FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE SYSTEM DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS) - A software
package/system to facilitate the creation and
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Database
DATABASE
• A database is a collection of related data.
• A database is an organized collection of structured
information, or data, typically stored electronically in
a computer system.
• A database is usually controlled by a database
management system (DBMS).
The DBMS is a general-purpose, application-independent
software system that facilitates the processes of: DCMS
a) DEFINING - A database involves specifying data
types, structures and constraints for the data to
be stored in the database. The database
definition or descriptive information is also
stored by the DBMS in a form of database catalog
or dictionary.
b) CONSTRUCTING - The database is the process of
storing the data itself on some storage medium
that is controlled by the DBMS.
c) MANIPULATING - A database includes such
functions as querying the database to retrieve
specific data, updating the database to reflect
changes in the mini-world, deleting data, and
generating reports from the data
d) SHARING - A database allows multiple users and
application programs to access the database
simultaneously. An application program accesses
the database by sending queries or requests for
data to the DBMS
EXAMPLE OF A DATABASE(WITH A CONCEPTUAL DATA
MODEL)
Mini-world for the example: Part of a UNIVERSITY
environment.
Some mini-world entities:
• STUDENTs
• COURSEs
• SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
• (academic)DEPARTMENTs
• INSTRUCTORs
Note: The above could be expressed in the ENTITY-
RELATIONSHIP data model.
Some mini-world relationships:
• SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs
• STUDENTs take SECTIONs
• COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
• INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
• COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs
• STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs
DATA - Known facts that can be recorded and have an
implicit meaning.
maintenance of a computerized database.
DATABASE SYSTEM: The DBMS software together with
the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are also
included.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DATABASE APPROACH
 Self-Describing Nature of a Database System
• A database system is referred to as self-
describing because it not only contains the
database itself, but also METADATA which
defines and describes the data and relationships
between tables in the database. (MESA = TABLE)
 Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data
Abstraction
• In the database approach, the data structure is
stored in the system catalogue and not in the
programs. Therefore, one change is all that is
needed to change the structure of a file. This
insulation between the programs and data is
also called PROGRAM-DATA INDEPENDENCE.
DATA ABSTRACTION - a data model is used to hide
storage details and present the users with a conceptual
view of the database.
 Support of Multiple Views of the Data
• Each user may see a different view of the
database, which describes only the data of
interest to that user.
 Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction
Processing
• Allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve and
to update the database. CONCURRENCY
CONTROL within the DBMS guarantees that each
transaction is correctly executed or completely
aborted. OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is
a major part of database applications.
DATABASE USERS - ACTORS ON THE SCENE (ADSE)
a) Database Administrators - responsible for
authorizing access to the database, for coordinating
and monitoring its use, acquiring software, and
hardware resources, controlling its use and
monitoring efficiency of operations
b) Database Designers - responsible to define the
content, the structure, the constraints, and functions
or transactions against the database. They must
communicate with the end-users and understand
their needs.
c) System Analysts and Application Programmers
(Software Engineers) - responsible for the design,
structure and properties of the database and
responsible for writing application programs that
interact with the database.
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d) End User - they use the data for queries, reports and
some of them update the database content.
CATEGORIES OF END USERS (CNSSA)
i. Casual End Users - They occasionally access the
database but may need different information
each time. These users have great knowledge of
query language. They do not write programs,
but they can interact with the system by writing
queries.
ii. Naïve End Users - They are the users who does
not have any knowledge about database. Their
task is to just use the developed application and
get the desired results.
iii. Sophisticated End Users - These are engineers,
scientists, business analysts and others who
thoroughly familiarize themselves with the
facilities of DBMS to implement their own
application to meet their complex requirements.
iv. Standalone Users - They are the users who
interacts with the database directly via on-line
terminal or indirectly through Menu or graphics-
based interfaces.
DATABASE USERS - WORKERS BEHIND THE SCENE (STO)
a) DBMS system designers and implementers - Designs
and implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as
a software package.
b) Tool developers - Design and implement the TOOLS –
the software packages that facilitate database
modelling and design
c) Operators and maintenance personnel - They are
responsible for the actual running and maintenance
of the hardware and software environment for the
database system. Also called the system
administration personnel.
ADVANTAGES OF USING THE DBMS APPROACH
1. Controlling Redundancy
2. Restricting Unauthorized Access
3. Providing Persistent Storage for Program Objects
4. Providing Storage Structures and Search
Techniques for Efficient Query Processing
5. Providing Backup and Recovery
6. Providing Multiple User Interfaces
7. Representing Complex Relationships among Data
8. Enforcing IntegrityConstraints9
9. Permitting Inferencing and Actions using Rules
and Triggers
10. Additional Implications of Using the Database
Approach
A BRIEF HISTORY OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS
A. Early Database Applications Using Hierarchical and
Network Systems
 The HIERARCHICAL AND NETWORK MODELS
were introduced in mid 1960’s and dominated
during the seventies.
 A bulk of the worldwide database processing still
occurs using these models.
B. Providing Data Abstraction and Application Flexibility
with RELATIONAL DATABASES
• The model that was originally introduced in 1970
was heavily researched and experimented with in
IBM and the universities.
• Relational DBMS Products emerged in the 1980’s.
C. Object-Oriented Applications and the Need for More
Complex Databases
• OODBMSs were introduced in late 1980’s and
early 1990’s to cater to the need of complex data
processing in CAD and other applications. Their
use has not taken off much. (OODBMS – Object-
oriented Application and the need for more
complex databases)
D. Interchanging Data on the Web for E-Commerce
Using XML
• Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext Markup
Language) with links among pages. This has given
rise to a new set of applications and E-commerce
is using new standards like XML (eXtended
Markup Language).
D. Extending Database Capabilities for New Applications
New functionality is being added to DBMSs in the
following areas:
• Scientific Applications
• Image Storage and Management
• Audio and Video data management
• Data Mining
• Spatial data management
• Time Series and Historical Data Management
WHEN NOT TO USE A DBMS
Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:
 High initial investment and possible need for
additional hardware.
 Overhead for providing generality, security,
concurrency control, recovery, and integrity
functions.
When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
 If the database and applications are simple, well
defined, and not expected to change.
 If there are stringent real-time requirements that
may not be met because of DBMS overhead.
 If access to data by multiple users is not required.
When no DBMS may suffice:
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  If the database system is not able to handle the
complexity of data because of modeling
limitations
 If the database users need special operations not
supported by the DBMS.
CHAPTER 2: Database System Concepts and Architecture
DATA MODEL: A set of concepts to describe the structure
of a database, and certain constraints that the database
should obey.
– A data model (or data model) is an abstract model that
organizes elements of data and standardizes how they
relate to one another and to the properties of real-world
entities. The term data model can refer to two distinct
but closely related concepts.
The two types of Data Modeling Techniques are: (EU)
1. Entity Relationship (E-R) Model
2. UML (Unified Modelling Language)
DATA MODEL OPERATIONS: Operations for specifying
database retrievals and updates by referring to the
concepts of the data model. Operations on the data
model may include BASIC OPERATIONS and USER-
DEFINED OPERATIONS.
CATEGORIES OF DATA MODELS (CPID)
a) CONCEPTUAL (high-level, semantic) data models:
 Provide concepts that are close to the way many
users perceive data.
 Also called entity-based or object-based data
models.
 This Data Model defines WHAT the system
contains.
 created by Business stakeholders and Data
Architects.
 The purpose is to organize, scope and define
business concepts and rules.
3 BASIC TENANTS:
 Entity: A real-world thing
 Attribute: Characteristics or properties of an
entity
 Relationship: Dependency or association
between two entities
b) PHYSICAL (low-level, internal) data models:
 Provide concepts that describe details of how
data is stored in the computer.
 This Data Model describes HOW the system will
be implemented using a specific DBMS system.
 This model is typically created by DBA and
developers.
 The purpose is actual implementation of the
database.
 Describes a database-specific implementation of
the data model.
 It offers database abstraction and helps generate
the schema.
 The physical data model also helps in visualizing
database structure by replicating database
column keys, constraints, indexes, triggers, and
other RDBMS features.
c) IMPLEMENTATION (representational, external) data
models:
 Provide concepts that fall between the above
two, balancing user views with some computer
storage details.
d) LOGICAL Data Model:
 Defines HOW the system should be implemented
regardless of the DBMS.
 This model is typically created by Data Architects
and Business Analysts.
 The purpose is to develop technical map of rules
and data structures.
 Used to define the structure of data elements
and to set relationships between them.
 Adds further information to the conceptual data
model elements.
 Its advantage is to provide a foundation to form
the base for the Physical model
 However, the modeling structure remains
generic.
*sa physical, how it is stored; sa logical, how it is
implemented
HISTORY OF DATA MODELS
a) RELATIONAL MODEL:
• Proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM) – first
commercial system in 1981-82.
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 • Now in several commercial products (DB2,
ORACLE, SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
b) NETWORK MODEL:
 the first one to be implemented by Honeywell in
1964-65 (IDS System).
 Adopted heavily due to the support by CODASYL
(CODASYL - DBTG report of 1971).
 Later implemented in a large variety of systems -
IDMS (Cullinet - now CA), DMS 1100 (Unisys),
IMAGE (H.P.), VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment
Corp.)
ADVANTAGES:
 Network Model can model complex relationships and
represents semantics of add/delete on the
relationships.
 Can handle most situations for modeling using record
types and relationship types.
 Language is navigational; uses constructs like FIND,
FIND member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT within set,
GET etc.
 Programmers can do optimal navigation through the
database.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Navigational and procedural nature of processing
 Database contains a complex array of pointers that
thread through a set of records. Little scope for
automated “query optimization”
c) HIERARCHICAL DATA MODEL:
 implemented in a joint effort by IBM and North
American Rockwell around 1965.
 Resulted in the IMS family of systems.
 The most popular model.
 Other system based on this model: System 2k
(SAS Inc.)
ADVANTAGES:
 Hierarchical Model is simple to construct and operate
on
 Corresponds to several natural hierarchically
organized domains – e.g., assemblies in
manufacturing, personnel organization in companies
 Language is simple; uses constructs like GET, GET
UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET NEXT WITHIN PARENT etc.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Navigational and procedural nature of processing
 Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of
records
 Little scope for “query optimization”
d) OBJECT-ORIENTED DATA MODEL(S):
 One set comprises models of persistent O-O
Programming Languages such as C++ (e.g., in
OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g.,
in GEMSTONE).
 Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at MCC -
then ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
e) OBJECT-RELATIONAL MODELS:
 Most Recent Trend.
 Started with Informix Universal Server.
 Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-10i,
DB2, and SQL Server etc. systems.
Schemas versus Instances
DATABASE SCHEMA:
• The overall description of a database.
• Includes database structure and the constraints
that should hold on the database.
• The term "SCHEMA" refers to the organization of
data as a blueprint of how the database is
constructed and stored (divided into database
tables in the case of relational databases).
• sketch of a planned database
• doesn’t have any data in it
• static
TWO TYPES:
a. LOGICAL SCHEMA
 It describes the database designed at logical
level.
 the programmers, as well as the database
administrator (DBA), work
 data can be described as certain types of data
records that can be stored in the form of data
structures.
 Internal details (such as an implementation of
data structure) will be remaining hidden at this
level.
 The logical schema that the user sees depends on
the type of database management system.
 The basic models are: hierarchical, network,
relational, object-oriented.
b. PHYSICAL SCHEMA
 It describes the database designed at physical
level.
 Expressed how data is stored in blocks of
storage.
 VIEW SCHEMA: can be defined as the design of the
database at the view level, which generally describes
end-user interaction with database systems.
 SCHEMA DIAGRAM: A diagrammatic display of
(some aspects of) a database schema.
 SCHEMA CONSTRUCT: A component of the schema
or an object within the schema, e.g., STUDENT,
COURSE.
DATABASE INSTANCE: The actual data stored in a
database at a particular moment in time. Also called
database state (or occurrence).
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  snapshot of a database as it existed at a
particular time
 instances can change over time
 Data state can be changed
 The instances can be changed by certain CRUD
operations as like addition, deletion of data.
 It may be noted that any search query will not
make any kind of changes in the instances.
Example – Let’s say a table TEACHER in our database
whose name is School, suppose the table has 50 records
so the instance of the database has 50 records for now
and tomorrow we are going to add another fifty records
so tomorrow the instance have total 100 records. This is
called an instance.
Database Schema Vs. Database State
DATABASE STATE: Refers to the content of a database at
a moment in time.
 INITIAL DATABASE STATE: Refers to the database
when it is loaded
 VALID STATE: A state that satisfies the structure and
constraints of the database.
Difference
• The database SCHEMA changes very
infrequently.
• The database STATE changes every time the
database is updated.
• SCHEMA is also called INTENSION, whereas
STATE is called EXTENSION.
THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE
Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
• Program-data independence.
• Support of multiple views of the data.
Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
i. INTERNAL SCHEMA: at the internal level to
describe physical storage structures and access
paths. Typically uses a physical data model.
ii. CONCEPTUAL SCHEMA: at the conceptual level
to describe the structure and constraints for the
whole database for a community of users. Uses a
conceptual or an implementation data model.
iii. EXTERNAL SCHEMAS: at the external level to
describe the various user views. Usually uses the
same data model as the conceptual level.
INTERNAL OR PHYSICAL LEVEL: This is the lowest level of
database abstraction. It describes how the data is
actually stored in the database and provides methods to
access data from the database. It allows viewing the
physical representation of the database on the computer
system. The interface between the conceptual schema
and the internal schema identifies how an element in the
conceptual schema is stored and how it may be accessed.
 If there is any change in the internal or physical
schema, it needs to be addressed to the interface
between the conceptual and internal schema. But
there is no need to change in the interface of a
conceptual and external schema. It means that the
changes in physical storage devices such as hard
disks, and the files organized on storage devices, are
transparent to application programs and users.
CONCEPTUAL OR LOGICAL LEVEL: The conceptual level
describes the structure of the whole database. This level
acts as a middle layer between the physical storage and
user view. It explains what data to be stored in the
database, what relationship exists among those data,
and what the datatypes are. There is only one conceptual
schema per database.
 Database administrator and the programmers work
at this level. This level does not provide any access or
storage details but concentrates on the relational
model of the database. The conceptual schema also
includes features that specify the checks to retain
integrity and consistency.
EXTERNAL OR VIEW LEVEL: This is the highest level of
database abstraction. External or view level describes the
actual view of data that is relevant to the particular user.
This level also provides different views of the same
database for a specific user or a group of users. An
external view provides a powerful and flexible security
mechanism by hiding the parts of the database from a
particular user.
Advantages of Three-schema Architecture
 This architecture makes the database abstract. It
is used to hide the details of how data is
physically stored in a computer system, which
makes it easier to use for a user.
 This architecture allows each user to access the
same database with a different customized view
of data.
 This architecture enables a database admin to
change the storage structure of the database
without affecting the user currently on the
system.
Mappings among schema levels are needed to transform
requests and data. Programs refer to an external schema
and are mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for
execution.
MAPPING - Process of transforming request and results
between three level.
DATA INDEPENDENCE
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• LOGICAL DATA INDEPENDENCE: The capacity to change
the conceptual schema without having to change the
external schemas and their application programs.
• PHYSICAL DATA INDEPENDENCE: The capacity to
change the internal schema without having to change
the conceptual schema.
When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the
mappings between this schema and higher-level schemas
need to be changed in a DBMS that fully supports data
independence. The higher-level schemas themselves are
unchanged. Hence, the application programs need not be
changed since they refer to the external schemas.
DBMS Languages
1) Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA
and database designers to specify the conceptual
schema of a database.
• In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views).
• In some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition language
(VDL) are used to define internal and external
schemas.
2) DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML): Used to
specify database retrievals and updates.
• DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C or an
Assembly Language.
• Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be
applied directly (query language).
SQL queries vs. DML statements vs. DDL commands
SOL QUERIES – Retrieve data from a database; FROM,
WHERE, ORDER BY or SELECT
DQL COMMANDS – Create new database objects or
tables; ALTER, CREATE, DROP, TRUNCATE or RENAME
DML STATEMENTS – Modify or update existing data in a
table; CALL, DELETE, INSERT, MERGE or UPDATE
2 TYPES OF DML
o HIGH LEVEL OR NON-PROCEDURAL
LANGUAGES:, SQL, are set-oriented and specify
what data to retrieve than how to retrieve. Also
called Declarative Languages.
o LOW LEVEL OF PROCEDURAL LANGUAGES:
record-at-a-time; they specify how to retrieve
data and include constructs such as looping.
Procedural Language: c, pascal, fortran, basic, cobol, ada,
lisp, assembly language, etc.
Non-procedural: Java, c++, python, JavaScript, Ruby,
Scala, Ocaml, PHP, C#, MYSQ2L, LISP
DBMS INTERFACES
Stand-alone query language interfaces.
• Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS
interactive SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in
ORACLE)
Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages:
• Pre-compiler Approach
• Procedure (Subroutine) Call Approach
– Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C, C++,
etc.), SQLJ (for Java)
– Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java, ODBC for
other programming language
– Database Programming Language Approach: e.g.
ORACLE has PL/SQL, a programming language based on
SQL; language incorporates SQL and its data types as
integral components
USER-FRIENDLY INTERFACES:
 Menu-based Interface - popular for browsing on the
web; These interfaces presents the user with list of
option called MENUS. Pull down menus are the very
important technique.
 Forms-based Interface - designed for naïve users;
These interface displays a form to each user. User
can fill out all the entries to insert new data.
 Graphics-based or Graphical User Interface (Point
and Click, Drag and Drop etc.) - It displays a schema
to the user in diagrammatic form. Most GUIs use
pointing device such as a mouse, drag and drop.
 Natural language: accept requests in written English
or some other language.
 Combinations of the above
PARAMETRIC INTERFACES: parametric user such as bank
tellers, often have a small set of operations that they
must perform repeatedly. For this a small set of
abbreviated commands is included, with the goal of
minimizing the number of keystrokes required for each
request.
Interface for DBA: most database systems contain
privileged commands that can be used only by the DBA
staff.
Other DBMS Interfaces
• Speech as Input and Output
• Web Browser as an interface
DATABASE SYSTEM UTILITIES
• Loading data stored in files into a database.
Includes data conversion tools.
• Backing up the database periodically on tape.
• Reorganizing database file structures.
• Report generation utilities.
• Performance monitoring utilities.
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 • Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,
data compression, etc.
 LOADING – A loading utility is used to load existing
text/sequential files into the database. Source
format and desired target file are specified to the
utility, and the utility reformats the data to load into
a table.
 BACKUP – A backup utility creates a backup copy of
the database, usually by dumping database onto
tape. Can be used to restore the database in case of
failure. Incremental backup can be used which
records only the changes since the last backup.
 FILE REORGANIZATION – This utility reorganize
database files into different file organizations to
improve performance.
 PERFORMANCE MONITORING – monitors database
usage and provides statistics to the DBA. DBA uses
the statistics for decision-making. The DBA uses the
statistics in making decisions such as whether or not
to reorganize files or whether to add or drop indexes
to improve performance.
OTHER TOOLS
DATA DICTIONARY / REPOSITORY:
• Used to store schema descriptions and other
information such as design decisions, application program
descriptions, user information, usage standards, etc.
 Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS
software and users/DBA.
 Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA
only.
Application Development Environments and CASE
(computer-aided software engineering) tools:
• Examples –Power builder (Sybase), Builder (Borland),
JDeveloper 10G (Oracle)
Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
CENTRALIZED DBMS:
• combines everything into single system including-
DBMS software, hardware, application programs and
user interface processing software.
• A centralized database is stored at a single location
such as a mainframe computer.
• It is maintained and modified from that location only
and usually accessed using an internet connection
such as a LAN or WAN.
• The centralized database is used by organizations
such as colleges, companies, banks etc.
Basic Client-Server Architectures
Specialized Servers with Specialized functions
 Print Server
 File Servers
 Printer Servers
 Web Servers
 E-mail Servers
 Clients can access the specialized servers as
needed
 DBMS Server
CLIENTS:
• Provide appropriate interfaces and a client-version of
the system to access and utilize the server resources.
• Clients maybe diskless machines or PCs or Workstations
with disks with only the client software installed.
• Connected to the servers via some form of a network.
(LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)
DBMS SERVER
• Provides database query and transaction services to
the clients
• Sometimes called Query and Transaction Servers
TWO TIER CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE
• User Interface Programs and Application Programs run
on the client side
• Interface called ODBC (OPEN DATABASE
CONNECTIVITY) provides an Application program
interface (API) allow client-side programs to call the
DBMS. Most DBMS vendors provide ODBC drivers.
THREE TIER CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE
• Common for Web applications
• Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:
• stores the web connectivity software and the rules and
business logic (constraints) part of the application used to
access the right amount of data from the database server
• acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data
between the database server and the client.
Additional Features-Security:
• encrypt the data at the server before transmission
• decrypt data at the client
CLASSIFICATION OF DBMSs
Based on the data model used:
• Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
• Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.
Other classifications:
• SINGLE-USER (typically used with micro-computers) vs.
multi-user (most DBMSs).
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• CENTRALIZED (uses a single computer with one
database) vs. DISTRIBUTED (uses multiple computers,
multiple databases)
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
• known as client server-based database systems
• they do not support a totally
distributed environment, but rather a set of
database servers supporting a set of clients.
• A distributed database is a collection of multiple
interconnected databases, which are spread
physically across various locations that communicate
via a computer network.
VARIATIONS:
• Homogeneous DDBMS – all sites use identical DBMS
and OS
• Heterogeneous DDBMS - different sites have different
OS, DBMS products and data models.
CHAPTER 3: Data Modeling Using Entity-Relationship
(ER) Model
TYPE OF ATTRIBUTES
1) COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTES: Can be divided into
smaller subparts, which represent more basic
attributes with independent meaning
Example: Name (FirstName, MiddleName, LastName)
2) SIMPLE/ATOMIC ATTRIBUTES: Attributes that are
not divisible
Example: SSN or Sex
3) MULTI-VALUED ATTRIBUTES: Can contain multiple
values
Example: Color of a CAR
4) STORED ATTRIBUTES: Attribute which are physically
stored in the database
Example: Date of Birth
5) DERIVED ATTRIBUTES: Attributes from which the
value is calculated from other attributes.
Example: Age
6) NULL VALUES: A particular attribute may not have an
applicable value for an attribute.
7) COMPLEX ATTRIBUTES: Formed by nesting
composite attributes and multi-valued attributes in
arbitrary way.
ENTITY TYPE: Defines a collection (or set) of entities that
have the same attributes.
 Each entity type in the database is described by
its name and attributes.
Example: PROJECT, EMPLOYEE entity type
ENTITY SET: a set of entities of the same type
Example: CAR Registration (RegistrationNumber, State),
VehicleID, Make, Model, Year, (Color)
ENTITIES are represented by means of rectangles.
Rectangles are named with the entity set they represent.
ATTRIBUTES are the properties of entities. They are
represented by means of ellipses. Every ellipse represents
one attribute and is directly connected to its entity
(rectangle).
 COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTES are further divided in a
tree-like structure. Every node is then connected
to its attribute. That is, composite attributes are
represented by ellipses that are connected with
an ellipse.
 MULTIVALUED ATTRIBUTES are depicted by
double ellipse.
 DERIVED ATTRIBUTES are depicted by dashed
ellipse.
KEY ATTRIBUTES: An attribute that are distinct/unique
for each individual entity in the entity set
Example: ID_Number of Employee
WEAK ENTITY TYPES – an entity that cannot be uniquely
identified by its attribute. It is indicated by a double-
lined rectangle (entity) connected by a double-lined
diamond (relationship).
RELATIONSHIP – represents an association between two
or more entities.
Example: EMPLOYEE works on PROJECT
RELATIONSHIP TYPE is an concept of relationship.
RELATIONSHIP DEGREE is the number of entities involved
in the relationship.
ROLE NAMES: signifies the role that a participating entity
from the entity type plays in each relationship instance.
RECURSIVE RELATIONSHIP: same entity type participate
more than once in a relationship type in different roles.
Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box.
Name of the relationship is written inside the diamond-
box. All the entities (rectangles) participating in a
relationship, are connected to it by a line.
Binary Relationship and Cardinality
A relationship where two entities are participating is
called a BINARY RELATIONSHIP.
CARDINALITY is the number of instance of an entity from
a relation that can be associated with the relation.
ONE-TO-ONE - When only one instance of an entity is
associated with the relationship, it is marked as '1:1'.
© claiming uno for ebriwan – misyel
ONE-TO-MANY - When more than one instance of an
entity is associated with a relationship, it is marked as
'1:N'.
MANY-TO-MANY - More than one instance of an entity
on the left and more than one instance of an entity on
the right can be associated with the relationship. It is
marked as ‘M:N'.
CARDINALITY CONSTRAINT corresponds to maximum
cardinality; how many times an entity occurs
Example: one to many, one to one, many to many
PARTICIPATION CONSTRAINTS
TOTAL PARTICIPATION - Each entity is involved in the
relationship. Total participation is represented by double
lines.
PARTIAL PARTICIPATION - Not all entities are involved in
the relationship. Partial participation is represented by
single lines.
GUIDELINES FOR CREATING ER DIAGRAM
1. Identify the entities – ALL Capital (Singular)
2. Identify the relationships
3. Describe the relationship – CAPITAL LETTERS
4. Add attributes (First Letter of a word is Capital)
5. Refine diagram
6. Add additional constraints (cardinality and
participation) – Chen Style
CHAPTER 4: The Relational Data Model and Relational
Database Constraints
RELATIONAL MODEL – A database model developed by
E.F. CODD in the 1970s.
 It represents data as a set of tables, with each table
consisting of rows and columns. The relational model
is widely used in database management systems.
 It provides a structured way to store, manage and
retrieve data.
1. TABLE: In the relational model, data is stored in tables,
which are composed of rows and columns. Tables are
also known as relations.
2. ROWS: Each row in a table represents a single record
or instance of an entity, and is also known as a tuple.
3. COLUMNS: Columns represent the attributes or
properties of the entity being represented. Each column
contains data of a specific type, such as text, number, or
date.
4. PRIMARY KEY: A primary key is a column or set of
columns that uniquely identifies each row in a table. It is
used to enforce data integrity and ensure that each row
can be uniquely identified.
5. FOREIGN KEY: A foreign key is a column or set of
columns in one table that refers to the primary key of
another table. It is used to create relationships between
tables.
6. RELATIONSHIP: A relationship is a connection between
two or more tables, typically created using foreign keys.
There are different types of relationships, including one-
to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.
DOMAIN refers to the set of allowable values for a
particular attribute or column in a table. A domain has a
logical definition because it represents a set of values
that are valid for a specific attribute or column.
RELATION is a mathematical concept that is used to
represent the structure of data in a database. In the
relational model, a relation is a set of tuples (or rows)
that have the same attributes (or columns).
INFORMAL TERM FORMAL TERM
Table Relation
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 Column Header Attribute
All possible common values Domain
Row Tuple
Table Definition Schema of a Relation
Populated Table State of a Relation
CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATIONS
 Rows and columns: A relation is composed of rows
and columns. Each row represents a single record or
instance of an entity, while each column represents
an attribute or property of the entity.
 Unique Rows: Each row in a relation must be unique,
meaning that no two rows can have exactly the
same values for all columns. This is enforced by the
use of a primary key, which ensures that each row
can be uniquely identified.
 Attribute Domains: Each column in a relation has a
defined domain, which specifies the allowable values
and data type for the attribute. This helps ensure
data consistency and integrity.
 No Duplicate Columns: Each column in a relation
must be unique, meaning that no two columns can
have the same name and domain.
 Order Independence: The order of the rows and
columns in a relation is not significant. This means
that the same data can be represented in different
ways without affecting its meaning.
 Operations: Relational databases support a set of
operations that can be applied to relations, including
selecting, projecting, joining, and aggregating data.
These operations can be used to query and
manipulate data in a relational database.
RELATIONAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS are rules that are
applied to data in a relational database to ensure that
the data is consistent, accurate, and complete. They are
used to maintain the quality and integrity of data in a
database, and to prevent data from being entered or
modified in ways that violate the rules of the database
schema.
1. ENTITY INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS: These constraints
are used to ensure that each row in a table is unique
and can be identified using a primary key. For
example, a table of employees might have a primary
key of employee ID, which would ensure that each
employee is uniquely identified.
2. REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS: These
constraints are used to ensure that relationships
between tables are maintained. For example, if a
table of orders has a foreign key that references a
table of customers, the referential integrity constraint
would ensure that every order is associated with a
valid customer.
3. DOMAIN INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS: These
constraints are used to ensure that data entered into
a column of a table meets certain criteria or falls
within a specific domain. For example, a column of
dates might have a domain integrity constraint that
only allows dates in the format "YYYY-MM-DD".
4. CHECK CONSTRAINTS: These constraints are used to
specify a condition that must be true for data to be
entered into a table. For example, a table of products
might have a check constraint that ensures that the
price of a product is greater than zero.
5. ASSERTION CONSTRAINTS: These constraints are
used to ensure that more complex conditions are
met. For example, an assertion constraint could
ensure that the sum of all orders for a given customer
does not exceed their credit limit.
KEY CONSTRAINTS is a type of integrity constraint that
ensures that data in a table is unique and can be
identified using a specific set of attributes or columns.
TWO TYPES OF KEY CONSTRAINTS:
 PRIMARY KEY: is a column or set of columns in a
table that uniquely identifies each row in the table. It
must be unique and not null. Each table in a database
must have one and only one primary key. It can be a
single column or a combination of columns.
 FOREIGN KEY: is a column or set of columns in a table
that refers to the primary key of another table. It
establishes a relationship between two tables in a
database. A foreign key can have the same values as
the primary key it refers to or it can be null if the
relationship is optional.
RELATIONAL DATABASE SCHEMA is the blueprint or plan
that defines the structure of a database, including the
tables, columns, keys, and relationships between tables.
It is a visual representation of the database structure
that helps developers and database administrators to
understand the database and its components.
POPULATED DATABASE STATE refers to a state of a
database where it already contains data. In other words,
a populated database is a database that has already been
populated with data, usually through data entry or
import from external sources.
The basic operations for changing the database include:
Insert: INSERTION is the process of adding new data to a
database.
Update: UPDATING is the process of modifying existing
data in a database.
Delete: DELETION is the process of removing data from a
database.
Select: SELECTION is the process of retrieving data from a
database.
Create: CREATING is the process of adding new database
objects such as tables, views, indexes, and constraints.
© claiming uno for ebriwan – misyel
Alter: ALTERING is the process of modifying existing
database objects such as tables, views, indexes, and
constraints.

© claiming uno for ebriwan – misyel