important and
popular institution. The general meaning of the house is to be light, which means that the
learned and distinguished people are members, and the house is adorned with their qualities
and activities. The place where they used to gather has been called a meeting. In Vedic texts,
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the word Sabha has been used in different meanings, such as: building, gaming, place and
royal court. Regarding the Sabha, it is believed that it originated in the last period of the
Rigveda. The House was also called Narishtha, with resolution of many people which cannot
be abolished and which cannot be violated. It is also written in the Atharvaveda, addressing
the gathering in the name of Narishtha—
“विद्य ते सभे नाम नरिष्टा नाम िा अवस ।
ये ते के च सभासदस्ते मे सन्तु सिाचास: ।।”
This verse means, “O Sabha, we are familiar with you there.” Your name is Narishtha. All
those who are gathered here spoke in harmony with me. K.P. Jaiswal has written that the
House was probably a permanent house of certain people who functioned under the control of
the Samiti. The house was a very popular house. Cohesion has been given importance in the
House. The way it is written in the verse, it is proved that Assam was not a place for Jasya
and Assam was considered negative in the Sabha.
There is no authentic mention of the House’s composition and composition, such as
the number of members in the House, the tenure, the qualification or criteria, and whether the
members were elected or nominated. There is also no direct evidence of how the House
functioned. Regarding membership, Diktar has written that the members of the Sabha were
noble, Brahmin, and Madhavan. In the Samhita of Rigveda, the word ‘Sujata’ has been used
for the members of the Sabha, which means that women of good ancestry also participated in
the meeting. The Sabha of Kuru state is mentioned in the Mahabharata’s Sabha parva, and it
is written that brahmins and kshatriyas predominated in this Sabha. There is nothing clearly
written in the Vedic texts about the ability of the members of the Sabha, but the context of
Draupadi in the Mahabharata is important. Draupadi had stated -
“न सा सभा यत्र न सवन्त िद्ध
ृ ा: न ते िद्ध
ृ ा ये न िदवन्त धममम् ।
न सौ धमों यत्र न सत्यं मवस्त न तत्सत्यं यच्छलेनानुविद्वम् ।।’’ (महाभाित)
This means that the Sabha, not the Sabha where there is no old, not the old who does not
speak the word of religion, not the religion which is not based on the truth, and the truth is
meaningless with which deception is associated. In some texts, the members of the House
have been called “Sabhaya.” The member who presided over the session was called the
“Chairman” or “Sabhapal. In one verse of the Rig Veda, it has been described as going to the
meeting of the members riding on a horse or chariot. Thus, the Sabha structure had an
institution smaller than the Samiti but was the focal point of the social groups.
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The Sabha was formed as an established institution in all the states and districts of the
Vedic period. It is written in the Rig Veda that ‘You make your house civilized, your voice is
gentle, you should be a member of the Sabha for a long time. All kinds of religious and
political issues were discussed in the meeting. In general, the House appeared to be
equivalent to Parliament by name, but there were special judicial functions; that is, the House
was very important in the role of the judiciary. In the Rig Veda, the word ‘Kil vish-sprit’ has
been used for the Sabha, which means: the institution to correct sin or crime. There was also
a possibility in the meeting that the members who are participating in the judicial process
may also have sin or injustice, so in Yajurveda, the mantra describes the prayer for their
freedom from sin and crime. The original Sabha functioned as a judicial institution, in which
the king acted as a judge, heard cases, and also gave judgments. Thus, the nature of the Vedic
Sabha was more just and legal. Over time, the nature of the Sabha changed, its judicial role
increased.
It is written at one place in the Rig Veda that the cow and its utility were the main
topics of the Sabha talks. The Sabha was not an institution of all groups or people in society,
but most of the public matters were decided in the Sabha. In some texts, the Sabha has been
portrayed as an Amod-Pramod, i.e., an entertainment place. People used to go to the meetings
and gamble. A mantra of the Rig Veda reads, “The gamblers used to go to the meeting and
understand that they would be the ones who would be victorious.” Considering the House as
a separate entity from the Samiti, Bandopadhyay wrote that it is not easy to determine the
actual nature of the meeting. The metal from which the word “Sabha” originates means the
union of the people of the clan or the people. Initially, the Sabha was such, but over time, the
basis of membership in the Sabha was not limited to lineage or locality. The meeting took the
form of a group in which people gathered for any event related to sports, religious purposes,
debates, or local subjects. There was a close relationship between the Sabha and the king. On
the basis of various types of evidence, it can be said that in addition to various types of local-
level meetings, there was also a political Sabha as a best gathering, which was directly related
to the king. The king acted on the advice of the members of the Sabha. The Sabha was an
advisory body as well as carrying out various types of functions.
The role and importance of the Sabha is evident from the fact that during the
Ramayana period, King Dashrath announced in the Sabha to make Rama the crown prince. In
the Shantiparva of the Mahabharata, a gathering has been described in the name of
Parliament. The meeting, in which all the ordinary citizens were also present. For this reason,
it was also called the People’s Parliament, where there were free debates without any
hindrance. Shukraniti Saar describes a gathering whose members were called corporators.
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Today, just as there is a Parliament House in the capital, a Sabha building was built for the
Sabha. Thus, on the basis of the sources received regarding the House, it is concluded that the
role of the House as a legislative and judicial institution was very important.
4.5 SAMITI
Prajapati’s two duties include the Sabha and the second Samiti, in which the Samiti was the
largest and most important institution in the Vedic social and political system. The Samiti,
which is the sum of sam+iti, which means to gather, i.e., where people of the whole society
used to gather. The Samiti was an important political body of central government in which
the ruler was also present in the House as an ordinary citizen. The Samiti included all
citizens. Instructions have been given in a mantra of Rigveda to ensure that the king goes to
the Vaithaka of the Samiti. The Samiti had complete control over the king or ruler, so the
king could never be autocratic. At that time, the Samiti was the institution of the entire
citizenry, i.e., the whole world. The command of the government was also in its hands. The
Samiti’s displeasure towards the king was like a crisis for the king.
Keith writes that the Samiti was the institution where people’s needs, and their actions
were carried out. There is no clear mention of the composition of the Samiti. Scholars have
different views on the basis of the evidence mentioned in different texts. K. P. Jaiswal writes
that all the people were considered present or members of the meeting. But when particular
philosophical or political topics are discussed in the Samiti, it does not seem possible that all
the people will be present in the Samiti without any reason, as is also mentioned in the case
of Shwetketu. AlTekar has written on this subject that we cannot say anything about the
formation and structure of the Samiti. Whether the Samiti was a government body or a non-
government, whether elected or nominated, what was the basis of it? Whether it was elected,
whether it was for a particular class or for the general public, On the basis of the Samitis of
the then republics or of the upper classes, it is possible that the formation of Samitis related to
the monarchy may also have been related to the upper classes. Like the Greek city-states, the
size of the states in India was small. From this, it appears that eminent people and family
members of society, warriors and scholars must have been members of the Samiti. Looking at
the importance of the priest, it seems that he must have been a member of the Samiti because
in Vedic society, religions and priests were more important than war. It is mentioned that
villagers, sutkars, and rathkars were also its members.
The main function of the Samiti was to elect the king, but what were the rules of the
election? What was its basis? It is not mentioned in detail. The Samiti was also used to
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remove the king, i.e., to remove the deposed and re-elect the expelled king. The Samiti also
had discussions on questions related to politics and governance, debates, and collective
issues. Thus, most of the work of the current Parliament was done by the Samiti at that time.
Every member of the Samiti had freedom of speech and could express their views. It is
mentioned in the Rig Veda that “I accept both your idea and your Samiti. It is possible that
the Samiti will do religious, political, and social work equally. Through debate and
discussion, the members of the Samiti wanted to persuade other members in their favour
through their arguments. It is written in Atharvaveda that “I accept the knowledge, talent, and
speed of the members present in the Samiti. O Devendra, make me the leader of this great
house. If your mind has gone towards someone else, or has changed on some issue or thing, I
want to change that mind from there, so that that mind becomes favourable to me and me.”
Regarding the work and duty of the king, it is written in the Atharvaveda that the
Samiti should not cooperate with the king who snatches the property of Brahmins. Although
an auspicious desire for the king to always cooperate has also been expressed, it is written in
a mantra of Atharvaveda. It is also written in the same book that after the coronation, the
priest used to say that the king should sit on the throne and the Samiti should be loyal to him.
This makes it clear that the Samiti was a people’s Sabha and coordination with it was
important for any ruler. Bandyo Padhyaya wrote on the subject:
• The Samiti was a group of all the people of the community.
• It was the Sabha of the entire nation.
• There was a close relationship and coordination with the king.
• The Samiti was usually held at the time of all important purposes, such as at the time
of the king’s coronation, war or crisis,
Thus, in the pre-Vedic period, the Samiti was an important and influential central public
body. At one place in the Atharva Veda, it is described that the Samiti could not live
according to the king who tried to be a dictator or an autocrat. This means that the Samiti also
used to control the king’s innocence.
4.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN “SABHA AND SAMITI”
There is a difference of opinion among scholars on the subject of what should be the
relationship between the Vedic-era people-loving representative institutions, the Sabha and
the Samiti. HillBrand has written that the Samiti, which was an institution and where it was
held, was called a meeting, but this idea is not valid. Ludwig says that the Samiti is a lower
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building, and the house is a higher building like the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha today.
Zimmer called the Sabha a local, i.e., village institution, and described the Samiti as a central
body. Keith is of the same opinion as HillBrand, who wrote that the Samiti catered to the
tasks and needs of the masses and the place of the Sabha session where all members could
have their own views. Most scholars believe that the Samiti was a higher body than the
Sabha. It was also more important in matters related to governance. Whatever the
constitution, authority, nature, and function of the above two houses, it is clear that in the
Vedic period, they had an influence on the administration. Both the Samiti and the Sabha
were so important as an institution that the king or the head of the government could not
refuse to heed its advice. Thus, people saw “Sabha and Samiti” as Prajapati’s two daughters
and considered her as the result of divine legislation, i.e., as a divine institution. As a divine
institution, the “Sabha and Samiti” protected the king.
4.7 COMPARISON WITH EXISTING REPRESENTATIVE

ORGANIZATIONS
It is clear from the comparison of the functioning, powers, and roles of “Sabha and Samiti”
with modern democratic institutions such as Parliament, UNG, Legislature, Executive,
Judiciary, and Panchayati Raj Institutions that “Sabha and Samiti” existed as a public
representative institution in Vedic times. First, if we look at the similarity of the Sabha and
the Samiti with modern institutions, then like Parliament, the “Sabha and Samiti” are also
used to do the work of convention, debate, control over governance, election of the ruler and
control with responsibility. Even after the above similarities, many facts are not the same
because, from the Vedic period to the post-Vedic period, there was no similarity in the form
of governance, the formation and shape of the “Sabha and Samiti”. There is also no clarity
based on membership. There is also no evidence of the rules by which the House and the
Samiti were governed or of which subjects they had jurisdiction. There was no provision like
the rule of modern law. The king was the head of both the rule and the judiciary. On this
basis, it was not at all the same with modern institutions in the Vedic period. Having public-
loving representative institutions is very important in the matter of Indian governance.
“Sabha and Samiti” reflect the glory of the Vedic period.
4.8 CONCLUSION
Thus, in conclusion, it can be said that in the Vedic period, “Sabha and Samiti” were the
major popular public-funded monarchical institutions. The concepts of democracy, republic,
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union, and parliament are not western but have existed in India since Vedic times in the
names of Sabha, Samiti, and Vidth. The Sabha was a local body in the rural area, which was
small. The Samiti functioned as a central body which had a wider scope than that of the
Sabha. In the post-Vedic period, there was a change in the structure of both “Sabha and
Samiti”. By this time, the dominance of the elite, i.e., the monarchy, had been established,
and the will of the people was not respected. The influence and dominance of the priestly, the
rich, powerful class over these institutions increased, making the king also autocratic. In the
same Vedic period, democracy was prominent, the will of the common people was the desire
of the king. Ultimately, it can be said that in the Vedic period, the “Sabha and Samiti” was
the principal public body of social, religious, and political discourse.
1. Which were the people-friendly institutions of the Vedic period?

2. Were the “Sabha and Samiti” Vedic representative institutions? Describe
3. Mention the functions and powers of “House and Samiti”.
4. Compare “Sabha and Samiti” with the present political institutions.
4.10 REFERENCES
• Dr. Sharan, Paramatma. (1997), Political Thoughts and Institutions in Ancient India,
Meenakshi Publications, Meerut,
• Jaiswal, K.P, (1988), Hindu Polity, Eastern Book House, Patna.
• Altekar, A.Y., (1984), State and Government in Ancient India. Motilal Varanasi Das
Publications Delhi.
• Sharma, Ramsharan, (1999), Ancient India, National Council of Educational
Research, New Delhi
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Unit-5
RAJYA AND RASHTRA

Dr. Mangal Deo
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Meaning and Definition of Rajya and Rashtra
5.4 Evaluation of Rashtra
5.5 Evaluation of Rajya
5.5.1 The State in Ancient India
5.5.2 The State in Ashoka’s Dhamma
5.5.3 Medieval Era
5.5.4 Modern Era
5.6 Conclusion
5.8 References
1. Study of the concept of state-nation in ancient India,

2. Study of the origin and development of the nation and state,
3. Study of the relationship and difference between state-nation,
4. Contemporary debate on State-Nation.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
Man is a social animal. The context of sociality is associated with the feeling, security and
need of man. Due to this human tendency and need, institutions like family and society
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developed. There are some limitations of family and society. Therefore, the development of
human society took place in the form of a state-nation. Nation based on the feelings and
thoughts of man and the emergence of an institution like the state as a political basis. The
concept of development of the state-nation is linked with the origin and development of man.
A nation is said to be a group of people who live permanently in a certain area and have
similar social identity, common history, language, culture and political consciousness, due to
which they feel connected in the thread of unity. This connection is emotional. When political
consciousness starts developing in the group, then an institution like state is developed.
In Buddhist texts also, the words rajjya (state) and rashtra (nation) have been used at
many places. Although the main basis of the Buddhist tradition was the Dhamma and the
Sangha, there is also a detailed mention of the nation and the state. Here nation and state were
used in the same sense, hence the word state has been used more and sometimes the word
nation is also mentioned. It is mentioned in a legend of the Jataka that a deity got angry and
rained fire at a place called Madhya Rashtra and made the entire nation unrest.
5.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RAJYA AND RASHTRA
State is a political concept which is made up of fixed territory, population, government, and
sovereignty. But the nation-state is defined in terms of modern western thought. The question
arises whether nation-state is a modern and western concept? When did the nation-state rise
in India? There is a difference of opinion between India and the western countries regarding
the origin of the nation-state. Western scholars consider nation and state to be a modern
concept. Western thinker ‘Galner’ in his book “National and Nationalism” describes
nationalism from the perspective of modernity, defines the rise of nation as a necessity of
industrial society. But in India, since the Vedic period, thinking about the nation is visible.
The nation was considered a part of social life.
5.4 EVALUATION OF RASHTRA
The evolution of Rashtra in India from Rigveda to Atharvaveda, the word Rashtra is
mentioned in various Mantra and Samhitas.
‘िाजते दीप्यते प्रकाशते शोभते इवत िाष्ट्रम् ।
It means that which is shining bright, that is the nation. The country is the only state
adorned with various splendours. It is described in a phrase in Rigveda and Yajurveda that
the territory ruled by Kshatriya was called nation. In the Bhumisukta of Yajurveda, it has
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been prayed that he may establish fast and strength in our perfect nation. The word Rashtra
has been used many times in Brahmin texts and Smritis. In Vishnu Purana, the name of the
year, land, borders, people, rivers, mountains etc. have been depicted with pride. Kalidasa in
his epic ‘Raghuvansham’ has written about Indianness and Swarashtra.
In Buddhist texts also, the words raja (state) and ratha (nation) have been used at
many times. Although the main basis of the Buddhist tradition was the Dhamma and the
Sangha, there is also a detailed mention of the nation and the state. Here nation and state were
used in the same sense, hence the word state has been used more and sometimes the word
nation is also mentioned. It is mentioned in one of the stories of the Jatak that a deity got
angry and rained fire at a place called Madhya Rashtra and made the entire nation a nation. It
is clear from the above fact that the word nation was taken in the geographical context and it
also symbolized the people’s and cultural meanings inherent in the nation. It has been written
in a story of Suttanipat that whosoever enjoys the village and the nation among humans, he
should not be considered a Brahmin but a king.
Based on various stories and facts, it can be said that at that time there is a possibility
of having many nations under one state, as mentioned in the Vedic period of different states
under one nation. From the inscriptions established by the historical emperor Ashoka of the
Maurya period, it is known that in the western part of today’s Afghanistan, the frontier
region, the far south, along with the entire Indian region, there is a similarity in the same
script Brahmi and the language can also be said on this basis. It is believed that this
prevalence of language and script shows that there must have been a single culture which is
the most important element of the nation.
In this way, the concept of nation-state is not only mentioned in Vedas, Upanishads,
Smritis, Mahabharata, Ramayana and Buddhist texts in India, but the origin, development and
role of nation-state has also been described in detail. The attack on the nation-state system
was done by the invaders. From the Huns, Shakas, Turks, Mughals to the British, tried to
break the Indian culture and governance system. Whatever the system of governance in the
medieval period, there was a dictatorship and a theocratic state, but the nation was not visible.
In the modern period, the development of the concept of nation took place as a protest against
the colonial rule, mainly after the revolution of 1857. The suppression of British rule stirred
the spirit of the nation in the minds of Indians. The description of which is also seen in the
literature. Bhartendu Harishchandra writes in ‘India’s plight’ that –
भाित जननी क्यों उदास ।
बैठी इकली कोई न पास ।।
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िोिहु सब वमली के आिहु भाित भाई,

हा, हा, भाित दुदमशा न देखी जाई ।।
Along with literature, the expression of the spirit of the nation-state erupted in the field of
religion and social reform when the British raised questions on the unity of Hinduism. In
response to this, Hindu Dharma Shuddhi Movements were launched, whose aim was not only
to remove the evils existing in religion, but through it to develop the spirit of the nation. In
this sequence, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ram Krishna Mission,
Annivasant and Swami Vivekananda laid the foundation of nationalism on the basis of which
India’s freedom struggle was fought. The concept of nation like Bande Mataram by Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee, Ganpati festival of Tilak, Hindu philosophy of Arvind Ghosh, Hindu
Rashtra by Savarkar took forward the concept of nation. Today India is established as a
nation and state.
5.5 EVALUATION OF RAJYA
In ancient India, the use of the word ‘rajya’ in the Sanskrit texts, has been instead, common,
having in it the seven elements, i.e., saptanga. The controversy exists away the scholars as to
the use and meaning of the term ‘rajya’. Ghothal (A History of Indian Political Ideas)
cautions against identifying the elements of rajya with the state; Anjaria (Nature and Grounds
of Political Obligation in the Hindu State), though uses the term ‘state’ for ‘Rajya’
hesitatingly for the ‘rajya’ does not imply anything about the relationship between state and
subjects, V.P. Verma (Studies in Hindu Political Thought and its Metaphysical Foundations)
while rejecting the word ‘State’, refers to ‘rajya’ as an extremely complicated political
structure and organised populations associated with it. R.P. Kangle (”Manu and Kautilya” in
Indian Antiquary 3rd session, 1964), prefers the term ‘rule’ to state.
In most parts of the ancient and medieval India, as also during the sixteenth-
seventeenth centuries in the West, the word “state came to be commonly understood
somewhat identical with the terms “sovereign’ or ‘king’ or ‘raja’--- the Nitivakyamrita says’
“Raja is the activity of the ruler? Louis XIV says. “I am the State” Barker (Principles of
Social and Political Theory) referring to Louis XIV rightly says’ “Was he not in his own
view, as in that of his subjects, the person who enjoyed the “State and position of being the
supreme political authority, and was he not, therefore, the state.”
With the rise of the nation-state and subsequently, the democratisation of the structure
of the governmental bodies the state came to be known as what it is known now. If
sovereignty was to reside in the sovereign, sovereign was, now in the years since later
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eighteenth century in the west and the post independent era in India), not the king, but the
whole citizen-body expressing its will in the legislature. Barker, thus, concludes, “The state is
now the whole community: the whole legal association; the whole of the juridical
organisation. This is democracy, or a result of democracy; we must henceforth think of the
state as ourselves; and we must henceforth give the name of “Government to the authority
before called state-which is now seen as exercising on our behalf the power which it had
hitherto claimed as its own.”
5.5.1 The State in Ancient India
The State in ancient (as is true about the medieval) India was not, as it was with the 17th-18th
centuries. English individualists, a necessary evil, though maintenance of law and order was
one of the important functions of the state then. More than, or at least as important as the
security of the people, dharma was an essential aspect of the general conception of the polity.
Accordingly, the state was considered a political instrument to promote the cause of the
Dharma. It was a necessary benefactor, rather a necessary evil; it was an agglomeration of
power with absolute authority over the lives of the people, but was one where the absolute
authority was rarely or never used; it was though not a state chosen by the people, but it was
certainly a state which existed or cared the welfare of all dharma, in ancient India, was the
basis of the state. The king, referred to as dhritavarla, was regarded as the upholder of the
sacred law whose duty was to promote religion, encourage morality, and patronise education.
That was why he is called dharmapati in Satapatha Brahmana. This makes dharma being
described as the end of the staíc, view generally accepted by most of the Indologists. This is
not to state that the king, in ancient India was concerned mainly with the moral well-being of
the people; he was also responsible for the promotion of the material well-being of the people
as well. The state, we may therefore say, in India, provided for both material and moral
development of the individual, leading ultimately to the fullest development of the society as
a whole, all sanskrit literature of the ancient India, emphasising on Moksha through Dharma,
Artha and Kama. The ancient Indian society, wedded to Dharma, was one where the state,
through the office of the king assisted by his council and ministers, was to realise the over-all
welfare of the individual.
The State in ancient (in medieval times) India personified itself with the king; the king
was, thus, the personification of the state. The origin of the state is closely related in all
ancient writings to the origin of the kingship – be it Manu’s theory of the divine origin or
Kautilya’s theory of social contract. With regard to the origin of kingship Varma believes that
it arose in the vedic period as a part of the process of integration of families, tribes, clans, and
villages into rashtra or a state. Law (Aspects of Ancient Indian Polity), on the other hand,
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regards kingship as the handiwork of the magicians who gradually turned themselves into
kings, Hopkins (The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India)
observes that the kings were related from aristocrats, heroes and commanders of the army.
But once kings came, kingship, and state became one; the office of the king was the
institution of the state.
There is the reference of the institution of state in Vedic literature. The Ramayana
refers to the origin as well as the institution of the state:” A kingdom without a sovereign is
like a river without water, a forest without vegetation, a cow without a cowherd. The king
leads his people on the path of righteousness and guides them in integrity; he is the parent of
his subjects and their benefactors. The king, discerning good and evil, protects his kingdom;
bereft of him, the country is enveloped in darkness.” The importance of the state has also
been noted in the Mahabharata, for the Arajaka states are regarded not worth dwelling. The
end of the state, in the Mahabharata, is referred to as the attainment of the four objects of life-
Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, in a way, both material as well as moral. The Puranic
state makes Dharma as its basis; by Dharma is meant truth; it exists to promote/protect
Dharma, thus it is more or less a law upholding state. Also are referred to the three bases of
the Puranic state : Varta, Dharma, Danda, Varta, implying agriculture, cattle-rearing and
trade; Dharma signifying the eternal which holds, the world; Danda, consisting of
government, sovereignty and obedience—all rolled into one, the state, in Manu Smriti, is one
that postulates a perfect social and economic organisation. Adeveating the divine origin
theory of the state, the Manu Smriti makes the state a Saptanga having limbs such as the
Lord, Minister, Capital, Rashtra, Treasure, Army, Ally, mentioning swarashtra (friendly and
enemy states) and Mandal rashtra. The functions of the state, in the Manu Smriti are : make
all Varna observe their duties (Dharma) observance of general laws, maintenance of peace
within the state and keep the state free from external control, make laws to control the prices,
settle disputes, impart education, levy taxes, punish the criminals. Manu’s state exists to help
the people accomplish moral righteousness, wealth and pleasure. The state, in the Shukraniti,
consists of seven limbs, i.e., the state being a kingdom, the organisation of seven limbs: (1)
The sovereign is the head (2) The minister is the eye (3) friend is the ear (4) the treasure is the
mouth (5) the army is the mind (6) the fort is the arms and (7) the state is the legs. The
Shukra state seeks to attain functions such as (a) protection of person and property (b) the
administration of justice (c) spread of religion and culture, philanthropy and charity (d)
realisation of revenues.
Kautilya’s, views, as stated in Arthasastra, are, indeed, vivid. Though he has not
defined what the state exactly is, but he does refer to the seven elements of the state be free
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from wilderness, tigers and Swami (the king with qualities such as bravery, quickness of
decision, strength of mind, easily approachable sharp intellect), Amatya (the ministers-in-
charge of the entire administration), Janapada (population and land; land devoid of rocky,
saline, uneven and thorny tracts and wild animals, and abound in fertile lands, timber and
elephant forests); Durga (fortress, the military establishment to protect the people from
natural calamities, also a kind of arsenal, a storage of military artilleries and communication);
Kosa (treasury, filled with gold, silver, precious jewels, and gems, should be able to
withstand any calamity); Danda (consisting of hereditary and hired soldiers, i.e. force,
soldiers be skilled); Mitra (friendly states). Every element is regarded at par with another in
the Arthasastra.
With regard to the origin of the state, Kautilya seems to have adveated social contract
theory. He says that the state originated when people got weary of the law of the fish
(Matsyanyaya). The people selected Manu to be their king. It was, he explains, settled that
the king should receive one-sixth of the grain and one-tenth of the merchandise and of gold as
his due share. The revenue so collected would enable the king to ensure the security and well
being of the subjects.
The state, in Kautilya’s Arthasastra, is presided over by the Swami, the king; there are
officials who advise him on matters relating to the administration; he rules over his territory
from a fortified capital; the treasury and the army ensure stability and security while the allies
help him keep the kingdom safe. This is what is the crux of the Saptanga theory, and yet,
while discussing the troubles of the king, Kautilya seems to regard the two elements as
primary ones in the state: the King and the kingdom, the king symbolising sovereignty and
the kingdom, the state.
The Kautilyan state is monarchical, for he desired to establish a strong and powerful
monarch with a view to protect the life and property of the state. And yet, he demands of the
king to protect customs, religion and morality, embracing, thus, the whole range of human
life-social, economic, cultural, religious, political. The protection of Dharma remains,
however, the most important function of the Kautilyan state.
In Kautilya’s views, the promotion of the welfare of the people is an essential task of
the king personified in the institution of the state. Kautilya says in the Arthasastra, power is
necessary and it means strength, but it is not the end; the end, according to Aristotle, is
happiness of the people. While the state, he argues, has to possess power, its role object is to
promote the happiness of the people.
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The Kautilyan state looks after the material well-being of the state, but it does not stop
there; also protects the social, religious and the moral lives of the subjects. It supports, the
poor, the orphan, the aged, the helpless, the infirm, the pregnant women and the newly born
babies.
Sanitation and hygiene did not escape Kautilya’s eyes. The villages and the cities
were to be built according to plan; every house had to have a dunghill and an outlet; throwing
of garbage on the roads was an offence; dumping of carcass or dead bodies on the road, was a
grave offence; adulteration of grains, oils, alkalies, salt, medicine was a punishable offence.
The Kautilyan state ram a few important industries, though it could not be labelled as
a socialist state; there did run private enterprises. It would be safe to all the Kautilyan
economy as more or less, a mixed one. The state regulated trade and commerce with a view
to promote the welfare of the people – the market towns were established and the market
hours fixed.
To conclude, one may say that the ends of the state, according to Kautilya, were
confined not merely to the maintenance of law and order or the protection of the people, but
extended to enable the individual attain the highest development. It appeared, more or less, as
a welfare state of our times. There was no other greater object than the happiness of the
people. Aristotle adveates emphatically, this function is a Sutra which reads: “In the
happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the king and what is beneficial for the subjects
is his own benefit”. The order of the state, we may argue, is not merely for the sake of order;
it also is, as Kautilya puts it, for protection, conversation, development and distribution – the
state must create what is there, and distribute what has been increased.
5.5.2 The State in Ashoka’s Dhamma
Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma, meaning the universal law or
righteousness or, if one likes to extend, one may say, the social and religious order found in a
society. The word, in a way, has a much more general connotation judging by the way in
which the word, Dhamma was used in his edicts, though Ashoka gave it a wider meaning.
Ashoka’s inscriptions consist of two types – the small group, the edicts, describe his
adherence to Buddhism, two larger group, as inscribed on rock surfaces, include Major and
Minor Rock edicts, and the Pillar edicts, propagating his ideas, in the manner of exhortations
to his subjects. All these define what he understands by Dhamma, a concept of utmost self
introspection, utmost obedience, and utmost enthusiasm, including in it deeds such as
compassion, liberality, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodness and notions such as
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noble and pure intentions, proper maintenance of social relationship and absentation from
animal slaughter.
A brief summary of the Major Rock Edicts and the Pillar Edicts gives Ashoka’s
theory of state, the Minor Rock Edicts dealing purely with his Buddhist activities.
The first Major Rock Edicts contains the prohibitions of animal sacrifice, and festive
gatherings : “Here no living thing is to be killed and sacrificed, and no assembly is to be
held.” The emphasis be noted, is more in the sacrificing of animals rather than their killing,
i.e. prohibition of the ritual of sacrificing animals.
The second Major Rock Edict relates to certain measures of social welfare including
such as medical centres for men and animals, the construction of roads supplied with wells
and lived with shady trees, and the planting of medicinal herbs.
The third Rock Edict contains that liberality to Brahmans is a virtue 2 tolerance and
broad-mindedness towards other sects.
The fourth Rock Edict assumes that the policy of Dhamma has improved the general
conditions of the people and there has been a tremendous moral advancement, suggesting
almost an ideal state – a period of prosperity and righteousness when men lived as Gods and
when Gods were not afraid to mingle with men.
The fifth Rock Edict is devoted to matters of social and administrative welfare,
making prisons as reformatories, not a place of torture or a house of doom. It also refers to
the appointment of the dhamamahamattas whose work was concerned with the general
welfare of the populace with emphasis on the teaching and practice of Dhamma.
The sixth Rock Edict makes the relationship between the king and his subjects via the
mahamattas even more clear. The mahamattas are told to make their reports to the king at any
time. The edict gives an impression that Ashoka exercised control over the state through a
well-organised system of officers and couriers. His experience of kingship, his knowledge of
it from the theoretical works of the period and his own personality have made him aware of
the responsibilities of being king of such a vast territory.
The seventh Rock Edict pleads for toleration among all sects, the king realising the
harm these sectarian conflicts would produce.
The eighth Rock Edict stresses the importance of tours, i.e., the Dhammayatas.
Ashoka himself states, the purpose of these tours was manifold, visiting the brahmanas and
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making gifts, visiting the aged and supporting them with gold, visiting the people of the
country and instructing them in high morals.
The ninth Rock Edict maintains that the practice of morality is infinitely more
valuable than the observance of the ceremonies, i.e., ceremonies performed during illness, at
the birth of the child, or when setting out on a journey etc.
The tenth Rock Edict denounces fame and glory and reasserts that the only glory the
king desires is that his subjects follow the principles of Dhamma, the reason being (a)
obtaining merit in next world and (b) elimination of danger to man in this.
The eleventh Rock Edict contains the explanation of the Dhamma. The Dhamma, for Ashoka,
is a way of life and the essence of what he had culped from his moral teachings. This edict
also stresses the importance of the family, caste system accelerating the development of the
family as an institution of primary importance...,
The twelveth Rock Edict is a direct and emphatic plea for toleration amongst the
various sects, adding, thus the overall progress of the essential doctrines of all the sects.
The thirteenth Rock edict is important in so far as it considers deplorable the deaths
and deportations that accompany war, upsetting in the process all normal rules of social
behaviour. Ashoka insists that the idea of Dhamma is opposed to the idea of war.
The last Rock edict is a short one, explaining the intentions of the king to spread the
teachings of the Dhamma to all the subjects in every form.
The Minor Rock edicts, associated with Ashoka’s Buddhism, do not reveal his ideas
on the theory of the state, though the Pillar edicts do. The first Pillar edict states the progress
achieved through Dhamma,
“For this is my principle: to protect through Dhamma, to administer affairs according to
Dhamma, to please the people with Dhamma to guard the empire with Dhamma.” The second
Pillar edict, continuing along with the first, describes Dhamma as a minimum of sins, many
virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, and purity. The idea, in this edict, attempts to
convey the idea of social and personal relationships, leading, thus, to a better understanding
of social life. The third Pillar edict makes a distinction between virtuous deeds and evil
doings, latter leading to ruins and destruction.
The fourth Pillar edict insists on the uniformity of judicial proceedings and of
punishments, the principle being equality of all subjects in the eyes of law, and also equality
of law throughout the empire. The fifth Pillar edict orders that certain animals are not to be
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killed on certain days (considered, for example, sacred in Buddhism), and others are not to be
killed at all. The sixth Pillar edict explain the purpose of the edicts, that being a concern for
the welfare and happiness of the king’s subjects. The seventh Pillar edict mentions the
implementation of the reforms carried out in the well-being of the people.
What appears, following the study of the major Rock and the Pillar Edicts, to be
Ashoka’ theory of state, as incorporated in his Dhamma, may be summed up in his view of
kingship as (i) a theory of kingly exertion and efforts, (ii) a theory of the well-being of all,
and (iii) the paternalist theory conceiving of people as children of the king, the father : “All
men are my children, and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain welfare and
happiness, both in this world and the next, so do I desire for all men.” He expects king
possessed with qualities such as truthfulness, uprightness, freedom from malice,
compassionateness and forbearance. He also institutes a set of officers, called Dhamma-
mahamatta, as officers of righteousness to ensure the norms and rules of Dhamma are
implemented by all.
To conclude, one may say that the Dhamma of Ashoka assumes a state of non-
violence, incorporating a number of ideals and practices. Abstinence from killing was an
important one, so was also the insistence of considerate family relationships and social ones,
whether these were between parents and children, elders and younger people, friends or
various ideological sects. Also was important in Ashoka’s Dhamma’s social and political
theory, a programme of social welfare such as providing medical facilities, good
communications and prohibiting useless expenditure on superstitions. Moderation was, in his
theory of State, the keynote of thoughts and action; there was no attempt of coercion of any
kind, principles for suggested and it was left to the conscience of each individual to make a
choice. Dhamma, the righteousness, remains the very basis of Ashoka’s theory of State.
5.5.3. Medieval Era
The Ain-i-Akbari describes the state as it existed in the medieval India, in Akbar’s times, the
concept as it came to be understood and the institutions which arose out of it.
The state, as the Ain-i-Akbari (in its own words) states, is a divine institution, the royalty
being a light emanating from God, and a ray from the sun, the illuminator of the universe:
Akbar used to worship the sun as the visible representative of God, and the immediate source
of life. Through God, the king obtains qualities such as (i) a paternal love towards the
subjects; (ii) a large heart : nothing disagreeable unsettles him, nothing discriminatory
elements obstruct him, nothing indecisiveness rebutes; (iii) a daily increasing trust in God :
God makes do him the act, whatever he does, he does on the dictates of God, (iv) Prayer and
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devotion : adversities would not cause him to forget God, reason reigning the desires, his
tyranny never oversteps its limits, it works in favour of the weaker. Royalty, is the Ain-i-
Akbari, is a divinely institution, and the king, a representative of God, the apostle of divinity.
The king is more than a ruler in the Ain-i-Akbari, he is a public servant, he is a patron father,
he is generous and acts always as an example for others. When he sits in judgement, Abul
Fazal writes, “the petitioner seems to be the judge, and he himself...the suitor justice. He does
not permit petitioner to be delayed on the path of hope...... He is forever searching after those
who speak the truth and is not displeased with words that seem bitter but are in real sweet. He
considers the nature of the words and the rank of the speaker. He is not content with not
committing violence, but he must see that no injustice is done within his realm.”
The king, as the personification of the state/kingdom, is always attentive to the health
of the body politic, and is, therefore, ready to apply remedies to the several diseases thereof.
The political constitution, like the animal constitution, becomes well tempered by a proper
division of ranks; and by means of the warmth of the ray of uncertainty and concord. The
king has to put each class (warriors, artificers/ merchants, the learned, the husband men) in its
proper place. These four classes make up the state, each working in its place with all honesty
and hard work to make the body-politic stand on firm grounds and maintain its equilibrium.
But the body-politic too needs officers to maintain peace and prosperity. The Ain-i-
Akbari, therefore, refers to fourfold division of officers. These are the nobles, the assistants,
the companions and the servants. The nobles resemble fire, being ardent in devotion and
conquering in dealing with foes. These include, for example, the Vakil as the emperor’s
lieutenant in all matters connected with the realm and the household, and is also responsible
for promotion and degradation, appointments and dismissals, having in him the qualities of
wisdom, nobility of mind, affability, firmness and magnamanity; the Mir-mail; i.e. the keeper
of the real, the Mir-yakhshi, the Bar-begi, the Qurbegi, the Mir-tozak the Mir-yahri, the
Mirmanzil, the Khawan rātār, the Munshi, the Qush-begi, the Akhtabegi—all these, the
ministerial staff assigned to perform their respective duties. The (b) assistants of victory
include Vizier also called Diwan together with the Mustawfi, the Sahib-i-tawzi, the Awarja
Nawiz, the Mir-saman, the Nazir-i-Buyutat, the Diwan-i-Buyuttat, the Mushrif, the Waqil’a
Nawis, the Amil – all these collectors of revenue, who in the administration, resemble wind,
and at times a heart-rejoicing breeze, and at other times, a hot pestilential blast the Vizier, at
the head, is the member of the Divine Faith, is one, a Meilful arithmetician, free from avarice,
warm-hearted, active in business, pleasing in his style, clear in his writing, truthful and a man
of integrity.
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The (c) companions of the king, known as the ornaments of the court by the light of
their wisdom, resemble water in the affairs of the body-politic. Wisely fettering ambition on
the battle-field of the world, they extinguish the sparks of wrath by the rain of their wisdom.
At the head of this class stands the philosopher and include in it the Sadr, the Mir-Adl, the
Qazi, the physician, the astronomer, the poet, the soothsayer. The philosopher purifies the
morals of the nation, and grinds himself with the noble aim of putting the welfare of mankind
upon a sound basis.
The (d) servants perform the duties about the king. They occupy in the system of the
state the position of the earth. As much, they lie, Abu’l-Fazl says, on the high road of
submission, and in the dust, before the majesty of the king. The table servant, the armour
bearer, the servants incharge of the sharbat and the water, the servant incharge of the
mattresses and the wardrobe belong to this class.
The Ain-i-Akbari mentions four persons as the chief supports of the state. These are :
i. An upright collector : he protects the husbandman, watches over the subjects,
develops the country and improves the revenues;
ii. A conscientious commander of the army; he is active and strict;
iii. A Chief justice: he is free from avarice and selfishness, who sits on the eminence of
circumspection and insight, and obtains his ends by putting various questions, without
exclusively relying on witnesses and oaths;
iv. An intelligencer: he transmits the events of the time without addition or diminution;
he always keeps to the thread of truth and penetration.
The Ain-i-Akbari states that a just king is one who makes himself acquainted with the
characters of men; should be the ragacious people who lay at one extreme, and should be able
to keep himself away from the vicious men, at the other extreme; he should listen to the
former, and improve, if not kill, the latter. A just king should know the people—their rank
and character, and then should regulate business accordingly.
For Abu’l Fazl a great king is one who knows well how the household, the army and
the empire are regulated. He concludes: “The exalted monarch of our times is no endowed
with the laudable-dispositions that it is no exaggeration to call him their exordium. From the
light of his wisdom, he discerns the worth of men, and kindles the lamp of their
energy...adorns his wisdom with the beauty of practice”.
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The theory of state in the ancient and medieval India, by way of conclusion, may thus
be described as the theory of benevolent monarchy. In terins of ethics, it is oriented towards
the ideals of norms and morality; in terms of administrations, it is oriented towards the
welfare and the happiness of the people. As against the western state type the Indian state of
ancient and medieval times has been non-exploitative, promotive, accommodative, its all-
comprehensiveness notwithstanding.
5.5.4 Modern Era
The entire western world including India considers the nation-state to be a modern idea.
Andersen considered a fictitious community, then Galner defined it by linking it to
capitalism. In colonial countries like India, the growth of nationalism erupted as an
opposition to imperialism. With the first freedom struggle in India, in the form of social
reform, consciousness developed in the Indian public towards the nation. This consciousness
of the nation did not remain one for many days and the theory of two nations emerged, which
resulted in the partition of India and the birth of two new nations, India-Pakistan. India has
been established as a strong nation since independence and is growing ahead.
5.6 CONCLUSION
Indian civilization and culture is very ancient, full of different types of diversity. Based on
the theory of the modern state, though the formation of India as a state-nation is considered
since 1947, but based on the available literary evidence, it can be said that India as a nation
existed from the Vedic period. The single cultural values of different communities, traditions
are like the energy and vitality of the Indian state – nation, scholars like Shankar, Chaitanya,
Vivekananda, Tagore, Savarkar and Gandhi represent the global vision of the Indian state –
nation, from ancient times to Till date, India’s identity has been Vishwadhaiva Kutumbakam,
India as a state-nation is a supporter of justice and humanity, so today it is marching towards
becoming a vishva guru through cultural nationalism.

1. Discuss the evolution of nation and state in ancient India.
2. Discuss Kautilya’s theory of state.
3. What kind of state emerges from Ashoka’s Dhamma.
4. Briefly describe the institutions of monarchy, and the administration as described in
Ain-i-Akbari.
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5.8 REFERENCES
• Abu’l, Fazl S. The Ain-i-Akbari, New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation,
third edition 1977.
• Altekar, AS., The State and Government in Ancient India, third edition, Patna Motilal
Banarsidass, 1971.
• Basham, AL., Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture, Bombay: Asia Publishing, 1966.
• BeniPrasad; Theory of Government in Ancient India, Allahabad, Central Book Depot,
1968.
• Ghoshal, U.N., History of the Indian Political Ideas, Bombay: Oxford University
Press, 1959.
• Law, NN., Aspecis of Ancient Indian Polity, London : Oxford University Press, 1921.
• Sen, AK., Studies in Kautilya, Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Lal, 1958.
• Sharan, P., Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions Meerut : Meenakshi
Prakashan, 1978. 9 -Thapar, R., Ashoka, Delhi Oxford University Press, 12th edition,
1992.
• Early India, From the Origins to AD 1300, London: Penguin Book, 2002.
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Unit-6
VARNA AUR JATI

Dr. Mangal Deo
STRUCTURE
6.2 Introduction
6.3 The Varna System in India
6.4 Evolution and Nature of the Varna System
6.5 Origin of Jati (Caste System) in India
6.5.1 Traditional Theory
6.5.2 Breed-based Theory
6.5.3 Political Theory
6.5.4 Professional Theory
6.5.5 Developmental Theory
6.6 Features of the Jati (Caste System) in India
6.7 Major Functions of the Jati (Caste System)
6.8 Dysfunction in the Jati (Caste System)
6.9 India has a Distinct Jati (Cast System) as a Social System
6.10 Difference between Varna and Jati
6.11 Conclusion
6.13 References

1. Study of the origin of Varna and Jati in India
2. Study of the role of Varna and Jati in Indian society
3. Study of Varna and Jati relations in Indian society and politics
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6.2 INTRODUCTION
Varna and Jati have played an important role in the social and political structure of India
since ancient times. Varna and Jati are two of the unique features of India. Today, there are
more than three thousand castes and sub-castes in India, and castes are related to Varna. In
India, Varna and Jati have been interrelated; from Vedic texts to Upanishads and other
ancient texts, evidence of the varna system is found. In the Vedic texts, it is written that it
was based on labour and occupation. In ancient Indian religious texts, the origin of Varna is
considered to be from religion and Brahma, while the caste is believed to originate from
Varna itself, which is a hierarchical social system. Common occupation and social relations
determine caste. This study mainly studies the origin of Varna and Jati systems and their
impact on Indian society and politics.
The varna system has existed in India since ancient times. Varna divides society into
four varnas: “First Brahma, Second Kshatriya, Third Vaishya, and Fourth Shudra”. Varna
system has been mentioned in Indian literature, in which the Vedas, Brahman Granth
Upanishad, Mahabharata, Ramayana Gita and Smriti texts mention evidence of this. Many
foreign travellers, including Megasthenes and Hiuen Tsang, have written about the varna
system of India. The word “Varna” is believed to originate from a large metal, which means
to describe or select; this selection refers to the selection of business. Shri Krishna ji
described Virtue and Karma as the basis for the origin of Varnas in the Bhagavad Gita.
6.3 THE VARNA SYSTEM IN INDIA

There is a difference of opinion among scholars about the question of when and how the
varna system originated; different scholars have different views about the origin of the varna
system. It is written in the Purusha Sukta of Rigveda that Brahman emerged from the mouth
of a great man, Kshatriya emerged from the arm, Vaishya emerged from the thigh, and
Shudra emerged from the feet. It is also mentioned in the Peace Festival of the Mahabharata.
‘मख
ु जा ब्राह्माणास्‍तात् बहुजा: क्षत्रिया स्‍मतृ ा:।
उरुजा धत्रििो राजि् पादजा: पररचारका:।।’
Thus, the context of the origin of different organs is related to their work; the origin of
Brahman from the mouth is related to the work of study and teaching, i.e., the act of
speaking, and it also demonstrates the society’s excellence. The origin of Kshatriyas is said to
be from the arm due to the task of hand defence. Jangha works to support the body, so the
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work of the world is to help society through production. Shudra’s position is like that of feet,
which perform the work of labour but do not get its fruits.
Bhrigu considers the origin of character on the basis of colour. He has written that the
colour of a Brahmin is white, that of a Shatriya is red, that of a Vashya is yellow and that of a
Shudra is Asita. In the scientific age, the origin of character on the basis of human colour has
been rejected. Some scholars consider religion and karma as the basis for the emergence of
the Varna system. There are four basic needs of society: - First, education, i.e., reading and
learning: teaching; Brahman’s work; second, work related to governance and security
systems; third, the Kshatriya’s work of economic production and development; and the
Shudra’s work of artificial service. A character system has emerged to meet these
requirements.
Many scholars support the varna system on the basis of virtue. They give as an
example the Vanaparva of the Mahabharata, in which the dialogue between Yudhishthira and
the water God is described. The water God asks Yudhishthira, “Who is Brahman?”
Yudhishthira explains that one who is truthful, compassionate, forgiving, sensitive, and
ascetic is a Brahman. The water God asks another question: If this quality is present in a
Shudra, will it be a Brahman? And if a Brahman does not have this quality, then it will not be
considered a Brahman. Then Yudhishthira said that character is determined on the basis of
virtue, that is, all are equal by birth, but their characters are determined by qualities.
Satogun Brahmin
Rajogun Kshatriya
Rajo+Tamogun Vaishya
Tamoguna Shudra
But contrary to these views, some scholars have considered the origin of the varna system on
the basis of birth; they argue that the character of every human being is determined by his
birth. The character that the parents belong to will also have the same character, that is, that
of Brahman’s son, Brahman’s kshatriya devotee. Despite not having the necessary qualities in
the son of Brahman, he is called Brahman, and even after having Brahminic qualities in a son
like Yudhishthira, he is called Kshatriya.
Scholars such as All-India Radhakrishnan, Gandhi, Panikkar, and Ghuriye have
presented their views among modern Indian scholars, and it was discovered that Karma and
Virtue were primacy in determining the system of varna, but after some time, the qualities
obtained from birth cannot be denied.
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6.4 EVOLUTION AND NATURE OF THE VARNA SYSTEM

It is generally known that the system of Varna developed after the arrival of Aryans in India.
It is known from the evidence that Aryans arrived in India about four thousand years ago, but
since then the Varna System has existed, although there has been a change in its form. In the
Vedic period, the system of varna was free. The words ‘Shudra’ and ‘Vaishya’ were first seen
in the Rig Veda’s “Purusha Sukta”. The initial form of the varna system appears flexible and
simple, because the simplicity of varna is gauged from the fact that, despite being replaced at
the highest position, brahmins only accepted poverty and renounced the state share.
The evidence of ancient texts shows that the class has occupied the highest position
among all other civilizations on the planet. In the Indian varna system, only Brahmins have
accepted renunciation. If Brahmins had the supreme power, who would have controlled
them? Because the Brahmin class attempted to control the ruling class when it came to its
whims. Parshuram’s suppression of the Kshatriyas twenty-one times is an example of this.
The simplicity of the beginning gradually became complicated. If the evidence is studied
extensively, then in the post-Vedic period, there was a trend towards character separation.
The rules and laws prescribed for all castes gave rise to a sense of sangha between the
Brahmin Kshatriyas. As the formula evolved, it became more complex. The sutras tried to
organise it more and more; the change of caste became very difficult, and the rules related to
marriage and food became strict. Due to this, the supremacy of the Brahmins was established.
Shudras were separated from intellectual and religious works in this.
At the beginning of the epic period, Varna took the form of a person; for example,
even after the Kshatriya-like qualities were present in Karna, he continued to be called
Sutaputra, and Eklavya continued to be called Shudra. However, mutual marriages were
condemned by the sutras as Anulom marriages. 6th century BC by then, the varna’s situation
had become so complex that Buddha and Mahavira had opposed many of the evils arising in
it. Later, Manu also formulated elaborate rules for different classes. Children born on the
basis of the blood mixture of foreign races and Indians entering India have been accepted on
the basis of colour. After that, the existence of new groups and new castes also began to
emerge, and gradually so much complexity arose in it that it became difficult to find out that
a person works according to his ability, but on the basis of birth, why did he not give up his
claim to character? Thus, caste was born in place of varna.
At the beginning of the post-Vedic period, the Chaturvarna system was clearly
established in society. During this time, we begin to notice differences between classes for
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the first time. Where the “Shudra” class was recognised as a separate class after this time in
which the Shudra class was described as a servant of all three classes and was disqualified for
religious activities and other activities. In the texts of the post-Vedic period, different ways of
calling “Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras” have been indicated. Where Agni and
Brahaspati devas were considered the gods of Brahmins, Indra, Varuna, and Yama were
considered the gods of Kshatriyas, Vasu, Rudra, and Vishwa dev were considered the gods of
Vaishyas, and Pushan was considered the god of Shudra. Shudra, according to the
Mahabharata, is devout but unfit to perform yajna. However, a feeling of mutual
discrimination between the characters had begun to emerge. But even now, this social system
of varnas is not so complicated because there are examples of men from lower castes like
Kavach, Vatsa, and Satyakam Jabal becoming Brahmins. In the Vashishtha Dharmasutra,
shuddhi is called “impure like a crematorium.”
The form that appears in the epics about the varna system seems to resemble the post-
Vedic period. Some Shudras like Matang, Vidur gained a prestigious place in society at that
time by doing good deeds. Yudhishthira also invited Bhagadatta, a Malechha Shudra king, to
commemorate the Rajasuya Yajna. The alphabet system was considered a full-fledged birth
at the time of the memories, and there is a detailed explanation of the occupations and duties
of different characters in memory texts. According to Kautilya, it is necessary to follow
swadharma to attain heaven and salvation, but by doing the opposite, a feeling of hybridity
arises. which can lead to the destruction of the world. In the Manusmriti text, the Shakas are
called “Vratya Kshatriyas,” who are generally considered to be devout. The principles of the
varna system are clearly determined in Manusmriti. Until the advent of the Gupta period, the
varna system had remained intact. The law of Anulom and Pratilom marriages was present in
the memories, which were recognized. External invasions had caused chaos in society after
the Gupta period, so an attempt was made to establish the varna system by providing it with a
solid foundation.
6.5 ORIGIN OF JATI (CASTE SYSTEM) IN INDIA

Indian society is identified on the basis of Jati (caste). Caste is the most important element in
today’s society and politics; the Jati (caste) system today cannot be understood without the
concept of electoral politics. Even though the caste system is criticized, the role of caste in
Indian politics is clear, from voting to the formation of the cabinet. Jati (Caste) is a
hierarchical system in which stratification is found. The origin of caste among scholars has
led to different opinions about their role in Indian society. Some scholars support the origin
of Jati (caste) in the caste system itself. The question arises whether the caste system existed
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even in ancient times, had any role in society and politics, and can be analysed on the basis of
the available literary sources. The following are some of the major theories about the origins
of Jati (caste) in India:
6.5.1 Traditional Theory
The traditional theory believes that the Jati (Caste) system originated from divine origin, and
according to this theory, the caste system is an extension of the Varna System, where the four
varnas originated from the body of Brahma. The Brahmins, who were primarily teachers and
intellectuals and comprised the head of Brahma, were at the top of the hierarchy. Kshatriyas,
warriors and rulers, were made up of his arms; Vaishyas, or merchants, were made from his
thighs; and at the bottom were Shudras, made from the feet of Brahma. That is, because the
arms provide protection, the thighs allow you to farm or trade, and the feet assist the entire
body, the Shudras’ duty is to serve all others. Supporters of this theory cite Purushasukta,
Manusmriti, etc. of the Rigveda to support their position.
6.5.2 Breed-based Theory
The Sanskrit word for Jati (caste) is varna, which means colour. The caste stratification of
Indian society originated in the Chaturvarna system: “Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and
Shudras.” Indian sociologist D.N. Majumdar, in his book “Races and Culture in India,”
mentions that the caste system took its birth after the arrival of Aryans in India. Rig Vedic
literature emphasises very significantly the difference between Aryans and non-Aryans
(slaves), not only in their colour but also in their speech, religious practices, and physical
characteristics.
The varna system prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on the division
of labour and occupation. The Rig Veda often mentions the three classes: Brahma, Kshatra,
and Vaishyas Brahma and Kshatra represented the poet-priest and warrior-chief, respectively.
Vis included all the common people. The name of the fourth class, “Shudra,” appears only
once in the Rig Veda. The Shudra class represented domestic servants.
6.5.3 Political Theory
According to this theory, the caste system is a clever tool invented by Brahmins to place
themselves on the highest ladder of the social hierarchy. According to Dr. Ghuraye. “Jati is a
Brahmanical offspring of Indo-Aryan culture that was raised in Ganga and then spread to
other parts of India,” The Brahmins also combined the concept of the king’s spiritual merit
through a priest or priests to get the support of the ruler of the country.
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6.5.4 Professional Theory

The hierarchy of Jati is according to occupation. Occupations that were considered superior
and respectable made those individuals better than those who were engaged in dirty
businesses. According to Newfield, “only work and function are responsible for the origin of
the caste structure in India.” Occupational differentiation and many subspecies, such as
blacksmiths, chamars, and Teli (oil pressers), came along with functional differentiation.
6.5.5 Developmental Theory
According to this theory, the caste system did not come into existence on any particular date.
It is the result of a long process of social development.
• Family-based business
• Brahmins want to keep themselves pure.
• Lack of rigid unitary control of the state
• Reluctance of rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom
• The “Karma” and “Dharma” theories also explain the origin of the caste system.
While karma theory holds the view that a man is born into a particular caste because of the
result of his action in the previous incarnation, the doctrine of religion states that a man who
accepts the caste system and the principles of the caste to which he belongs is living
according to religion. Confirmation of one’s religion occurs even at birth in the rich upper
caste, and the violation gives rise to the lower and poorer castes.
• Exclusive family, ancestor worship, and sanskar food ideas
• The clash of opposing cultures, especially of patriarchal and matriarchal systems
• Clash of races, colour bias, and conquest
• Deliberate economic and administrative policies followed by different winners
• Geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula
• Foreign invasions
• Rural social structure
Thus the first three classes are called Dwija (born twice) because they have to undergo diksha
sanskar, which symbolises rebirth. “Shudras” were called “Monothetic” (once born). The
caste system developed strongly after the Mauryan period, mainly after the establishment of
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the Shunga dynasty by Pushyamitra Shunga (184 BC); this dynasty was the strong protector
of “Brahmanism.” Through Manusmriti, the Brahmins were once again successful in
organising themselves as dominants, and strict restrictions were imposed on shudras.
The Chinese scholar Hiuen Tsang, who visited India, wrote that “Brahmanism was dominant
in India, the system of religion was ruled by caste, and people who followed unclean
occupations such as butchers and manual scavengers had to live outside the city.”
6.6 FEATURES OF THE JATI (CASTE SYSTEM) IN INDIA

1. Division of Society: Society is divided into various small social groups called castes.
Each of these races is a well-developed social group, the membership of which is
determined by birth.
2. Hierarchy: According to Louis Dumont, castes teach us a fundamental social theory
of hierarchy. At the top of this hierarchy is the Brahmin caste, and at the bottom is the
untouchable caste. There are intermediate castes in the middle, whose relative status is
not always clear.
3. Endogamy: This is a key feature, namely that members of a race or sub-caste must
marry within their caste or sub-caste. Violation of the rule of endogamy is meant to be
related to exclusion and loss of race. However, hypergamy (the practise of women
marrying someone who is wealthy or of an upper caste or social status) and hypogamy
(marriage with a person of low social status) were also prevalent. Tribal extroverts are
also maintained in each caste. Each caste is subdivided into smaller units based on
tribe. Member of a tribe are considered heirs to a common ancestor, so marriage
within the same tribe is forbidden.
4. Hereditary status and occupation: The Greek traveller Megasthenes of India in 300
BC mentioned hereditary occupation as one of the two characteristics of the caste
system, the other being endogamy.
5. Restrictions on food and drink: Usually, due to the perception that one caste is
polluted, it will not accept cooked food from another caste that is below itself on a
social scale. There were also various taboos related to food. The taboo of cooking,
which defines individuals who can cook food, The taboo of eating can determine the
ritual to be followed in the meal. a prohibition that relates to the person with whom
one can take food. Finally, the taboo that relates to the nature of the pot (whether
made of earth, copper, or brass) that one can use for drinking or cooking for example,
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Brahmins in North India only accepted cooked food (cooked in ghee) from certain
castes below them. However, no person will accept raw (cooked in water) food
prepared by the lower caste. Food prepared by Brahmins is acceptable to all, due to
their long-standing dominance in the hotel industry. Beef was not allowed by any
caste except Harijans.
6. A special name: Every race has a special name, although we can recognise it.
Sometimes, a business is also associated with a particular caste.
7. Concept of purity and pollution: The upper castes claimed ritual, spiritual, and
racial purity, which they maintained by keeping the lower castes away through the
perception of pollution. The concept of pollution implies that a lower-caste man’s
touch will pollute or impure an upper-caste person. even their shade is considered
sufficient to pollute an upper-caste person.
8. Caste Panchayat: The status of each caste is carefully protected not only by caste
laws but also by conventions. These are implemented openly by the community
through a governing body or board called a caste panchayat. These panchayats in
different regions and castes have been designated in a special fashion, such as
Kuldaria in Madhya Pradesh and Jokhila in South Rajasthan.
6.7 MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE JATI (CASTE SYSTEM)

It has accommodated many communities, ensuring each of them a monopoly over a specific
means of livelihood.
1. Individuals were provided social security and social recognition. It is the caste of the
individual that determines his choice in marriage; the role of state clubs, orphanages,
and profit societies Apart from this, it also offers him health insurance benefits. There
is even a provision for their last rites.
2. It has passed on the knowledge and skills of the hereditary occupation of one caste
from one generation to another, which has helped preserve culture and ensured
productivity.
3. Caste plays an important role in the process of socialisation by teaching individuals
the culture and traditions, values, and norms of their society.
4. Through Jajmani relations, it has also given rise to interdependent interactions
between different castes. The caste worked as a trade union and protected its members
from exploitation.
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5. Promoted political stability, as Kshatriyas were generally protected from political

competition, conflict, and violence by the caste system.
6. Maintained racial purity through endogamy.
7. Expertise resulted in higher-quality goods production, which boosted economic
growth. As a result, many Indian handicraft items gained international recognition.
6.8 DYSFUNCTION IN THE JATI (CASTE SYSTEM)

The caste system imposes a curb on economic and intellectual advancement and is a major
obstacle in the way of social reforms as it restricts economic and intellectual opportunities to
a certain section of the population.
1. It reduces the efficiency of labour and prevents the full mobility of labour, capital, and
productive effort.
2. It perpetuates the exploitation of economically weaker and socially inferior castes,
especially the untouchables.
3. It has caused untold hardships for women by insisting on practises such as child
marriage, widow-remarriage prohibition, women’s segregation, and so on.
4. She opposes real democracy by giving political monopolies to Kshatriyas in the past
and acting as a vote bank in the current political scenario. There are political parties
that represent only one caste. For example, the BSP was formed by Kanshi Ram
mainly to represent SCs, STs, and OBCs.
5. It has stood in the way of national and collective consciousness and proved disruptive
rather than a unifying factor. Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in politics,
reservations in jobs and education, inter-caste marriages, etc., such as the demand for
Jati reservation and agitation by the Patidar community.
6. There is scope for religious conversion. Due to the atrocities of the upper castes, the
people of the lower castes are converting to Islam and Christianity.
7. The caste system stands in the way of modernization by forcing an individual to act
strictly according to caste norms, resisting change.
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6.9 INDIA HAS A DISTINCT JATI (CASTE SYSTEM) AS A SOCIAL

SYSTEM
The caste system is found in other countries like Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Caste-like
systems are also found in countries like Indonesia, China, Korea, Yemen, and some countries
in Africa and Europe. But what distinguishes the Indian caste system from the rest is the main
theme of purity and pollution, which is either peripheral or negligible in other similar systems
around the world. In Yemen, a hereditary race exists: the Al-Akhadam, who are hired as
perennial manual workers. Burakumins in Japan, originally members of excluded
communities in the Japanese feudal era, include people who are considered unclean or
contaminated by death.
There has been a cultural continuity in India that no other civilization has had.
Ancient systems, religions, and cultures of other civilizations are mostly gone. In India,
history exists, and even external empires co-opted the system rather than replacing it. Caste
has been merged into a modern religion, making it difficult to remove it.
• India has integrated many systems more easily. What is known as “caste” in
Portuguese or English is actually composed of 3 different components: caste, mass,
and character. Caste is a commercial identity. The mass is an ethnic identity.
Character is a philosophical identity. They have been more tightly mixed over the
centuries.
• In the world’s most transformative period—the last 3 centuries—India spent most of
it under European colonialism. As a result, India has changed numerous times. Most
of the changes in the system came only in 1950, when India became a republic.
• Theoretically, caste as a cultural phenomenon (i.e., as a matter of ideology or value
system) is found only in India, whereas when it is seen as a structural phenomenon, it
is also found in other societies.
• There are four sociological approaches to race by distinguishing between two levels
of theoretical formulation, namely, cultural and structural and universal and specific.
These four approaches are cultural-universalist, cultural-specific, structural-
universalist, and structural-specific.
• The structural-specific view of caste states that the caste system is confined to Indian
society.
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• The structural-universal category believes that caste in India is a common

phenomenon of a closed form of social stratification found around the world.
• The third position of sociologists such as Ghurye, who regard race as a culturally
universal phenomenon, holds that caste-like cultural bases of stratification are found
in most traditional societies. Caste in India is a particular form of status-based social
stratification. This approach was devised early on by Max Weber.
• The cultural-specific approach is held by Louis Dumont, who believes that caste is
found only in India.
• Caste-based differences are prevalent in other religions such as Nepali Buddhism,
Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism. But the main difference is that the caste
system in Hinduism is mentioned in its scriptures, while other religions have adopted
it as part of socialisation or religious conversion. In other words, the caste system in
Hinduism is a religious institution, while it is social in others.
• As a general rule, converts from upper castes became upper castes in other religions,
while converts from lower castes occupied lower caste positions.
• Islam: Some upper-caste Hindus converted to Islam and became part of the ruling
group of the Sultanate and the Mughal Empire; they, along with Arabs, Persians, and
Afghans, came to be known as Ashrafs. Below them are middle-caste Muslims called
Ajalaaf, and the lowest status is those Muslims.
• Christianity: In Goa, Hindu converts became Christian Bamons, while Kshatriyas and
Vaishyas became Christian nobles named Chardos. Vaishyas who could not enter the
Chardo caste became Gauddos, and Shudras became Sudirs. Dalits who converted to
Christianity became Mahars and Chamars.
• Buddhism: Various forms of the caste system are practised in many Buddhist
countries, mainly in Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Japan, where butchers, leather and metal
workers, and watchmen are sometimes considered unclean.
• Jainism: There are Jain castes in which all members of a particular caste are Jains. At
the same time, there have been Jain divisions among many Hindu castes.
• Sikhism: In Sikh literature, varna is mentioned as varan and caste is mentioned as jat.
Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of religion, says varan is described as a class system,
while Jat has some caste system features in Sikh literature. All the Gurus of the Sikhs
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married within their own caste, and they did not condemn or break the tradition of
inter-caste marriage.
6.10 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARNA AND JATI

There is a clear distinction between these two concepts. It is true that caste and creed are
related to each other in social status, but on three grounds we can easily separate them from
each other. First, the fact is that there was a predominance of karma in varna, in which the
primacy of birth also entered over time. On the contrary, caste is ingrained from the
beginning. Secondly, in the varna system, the society was clearly divided into four forms:
brahmins, kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudra, whereas in the caste system, innumerable sub-
castes are born into the system. Thirdly, because of the harshness of caste systems in terms of
marriage, social reconciliation, food, etc., the study of ancient Indian literature makes it clear
that Indian mystics determined the rights and duties of the four classes.
(1) Brahmin
Yajna: Yajna, teaching studies, and religious rituals and practises are known as Brahmins;
brahmins have a special place in society. The Brahmin was at the top of this system. In
society, he was respected for his knowledge, sacrifice, and scholarship. It was necessary for a
Brahmin to be characterful, truthful, kind, forgiving, sympathetic towards others, and radiant.
If he did not possess these qualities, then he was not worthy of being called a Brahmin. But
suddenly these qualities became secondary and took the form of birth. Brahmins were not
entitled to collect money. When there was a disaster on Varnashram Dharma, he could also
wear scriptures.Manu defends Pushyamitra Shunga’s assassination of Mauryan Emperor
Brihadratha.Parashurama destroyed the Kshatriyas 21 times. In fact, the Brahmins performed
the responsibilities of the ruler’s disciplinarian. This class did not take power directly into
their hands. The Brahmins were free from taxes. His slaughter was considered a heinous
crime. It is also noteworthy that Brahmins had to be religiously compatible. In general, he
was the keeper of Aryan culture.
(2) Kshatriya
After the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas were replaced. The place of arms in the body was the
same as that of Kshatriyas in society. Kshatriya’s work was safeguarding. In the
Mahabharata, it is said, “Who is the king?” one who gives joy to the people. What exactly is
a Kshatriya? one who protects the Brahmin from harm, injury, wounds, etc. In fact, his
ultimate religion was to protect the state and country with his bravery, as well as to protect
truth and religion, he is also called a trinahta. If the Kshatriyas do not follow their religion,
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their patrons (Brahmins) can punish them appropriately; perhaps this system gave rise to the
Brahmin Kshatriya struggle over time. Over time, the Kshatriyas became progressively free
from the influence of Brahmins and came to be called “Go Vipra Rakshana.” In
(3) Vaishya
Vaishya came third in society after Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Just as the juice aids in the
digestion of stomach food in the body and the production of blood, the food produced by
vaishya, gourd, and other plants was also used for other segments of society. his main work
was agriculture, animal husbandry, religious work, trade, etc. It had an important place in the
economic prosperity of the country.
(4) Shudra
Shudras were the lowest caste in society, they were called legs in the body. He was
powerless. to serve all other classes. He had no property of his own. He was always a victim
of the exploitation of the upper castes. He did not have the right to perform yagya and
vedadhyanan.
The question arises: why did the Aryans keep this section of society so inferior? Their
behaviour towards him was unjust, yet why was it not called unfair? In fact, in the literature
of the pre-Vedic period, only three varnas are mentioned, and the fourth varna was
undoubtedly made up of defeated non-castes. His perception of the losers remained the same
as theirs. In fact, dual morality has been responsible for a large amount of harassment and
exploitation in society since ancient times. In fact, he was associated with Tamoguna to prove
his justification for the Shudras. To make his point, he even said that even a Brahmin
becomes a Shudra when he is corrupt.
6.11 CONCLUSION
Thus, looking at the structure of Indian society, it can be said that the caste system has
existed since ancient times. Despite differing views on the origins of caste, society accepts
this system. Even today, the clear influence of Indian culture and traditions, caste, and creed
can be seen. In practice, the concept of high and low stratification in the caste system is
reflected. The Constitution forbids discrimination on the basis of caste and caste, but some
traditions in society are based on caste and caste. Therefore, it can be said that varna and
caste are a medium for understanding Indian society, whose existence can be seen from the
Vedic era.
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1. Define the alphabet system and describe the different theories about its origin.
2. Do a critical examination of whether caste and class are interrelated.
3. Examine the key theories of the origin of the caste system in India.
6.13 REFERENCES
• Prasad, Benny. The State in Ancient India, Prayagraj. The Indian Press. Ltd. 1928.
• Ghoshal, United Nations: A History of Indian Political Thought, Bombay: Oxford
University Press, 1959.
• Sen, AK, Studies in Kautilya, Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Lal, 1958.
• Sharan, P., Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions Meerut: Meenakshi
Prakashan, 1978.
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Department of Distance and Continuing Education

B.A. (Hons.) Political Science

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This Study Material is duly recommended in the meeting of Standing Committee

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Sl. No. Title Writer Pg. No.

Unit-1 Statecraft in Ancient India Dr. Mangal Deo 01

Unit-2 Dharma, Dhamma, Danda Dr. Mangal Deo 13

Unit-3 Nyaya, Niti Virender Kumar 24

Unit-4 Sabha and Samiti Dr. Mangal Deo 38

Unit-5 Rajya and Rashtra Dr. Mangal Deo 47

Unit-6 Varna, Jati Dr. Mangal Deo 62

Contributor’s Name Designation

Dr. Mangal Deo Assistant Professor, PGDAV College, DU

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STATECRAFT IN ANCIENT INDIA

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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1.3 NATURE AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL

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1.4 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP AND STATECRAFT

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1.5 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP AND STATECRAFT

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1.6 THE STATE IN ASOKA'S DHAMMA

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1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. Explain the State of Ashok Dhamma.

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DHARMA, DHAMMA, DANDA

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2.2 INTRODUCTION: DHARMA, DHAMMA, AND DANDA

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2.5 DANDA: KAUTILYA, MANU, AND SHUKRA

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2.6 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DHARMA, DHAMMA AND

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2.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the Dharma, Dhamma, Danda in Indian Political Thought.

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1. Altekar, A.S. (1949) State and government in Ancient India, Banaras.

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3.1 Learning Objective