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THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum Development It is defined as the
process of selecting, organizing, executing, and
evaluating learning experiences based on the needs,
abilities and interests of the learners and the nature of
the society or community.
 What learning objectives should be included?
 What philosophical and psychological theories?
 Will the choice of methodology be in line with
accepted teaching-learning principles?
 Will the evaluation procedure be able to?
 measure the learning that is taking place?
Curriculum designs
 are overall frameworks which describes the
interaction and congruence of the four basic
elements of aims and objectives, content,
organization and evaluation.
 Along with the curriculum design, an
implementation scheme has to be planned
which normally includes other variables such as
human and physical resources, schedule, and a
monitoring strategy. These frameworks become
the bases for the of textbook, syllabi, and lesson
plans.
Stakeholders in Education
1. Teachers. Because teachers are in direct
contact with the learners, they are in a better
stakeholder in education than the other sectors:
to set direction, establish the proper focus;
determine the scope and sequence of the
curriculum, and attend to other pedagogical
concerns.
2. Curriculum Specialist. Curriculum specialists
are recognized experts in designing, monitoring
and evaluating the curriculum. Graduate faculty
teaching curriculum development, textbook
writers, staff members from the curriculum
divisions of Department of Education and
Consultants with long experience in elementary
and secondary education serve as Curriculum
Specialist.
3. Other Resource Persons
a. School-based
- Teachers
- Administrators
- Students
- Curriculum Specialist
b. Community-based
- Parents
- Publishers
- Representatives from:
government organizations
non-government organizations
business and industry
Curriculum Development as a Process of
Decision-making
Areas of Concerns
 Cultural Values
- Visible dimensions are rules, food,
languages, political behavior, as well as
family, community, and institutional
norms and practices.
- However, reflect the non-Visible
dimensions- such as philosophy, beliefs
and value system which have far greater
influence and impact on the way of life
of the people.
 Knowledge of Learner - There is a great deal
to know about the learners who are both
participants and beneficiaries of instruction. It
is necessary to know their needs and interest so
that the curriculum design can respond to their
development needs that impact on the growth of
knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and habits
as well as on their expectation in relation to the
socio-economic realities in their own
environment.
 Knowledge of Teacher-learning Theories
&Principles - Understanding the human beings
learn requires knowledge of psychological
theories and principles. There are theories of
learning as well as principles of teaching

formulated by well-known psychologists and
educators. There are contrasting theories that
are still the subject of debates by their
followers. Three major schools of thought that
are well-documented in current psychological
literature (behaviorism, cognitive psychology
and cognitive-field psychology). the divergence
in philosophy is reflected in the focus,
approaches and current educational practices of
their followers.
 Body of knowledge - The Early Romans
decided that the ideal curriculum to produce an
educated man consisted of the seven liberal arts,
grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy and music. However, in modern
times as a consequence of discoveries in
science, new ideas about human beings, nature
and life, there has been a tremendous explosion
of knowledge that necessitates the inclusion of
the other subjects in the curricula. Social
science courses which were not deemed
essential before, are now standard components
of the curricula. As new knowledge and
information as well as technological inventions
are introduced and validated, their inclusion in
the school curricula is just a matter of time.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE
PHILIPPINES
The development of national curricula for
basic education such as the Program for
Decentralized Educational Development
(PRODED)for Elementary, and the
Secondary Education Development
Programs (SEDP) took place in stages and
encompassed many dimensions.
PRODED consisted of the following
components:
1. Development of the New Elementary
School Curriculum (NESC).
2. Physical facilities development and
staff development.
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3. Instructional materials development.
4. Technical assistance.
5. Research/special studies.
SEDP consisted of
1. The New Secondary Education
Curriculum (NSEC).
2. Upgrading of physical facilities and
equipment.
3. Instructional materials development.
4. In –service training; and
5. Assistance for quality improvement
and sector management, and
evaluation.
In 1992, a Congressional Committee (EDCOM)
was created by the legislators to conduct a
comprehensive nationwide study on Philippine
Education. This became an important external
enabler for curricular reforms.
For Elementary education Department:
a. The development of competence in
communication, personal discipline,
citizenship and work values.
b. The emphasis on science, English and
mathematics
c. Administration of A National elementary
Achievement Test (NEAT).
For SEDP Education department:
a. Increase in the daily class time by 33% for
natural science subjects and home
economics (60 minutes to 80 minutes).
b. Increase in the number of contact time for
academic subjects by allowing individual
schools the option to replace Values with
their either English, mathematics or
natural sciences.
c. Administration of a NSAT.

History of Curriculum Content
The Basic Education Curriculum (BEC)2002.
1. Providing more focus on the tool of learning
areas for an adequate development of the
competencies for “learning how to learn.”
2. Providing experiential learning areas where
the learner can apply practical knowledge and
life skills and demonstrate appreciation of
Filipino culture and heritage, and
3. Making values development integral to all
learning areas.
R.A 10533-The Enhanced Basic Education Act
signed on May 15,2013
The K to 12 Program covers Kindergarten and 12
years of basic education (six years of primary
education, four years of Junior High School, and two
years of Senior High School [SHS]) to provide
sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills,
develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for
tertiary education.
THE K to12 GRADUATE The K to 2 programs will
produce holistically developed graduates with 21 st
century skills.
 Information, media and technology skills
 Learning and innovation skills
 Effective communication skills
 Life and Career skills
 Higher Education
 Employment
 Entrepreneurship
The Role of Curriculum
- Dewey’s (1916) view on education and
experience, as all the experiences of the learner
inside and outside the school under the
guidance of the teacher.
- A structured set of learning outcomes or tasks
that educators usually call goals and objectives.
(Howell and Evans 1995)
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- A written plan that is specific and prescriptive
indicates the objectives; defines the scope and
sequence of the content; identifies the strategies
and activities or learning experiences and
describes the role of the learner and the teacher.
Phases Of The Curriculum Development The
current curriculum practices for Basic Education in
the Philippines to technical aspects described in
current literature such as methods and techniques
for designing, implementing and evaluating
curriculum.
1. Plan
- Design (objectives, content,
organization, evaluation)
- Pilot Testing (deficiencies, operational
problems)
- Implementation (roles, material,
schedule
- Evaluation (effectiveness, efficiency,
impact
UNIT 1: NATURE OF CURRICULUM
A. Major Conceptions (types, components,
purpose)
 The term curriculum has been derived
from a Latin word ‘Currere’ which
means a ‘racecourse’ or a runway on
which one runs to reach a goal.
Accordingly, a curriculum is an
instructional and the educational
programmed by following which the
pupils achieve their goals, ideals and
aspirations of life.
 It is curriculum through which the general
aims of a school education receive
concrete expression. Traditional
concept-The traditional curriculum
was subject- centered while the modern
curriculum is child and life-centered.
 Curriculum is the heart of the school.
 The true definition of Curriculum is “The
school experiences, both planned and
unplanned, that enhance the education
and growth of students” (Parkway). The
purpose of curriculum in schools is to

teach the children what they need to be
taught for upcoming tests.
Components Of Curriculum
 Objectives – intended result of
instruction.
 Contents – backbone of any learning
experience
 Methods and strategies –
instructional strategies
 Evaluation – Process of assessing and
measuring students’ progress.
What is Curriculum Development?
- It is the process of creating and
improving a course taught at a school or
university.
Types of Curricula in School Various
curriculum exists in whatever school levels it is.
Below are the 7 Types of curriculums by Allan
Glatt horn (2000) as explained by Bilbao
(2015).
1. Recommended Curriculum. Specific
bodies of governments were designated to
oversee and regulate state and local
school districts. They are responsible for
crafting and implementing the
Curriculum in every department.
Recommended Curriculum has always been the
foundation of all other types of Curriculums.
For the Basic Education, curriculum is
recommended by the Department of Education,
TESDA (Technical Education and Skills
Development Authority) for TeckVoc and
CHED (Commission Higher Education) for
Higher Education in Colleges and Universities.
2. Written Curriculum. These are the
documents having the Recommended
Curriculum as their basis. These can be in
the form of Syllabi, OBTL, Modules,
Teacher’s Guide, Lesson Plan, books etc.,
K to 12 Curriculum is seen as both
recommended and a written curriculum.
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3. Taught Curriculum. Recommended,
Written and all other types of curriculums
will be futile without implementing it.
The teacher and the learners put all other
types of curricula in reality by giving life
to it. Taught curriculum is what transpired
inside the classroom which is
tremendously influenced by numerous
factors such as the teacher’s pedagogical
skills and content knowledge,
instructional materials and the learners’
response to curriculum.
4. Supported Curriculum. All types of
instructional materials belong to these
types of Curriculums—Supported
Curriculum. Print materials such as
books, charts; non-print materials such as
Movies and slides; and School facilities
such as laboratories fall under this type of
Curriculum. Supported Curriculum is not
limited to the materials used in instruction
inside the school vicinity. Places that
learners tend to visit during field
explorations such as zoos and museums.
Direct-purposeful experiences occur are
also a part of this curriculum.
5. Assessed Curriculum. Assessment
progresses after the taught curriculum has
been implemented with the help of the
supported curriculum. Every Curriculum
should be evaluated so we can have a
clearer picture of whether the curriculum
succeeded or failed. This serves as a basis
of the next curriculum to be crafted by
curricularist. Assessment can happen
before, during or after instruction has
been concluded.
6. Learned Curriculum. Did the learners
grasp knowledge after instruction? To
what extent did the learners attain the
objectives of the lesson? What the
learners added to their schema, the new
skills they learned, as well as the positive
outcome after instruction (ex: behavioral
changes) are all parts of the learned
curriculum.

7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. These are
the factors that are unplanned yet create
huge impact to the behavior of every
learner towards learning. Teacher’s
sensitivity to the hidden curriculum is
needed for Instruction to be successful.
Implicit curriculum may include family
problems, climate, media, school
environment etc.
COMPONENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
 Planning Curriculum planning is the
process of identifying and organizing
the instructional material That the
course to follow. A curriculum designer
is the one who makes decisions about
what the students will be learning and
how to deliver that material to the
students.
 Articulating and Developing
Articulating and aligning the curriculum
is a process of making visible the
connections Among various learning
experiences with increasing breadth and
depth. The process progresses from
evaluating the existing program, to
designing an improved Program, to
implementing a new program and back
to evaluating the revised program.
 Implementing Curriculum implement
EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN THE
PHILIPPINES
1. Basic Education. Basic Education is divided
into two levels- Primary Education and
Secondary Education. The K to 12 Enhanced
Curriculum of 2013 starts at kindergarten and
moves to Primary Education (Grade 1-6) up to
Grade 7- 12 for secondary education.
Secondary Education is subdivided into two-
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Grade 7-10 for Junior High and 11-12 is
labelled as the Senior High. The Department of
Education is responsible for the monitoring of
the Basic education.
2. Technical Vocational Education. Being
facilitated by the TESDA (Technical Education
and skills Development Authority), this is a
post-secondary level of Education where you
can get national certificates that are usable here
in the country and abroad.
3. Education Higher. Bachelor’s degrees and
Graduate Studies (master’s and Doctorate) fall
under this category. The CHED (Commission
on Higher Education) supervises and regulates
the movement across this program.
THE TEACHER AS A CURRICULARIST
Below is a description of a teacher as a curricularist
lifted from Purita Bilbao et. al, (2015) The teacher as
a curricularist…
 Knows the curriculum. For the teacher to
properly implement the curriculum, he/she
must be knowledgeable of the curriculum
content and all other aspects of the curriculum.
Learning the curriculum happens not just within
the academic campuses but also outside of it
(i.e., watching television; Reading books and
newspaper). Both firsthand and secondhand
experiences are contributing factor towards the
teacher’s curriculum mastery.
 Write the Curriculum. A curriculularist must
also be a writer. The curricularist writes
modules, books, lesson guides and other
reference materials in print or in electronic
form. Therefore, it is a must for every teacher to
monitor learners’ needs and growth so
curriculum contents from different learning
materials will match each other.
 Plans the Curriculum. A teacher is a
curriculum planner. For something to be
successful, it must be carefully planned. A
teacher should have a clear path to trod and so
planning his/her next moves is a wise thing to
do so he/ she will not be lost in the process. This
will be possible by having a timeframe for the

execution of the curriculum on a daily, weekly,
monthly or yearly basis.
 Initiates the curriculum. A teacher serves as a
leader in implementing the curriculum. A
teacher also initiates a curriculum by trying
something new and impactful to the academy.
 Innovate the curriculum. Teachers must be
curious and creative to create innovations
across the curriculum. Since we have an ever-
changing curriculum, a teacher must be
versatile and adaptive enough to easily follow
and adjust with these changes. A good teacher,
therefore, innovates the curriculum and thus
becomes a curriculum innovator (Bilbao et. al,
2015).
 Implements the curriculum. “The curriculum
that remains recommended or written will never
serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement
it. As mentioned previously, at the heart of
schooling is the curriculum. It is this role where
the teacher becomes the curriculum
implementor. An implementor gives life to the
curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of
engagement with the learners, with support
materials in order to achieve the desired
outcome. It is where the teaching, guiding,
facilitating skills of the teacher are expected to
be at the highest level. It is where teaching as a
science and as an art will be observed. It is here
where all the elements of the curriculum will
come into play. The success of a recommended,
well written and planned curriculum depends
on the implementation” said Bilbao et. al,
(2015).
 Evaluates the curriculum. For a curriculum to
be labelled as something successful, it must be
evaluated first. This act determines whether the
target goals and objectives are met or not.
Hence, it is every teacher’s duty to assess the
effectiveness of the curriculum. Results yield
would be used for some curriculum
modifications and improvement.
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THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: DEFINITION,
NATURE AND SCOPE Some Definitions of
Curriculum lifted from Bilbao et. al (2015):
1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of
learning experiences and intended outcomes,
formulated through the systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under the auspices of the school, for the
learners’ continuous and willful growth in
personal social competence.” (Daniel Tanner,
1980)
2. It is a written document that systematically
describes goals planned, objectives, content,
learning activities, evaluation, procedures
and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks
to be acquired, planned activities, desired
learning outcomes and experiences, product
of culture and an agenda to reform society
make up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)
4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences
that individual learners have in a program of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad
goals and related specific objectives, which is
planned in terms of a framework of theory
and research or past and present professional
practice.” (Hass, 1987)
5. It is a program of activities (by teachers and
pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so
far as possible certain educational and other
school ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987)
6. It is a plan that consists of learning
opportunities for a specific time frame and
place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior
changes in students as a result of planned
activities and includes all learning
experiences received by students with the
guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su,
1992)
7. It provides answers to three questions: 1.
What knowledge, skills and values are most
worthwhile? 2. Why are they most
worthwhile? 3. How should the young
acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992)

Traditional Vs. progressive Curriculum Points of
View
Definition of curriculum varies from people to
people. Points of View of different people brought
about by diverse academic and culture background as
well as experiences have shaped the curriculum that
we recognize today.
Points of view can be classified as either Traditional
or Progressive based upon the person’s
Philosophical, Psychological and Psychological
background.
Curriculum from Traditional Points of View
Below are the different Definition of Curriculum
rooting from the Traditional Points of View
Theorists
- Robert Hutchins, Arthur Bestor, and
Joseph Schwab lifted from Bilbao et. al,
(2015).  Robert M. Hutchins claimed that
curriculum as “permanent studies” where
rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and
mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing,
‘arithmetic) should be emphasized in basic
education while liberal education while liberal
education should be the emphasis in college. 
- Arthur Bestor, as an essentialist, believes
that the mission of the school should be
intellectual training, hence curriculum should
focus on the fundamental intellectual
disciplines of grammar, literature and writing.
It should include mathematics, science,
history and foreign languages. 
- Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of
curriculum is a discipline, thus the subject
areas such as Science, mathematics, Social
Studies, English and many more. In college,
Academic disciplines are labelled as
humanities, sciences, languages, mathematics
among others. He coined the word discipline
as a ruling doctrine for curriculum
development.
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- Phillip Phenix asserts that Curriculum should
consist entirely of knowledge which comes
from various disciplines. In general, theorists
like Hutchins, Bestor and Schwab narrowed
the definition of Curriculum to Written
Curriculum. That is, they recognize syllabi,
modules, teaching guides and other written
document as a collective definition of
Curriculum. Curriculum from Progressive
Points of View Contrary to the Traditional
definition of Curriculum, Progressivists believe
that written documents like syllabi do not sum up
to what a curriculum is. Let us observe the
Progressive point of View about Curriculum from
the different theorists lifted from Bilbao et. al,
(2015) 
- John Dewey believes that education is
experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means
that unifies curricular elements that are
tested by application. 
- Othniel Smith, William Stanley and
Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum
as a sequence of potential experiences, set up
in schools for the purpose of disciplining
children and youth in group ways of thinking
and acting. 
- Colin Marsh and George Willis also
viewed curriculum as all the experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted
by the teacher and also learned by the
students.
APPROACHES TO SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Ways of Approaching a Curriculum lifted from
Bilbao et. al, (2015) Curriculum is described using
three categories in approaching it:
1. CURRICULUM AS A CONTENT OR A
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
- Curriculum as a topic outline, subject
matter, or concepts to be included in
syllabus or books.
- The focus of the curriculum will be the
body of knowledge to be transmitted to
students using appropriate teaching
methods.

- Teaching is limited to the acquisition of
facts, concepts and principles of the
subject matter; however, the content or
subject matter can also be taken as a
means to an end.
- Four ways of presenting the content in the
curriculum
1. Topical Approach, where much
content is based on knowledge, and
experiences are included.
2. Concept approach with fewer
topics in clusters around major and
subconcepts and their interaction,
with relatedness emphasized.
3. Thematic Approach as a continuously flow.
combination of concepts that develop
conceptual structures, and
4. Modular Approach that leads to
complete units of Instruction.
Criteria and Selection of Content
Below are some suggested criteria in the
selection of knowledge or subject.
matter. (Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao et. al, 2009)
1. Significance
2. Validity(authenticity)
3. Utility(usefulness)
4. Learnability
5. Feasibility (possible to be learned
within allowed time, resources etc.)
6. Interest
Guide in the Selection of the Content in the
Curriculum
1. Commonly used in daily life
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and
abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and
competencies of the future career.
4. Related to other subject fields or
discipline for complementation and
integration.
5. Important in the Transfer of learning to
other disciplines
Basic principles of Curriculum Content
(Palma,1952)
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1. Balance. Content should be fairly
distributed in depth and breadth.
2. Articulation. As the content
complexity progresses with the
educational levels, vertically or
horizontally, across the same
discipline smooth connections or
bridging should be provided.
3. Sequence. Content should be
logically arranged.
4. Integration. Content should be
infused with other disciplines
whenever possible.
5. Continuity. Content should
2. CURRICULUM AS A PROCESS
- Curriculum is not seen as a physical thing
but as a verb or an action.
- Curriculum happens in the classroom as the
questions asked by the teacher and the
learning activities engaged in by the
students.
- Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme
about the practice of teaching. *Curriculum
links to the content
- This is the other side of the coin:
instruction, implementation and teaching.
- Guiding Principles of Curriculum
approached as a process.
1. Curriculum process in the form of
teaching methods or strategies are
means to achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or
method. Its effectiveness will depend
on the desired learning outcomes, the
learners, support materials and the
teacher.
3. The curriculum process should
stimulate the learners’ desire to
develop the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor.
4. In the choice of methods, learning
and teaching styles should be
considered.
5. Every method or process should
result in learning outcomes which

can be described as cognitive,
affective and Psychomotor. 6
6. Flexibility in the use of the process
should be considered. An effective
process will always result in learning
outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are two
important processes in the
implementation of the curriculum.
3. CURRICULUM AS A PRODUCT
- A product is what the students desire to
achieve as learning outcomes.
- The product from the curriculum is a
student equipped with the knowledge,
skills and values to function effectively
and efficiently.
- The real purpose of Education is to bring
about significant changes in students’
pattern of behavior. Central to the
approach is the formulation of behavioral
objectives stated as intended learning
outcomes or desired products so that
content and teaching methods may be
organized, and the results evaluated.
- curriculum is expresses in form of
outcomes which are referred to as
achieved learning outcomes.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: PROCESS
AND METHODS Curriculum Development
Process
1. Curriculum planning. This curriculum
process starts with the review of the
Institutional Mission, Vision and Core Values
and Goals. The schools’ Philosophy is also a
contributing factor to Curriculum Planning.
Thus, Curriculum outcomes must adhere with
the principles the members of each school
community live up to.
2. Curriculum Designing. This curriculum
process involves the conceptualization from the
Curriculum Objectives, Content and set
curriculum experiences. “Curriculum designing
is the way curriculum is conceptualized to
include the selection and organization of
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content, the selection and organization of
learning experiences or activities and the
selection of the assessment procedure and tools
to measure achieved learning outcomes. A
curriculum design will also include the
resources to utilized and the statement of the
intended learning outcomes”. (Bilbao et.al,
2015) 3
3. Curriculum Implementing. “Curriculum
implementing is putting into action the plan
which is based on the curriculum design in the
classroom setting or the learning environment.
The teacher is the facilitator of learning and,
together with the learners, uses the curriculum
as design guides to what will transpire in the
classroom with the end in view of achieving the
intended learning outcomes. Implementing the
curriculum is where action takes place. It
involves the activities that transpire in every
teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an
active process”. (Bilbao et. al, 2015)
4. Curriculum Evaluating. “Curriculum
evaluating determines the extent to which the
desired outcomes have been achieved. This
procedure is on-going as in finding out the
progress of learning(formative) or the mastery
of learning(summative). Along the way,
evaluation will determine the factors that have
hindered or supported the implementation. It
will also pinpoint where improvement can be
made, and corrective measures introduced. The
result of evaluation is very important for
decision making of curriculum planners, and
implementors”. (Bilbao et.al, 2015)
Curriculum Development Process Models
1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic principles
According to Bilbao et. al, (2015), Ralph Tyler
model is also known as the Tyler’s Rationale
which puts emphasis on planning stage. He
introduced the four Fundamental principles in
his book “Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction” which has the following questions
as its basis.
 What educational purposes should
schools seek to attain?

 What educational experiences can be
provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
 How can these educational experiences
be effectively organized?
 How can we determine whether these
purposes are being attained or not?
For curriculum development to be
successful, Tyler proposed the following
considerations:
1. Purposes of the School
2. Educational Experiences related to the
purposes \
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience
2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach.
Contrary to Tyler’s Model in which
Curriculum Development starts at the top,
Hilda Taba’s Grassroots Approach
recognizes the bottom as the starting point in
developing a curriculum. In her linear
model, she laid down seven major principles
and these are as follows:
 Diagnosis of learners’ needs and
expectations of the larger society.
 Formulation of learning objectives
 Selection of learning contents
 Organization of learning contents
 Selection of learning experiences
 Determination of what to evaluate and
the means of doing it.
3. Gaylen Saylor and William Alexander
Curriculum Model. Saylor and Alexander
(1974) viewed curriculum as “a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities to
achieve broad educational goals and related
specific objectives for an identifiable
population served by a single school
center.” (Bilbao et. al, 2015). According to
Saylor and Alexander (1974), there are
four steps to curriculum development
lifted from Bilbao et. al, (2015).
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 Goals, objectives and Domains.
Curriculum planners begin by
specifying the major educational goals
and specific objectives they wish to
accomplish. Each major goal represents
a curriculum domain: personal
development, human relations,
continued learning skills and
specialization. The goals, objectives and
domains are identified and chosen based
on research findings, accreditation
standards, and views of different
stakeholders.
 Curriculum Designing. Designing a
curriculum follows after appropriate
learning opportunities are determined
and how each opportunity is provided.
Will the curriculum be designed along
the lines of academic disciplines, or
according to student needs and interests
or along themes? These are some of the
questions that need to be answered at
this stage of the development process.
 Curriculum Implementation. A
designed curriculum is now ready for
implementation. Teachers then prepare
instructional plans where instructional
objectives are specified and appropriate
teaching methods and strategies are
utilized to achieve the desired learning
outcomes among students.
 Evaluation. The last step of the
curriculum model is evaluation. A
comprehensive evaluation using a
variety of evaluation techniques is
recommended. It should involve the
total educational program of the school
and the curriculum plan, the
effectiveness of instruction and the
achievement of students. Through the
evaluation process, curriculum planner
and developers can determine whether
or not the goals of the schools and
objectives of instruction have been met.

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT Educational Policies must be
built upon concrete foundations. Philosophical,
Psychological, Historical, Legal and Political are the
main facets of Education by Educational System was
formed.
A. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION
According to Guay (2020), the philosophical
foundation of curriculum helps determine the
driving purpose of education, as well as the
roles of the various participants. He added that
one’s philosophy defines the role of a teacher,
ranging from all-knowing authoritarian to that
of a mentor, and the role of the student,
ranging from the obedient vacant vessel to an
individual worthy of actively engaging in
one’s educational process. The word
Philosophy was born out of the words “philos”
meaning love and “sophi” meaning wisdom.
For Aristotle, Philosophy is the ability to feel
at ease while Immanuel Kant defined
philosophy as a science of criticism and
cognition.
1. IDEALISM PHILOSOPHERS: Plato,
Rene Descartes, Immanuel Kant,
Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel and
Schopenhauer, Saint Augustine of
Hippo Idealism is a Philosophy which
promotes ideas as the only truth and the
only thing worth knowing. In his
famous book entitled “The Republic”,
Plato who was halted as the father of
Idealism, introduced his views about
Idealism.
Dash (2015) formulated the
implication of the Philosophy of
Idealism in Education and here are as
follows:
- An emphasis on theory before
practice.
- An emphasis in logical thinking
high value attached to liberal
education.
11
2. PRAGMATISM PHILOSOPHERS:
John Dewey, Charles Pierce
Pragmatism, also known as
Experientialism, believes that the reality
of experience is the only thing that is
real. Pragmatists believe in the
constantly changing reality and that
problems in this society can be solved
through the application of our past
experiences to the present context. They
educate individuals with the idea that
there is no universal, unchanging and
absolute truth, rather what’s practical
and what works is the truth.
According to James Prett as cited by
Dash (2015) “Pragmatism offers us a
theory of meaning, a theory of truth of
knowledge and a theory of reality.
Dash (2015) Aims of Education:
- To reform and reconstruct the
society
- To enable the individual to adjust
with the changing social
environment.
- To develop the child fully
according to his interest, abilities
and needs
- To create social efficacy in the
child
- To provide educational
opportunities to all citizens on
equal footing
- To instill habit of experimentation
in the children
- To remove social evils and make
society a good place to live.
- To enable the child to discover the
truth himself.
- To make child self-reliant
Dash (2015) Impacts of Pragmatism
to Modern Education

- Inculcation of democratic values
and social responsibilities have
been included in the aims of
education today. \
- Activity and self-experience
methods of teaching are very
much recognized today.
- Special emphasis on vocational
and professional courses.
- Organization of co-curricular
activities in the school
- Updating of curriculum after
every five years according to the
changing needs of the society.
- Promotion of self-discipline
- Respect for Democratic values
3. REALISM PHILOSOPHERS:
Aristotle Realists, the believer or the
philosophy of Realism, views reality
and human mind as something separate.
Realism’s basis is reality. They claimed
that the world independent of the human
mind (the world of physical objects)
holds the truth for reality is something
that can be observed. Aristotle, the
student of Plato, who was known as the
father of both Realism and Scientific
Reasoning.
“Things rather than words” is one of the
watchwords of the realists. Realistic
system of education throws light on all
the aspects of education which are as
follows (Dash,2015):
- Preparing the child for a happy
and successful life
- Preparing the child for real life
- Developing the physical and
mental powers of the child
- Developing and training of senses
- Acquitting the child with nature
and social environment
- Imparting vocational education
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4. EXISTENTIALISM
PHILOSOPHERS: Soren Kierkegaard,
Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger
and Jean-Paul Sartre Existentialists like
Soren Kierkegard believe in the power
of choices and individual Freedom.
Reality is nothing without individual
existence for Human being is the central
of truth. It is the sole responsibility of an
individual to define the meaning of his
life and to decide the kind of person he
will become.
The definition of ourselves lies in our
choices.
Instructional Methodology according
to Idealism (Dash,2015)
- Existentialists advocates learning
which is self-paced, self-directed
and includes a great deal of
individual contact with the teacher.
- Existentialists should embrace
individual differences.
- The existential way to teach science
is for the students to live it.
- Existentialists favor the Socratic
method of teaching.
B. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
EDUCATION While it is true that the past
makes up the present, it is also impossible to
move forward without recognizing the past.
Below is the development of curriculum
across time along with the great contributors
in today’s Educational Dogma lifted from
Bilbao et cetera. al, (2015)
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
- He started the curriculum
development movement.
- Curriculum is a science that
emphasizes students’ needs.
- The curriculum prepares
learners for adult life.
- objectives and activities should
group together when tasks are
clarified Werret Charters (1875-
1952)
 13

- Like Bobbit, he posited that philosophy. It is based on

curriculum is a science and
emphasizes students’ needs.
- Objectives and activities should
match. Subject matter or content
relates to objcetives.
2. William Kilpatrick (1875-1952)
- Curricula are purposeful
activities which are
childcentered.
- The purpose of the curriculum is
child development and growth.
He introduced this project
method where teacher and
student plan the activities.
- The curriculum develops social
relationships and small group
instruction.
students’ needs and interests.
- Curriculum is always related to
instruction. Subject matter is
organized in terms of
knowledge, skills and values.
- The process emphasizes
problem solving. The
curriculum aims to educate
generalists and not specialists.
6. Hilda Taba (1902-1967)
- She contributed to the theoretical
and pedagogical foundations of
concepts development and
critical thinking in social studies
curriculum.
- She helped lay the foundation
for a diverse student population.

3. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) 7. Peter Oliva (1992-2012)

- Curriculum should develop the - He described how curriculum
whole child. It is childcentered. change is a cooperative
- With the statement of objectives endeavor.
and related learning activities, - Teachers and curriculum
curriculum should produce specialists constitute the
outcomes. professional core planners.
- Emphasized social studies and - Significant improvement is
suggested that the teacher plans achieved through group activity.
curriculum in advance.
C. PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF
4. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) CURRICULUM
- Curriculum is organized around BEHAVIORAL THEORISTS
social functions of themes, 1. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
organized knowledge and - He is the father of the
learner’s interest. Classical Conditioning
- Curriculum, instruction and Theory, the S-R Theory
learning are interrelated. - The Key to learning is early
- Curriculum is a set of years of life is to train them
experiences. Subject matter is what you want them to
developed around social become.
functions and learners’ interests. - The S-R Theory is a
foundation of learning
5. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) practice called
- The curriculum is a science and indoctrination.
an extension of school’s
 14

2. Edward Thorndike (1874- - Keys to Learning:

1949) Pedagogy creates learning
- He championed the processes that lead to
connectionism theory. development -The child is
- He proposed the three laws an active agent in his or
of learning: -Law of her educational process.
readiness -Law of exercise Howard Gardner
-Law of effect.
- Specific stimulus has 3. Gardner’s Multiple
specific response. Intelligences
- Humans have several
3. Robert Gagne (1916-2002) different ways of
- He proposed the processing information,
Hierarchical Learning and these ways are
Theory relatively independent of
- Behavior is based on one another.
prerequisite conditions. - There are nine known
- He introduced tasking in intelligences according to
the formulation of Gardner and these are:
objectives. Linguistic, logico-
mathematical, musical,
COGNITIVE THEORISTS spatial, bodily/kinesthetic,
interpersonal,
1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) intrapersonal, and
- Cognitive Development naturalistic.
Theory with Four Stages 1.
Sensory-Motor 2. Pre- 4. Daniel Goleman
Operational 3. Concrete - Emotion contains the
Operational 4. Formal power to affect action.
Operational - He called this Emotional
- Keys to Learning: Learning
Assimilation HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
(incorporation of new 1. Gestalt psychology Gestalt
experience) Theory -Learning is explained in
Accommodation (learning terms of wholeness of the
modification and problem.
adaptation) Equilibration - Human beings do not
(balance between previous respond to isolated stimuli
and later learning) but to an organization or
pattern of stimuli.
2. Lev Vygotsky (1986-1934) – - Keys to Learning:
- Learning preceded Learning is complex and
development abstract. Learners analyze
- Socio cultural the problem, discriminate
development theory between essential and non-
essential data, and

perceive relationships.
Learners will perceive
something in relation to
the whole. What/ how they
perceive is related to their
previous experiences.
Abraham
2. Maslow (1908-1970)
- He advanced the Self-
Actualization Theory and
Classic theory of Human
Needs
- A child whose basic needs
are not met will not be
interested in acquiring
knowledge of the world.
- He put importance on
human emotions, based on
love and trust.
- Key to Learning -Produce
a healthy and happy
learner who can
accomplish, grow and
actualize his/her human
self.
3. Carl Rogers
- Non-directive and
Therapeutic Learning
- He established counselling
procedures and methods of
facilitating learning.
- Children’s perceptions,
which are highly
individualistic, influence
their learning and behavior
in class.
- Key to Learning -
Curriculum is concerned
with process, not product,
personal needs, not subject
matter. Psychological
meaning, not cognitive
scores.
15
Social Foundations of Curriculum
Schools and Society(symbol)
- Society as a source of change
- Schools as agents of change
- Knowledge as an agent of
change
1. John Dewey (1859-1952)
Considered two fundamental
elements-schools and civil
society-to be major topics
needing attention and
reconstruction to encourage
experimental intelligence and
plurality.
2. Alvin Toffler Wrote the book
Future Shock Believed that
knowledge should prepare
students for the future Suggested
that in the future, parents might
have the resources to teach
prescribed curriculum from
home as a result of technology,
not in spite of it. (Home
Schooling) *Foresaw schools
and students work creatively,
collaboratively, and independent
of their age.