A Review Of On-board Integrated Chargers For Electric Vehicles

Nadim SAKR*+, Daniel SADARNAC*, Alain GASCHER+

*
Supélec - + Renault s.a.s
*
3 rue Joliot Curie - Plateau de Moulon – 91192
Gif sur Yvette, France
E-Mail: nadim.sakr@renault.com

Keywords
« Automotive application », « Automotive electronics », « Battery charger », « Converter circuit »,
« Electric vehicle », « Power converters for EV ».

Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) use grid power to charge their batteries. Because the battery is charged only
when the car is parked -except for regeneration at braking-, using the on-board traction system
components to form an integrated charging device is made possible. This paper presents a review of
on-board integrated EV chargers and design criteria. It is aimed at presenting a state of the art on the
integrated chargers to researchers, designers, and engineers. A classified list of around 70 research
articles is also appended for a quick reference.

Introduction
On-board battery chargers allow EV users to charge their vehicles wherever there is an electric power
outlet available. Therefore, compared with stand-alone (off-board) chargers, the cost of the
infrastructure network is reduced, resulting in a better spreading of the charge spots and a better
coverage.
Based on their connection to the drivetrain, the on-board topologies can be classified into two different
types: independent and combined (integrated) circuit topologies. This paper addresses on-board
integrated chargers of all available types. These chargers are classified into two major categories
(isolated and non-isolated) and further classified into several subcategories discussed in details.
Figure1 shows the tree of such classification.
On one hand, the first category is the non-isolated integrated chargers. The total number of
configurations of these chargers is divided into three subcategories based on the motor drive
components used during charging. The first subcategory uses both the inverter and the machine
windings for charging. This subcategory can also be divided into six parts: those accessing the neutral
point of at least one motor/generator and using the traction inverter as a DC/DC converter; or as an
AC/DC converter; those using switching devices; those adapted for delta connected ac machines;
those using split-phase machines; or those based on switched reluctance motors (SRM). The second
subcategory uses the traction inverter without using the motor windings. This approach does not
utilize the motor leakage reactance but rather separate inductors. The third and last subcategory uses
only the DC/DC front end converter (FEC) (the inverter and the AC motor are not used).
On the other hand, the second main category is restricted to galvanically isolated integrated chargers.
These converters are further classified into two categories. The first one that uses the AC machine as a
low frequency transformer can be classified into three parts: those based on split-phase PM motors;
those based on wound-type rotor induction motors and those using switched reluctance motors. The
second and last subcategory requires an off-board transformer.
The paper is divided into four parts. Starting with the introduction, other sections cover: a review of
the various on-board chargers configurations, selection criteria and a conclusion.

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 Configurations

Conductive On‐Board
Integrated EV Chargers

Non‐isolated Isolated

Using traction inverter Mahine used as a low

Using AC machine frequency transformer

Access neutral
point of Delta Switched Split phase PM Switched
machine(s) connected AC reluctance motors reluctance motors
Traction inverter = machines motors
AC/DC
Wound type
Access neutral rotor IM
point of Windings
Split phase
machine(s) reconfiguration by
AC machines
Traction inverter switching devices
= DC/DC

Using traction inverter AC machine with off‐

NOT using AC machine board transformer

NOT using traction inverter

NOT using AC machine
Using DC/DC FEC

Figure 1 : classification of on-board integrated chargers for EV

Non-isolated on-board chargers

Using traction inverter and motor windings

Accessing the motor neutral point and using the traction inverter as a DC/DC converter (Fig.2.a)
The three-phase inverter is operated here as a DC/DC converter through accessing the neutral point of
the electric motor to make it perform as a filter choke during battery charge. The currents through the
motor windings are thus unidirectional and the rotor remains at standstill. A simple topology is
proposed in [1]–[5] where the center tap of the motor is connected to an additional AC/DC rectifier.

Accessing the motor neutral point and using the traction inverter as an AC/DC converter (Fig.2.b)

In case of EVs with multiple AC motor drives, the idea is to apply single-phase [6]–[13] or three-
phase AC power [12]–[14] to the star points of one or multiple star-connected three-phase machines
and to operate the traction inverter(s) as an AC/DC rectifier. The same average zero-sequence current
is generated in the three phases of each motor. Therefore, all magnetic fields are canceled and it is
possible to charge the battery from a commercial power source while preventing rotor rotation.

Using switching devices for machine windings reconfiguration (Fig.2.c-d)

In this paragraph, the proposed charging solutions use switching devices for machine windings’
reconfiguration [15]–[22].
In [15], [16], relay contacts are placed on the neutral side of the motor windings. During charging, the
contacts are opened and the neutral point of the windings is separated (Fig.2.c). The AC voltage fed
from an external AC power source is supplied to the inverter via the windings of the motor functioning
as reactors. However, the main problem of this structure is the developed torque in the motor due to
the current flow in the windings. One solution for torque control is to use a mechanical brake during
the charging operation. Other solutions dependent on the machine’s type can be cited:

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 In case of wound rotor AC machines, turning off the excitation cancels the rotor magnetic field [16].
Therefore, the interaction between the stator magnetic field and the rotor’s one is canceled and the
zero torque condition is maintained during charging. However, even if the excitation is turned off,
reluctant torque could occur which would cause the machine to vibrate or even rotate.
In case of a permanent magnet synchronous motor, since it has no starting torque, the stator windings
of the three-phase machine can be connected to the grid without risk of rotor rotation. However
vibration can still happen.

An integrated motor drive and non-isolated battery charger based on a split-phase or dual windings
motor and its winding reconfiguration is presented and explained in [17].
The motor windings of each phase are divided into two equivalent parts and are then reconnected
inversely to cancel out the torque in the charging mode. However, the switching device used for the
winding reconfiguration may be a limit for practical implementation.

A charging method using the traction inverter as a full bridge single phase boost rectifier and a buck
DC/DC converter is presented in [18]–[21]. If the windings of the electric motor are accessible, they
can be used as smoothing inductances (Fig.2.d).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 2 : Non-isolated integrated chargers using traction inverter and motor windings (a) inverter
used as DC/DC – (b) inverter used as AC/DC – (c) Open neutral point – (d) inverter used as boost
AC/DC and buck DC/DC – (e) split-winding ac motor – (f) SRM

Delta connected AC machine

This approach is patented by Rippel for delta connected ac motors [23]. No switching devices are
needed to reconfigure the circuit for traction or charging mode. The topology utilizes an additional
diode bridge rectifier and the three phase motor’s leakage inductance along with two inverter legs to
form an interleaved boost rectifier.

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 Split-phase AC machine (Fig.2.e)

A new concept of on-board battery charger for EVs was introduced by Valeo PowerTrain Systems and
patented in [24]–[27] (Fig.2.e).
This particular topology allows plugging the vehicle into the grid through the midpoints of the
machine’s windings and is compliant with three phase or single phase AC network [28], [29].
Due to balanced currents in each half windings of a given phase, the developed stator magneto-motive
forces (mmf) are canceled and the vehicle remains at standstill even if the parking pawl is not
engaged. This is a major advantage inherent to this approach that makes it very interesting. However,
some slight vibrations may still be possible in case of unbalanced current sharing or an unbalanced
rotor [30].

Chargers based on switched reluctance motors (Fig.2.f)

Non-isolated integrated chargers for EVs employing a SRM are reported in [31]–[35].
To keep the rotor at still during charging, a zero-torque control of the SRM is presented in [33], [34].
But the main limitation of this topology is the addition of a rectifier and many external devices. To
overcome these problems and reduce cost and weight even more, [35] proposes a compact integrated
SRM drive with bridgeless PFC converter and minimum added components (Fig.2.f).

Using the traction inverter (AC machine not used) (Fig.3)

In [36]–[47], the charging solutions are based on using the traction inverter of the PHEV while
disconnecting the AC machine. Since the charging current is not flowing through the motor, it does
not pose any requirements on motor type, stator winding layout or vehicle restraining. The
disadvantage is that it adds cost and weight to the powertrain.

In some EV applications, multilevel inverters are more attractive than two levels inverters. Of the
various multilevel topologies, the cascaded H-bridge inverter is perhaps best suited to battery-based
applications. In the motoring mode, power flows from the batteries through the cascaded inverters to
the motor. The cascaded converters can also be used as rectifiers in the charging mode [39], [40], [41,
Ch. IV]. It is possible to use the motor windings as an inductance but it’s more suitable to use small
external inductances instead (Fig.3.a).

The study presented in [47] illustrates replacing the typical voltage source inverter (VSI) in a PHEV
with a current source inverter (CSI) and a voltage-to-current (V-I) converter (Fig.3.b). During
charging, the motor windings are disconnected from the inverter by mechanical contacts and the CSI is
configured to operate as a single phase or three-phase battery charger with PFC capability. With the
help of the V-I converter, the CSI has the ability to buck and boost the output voltage.

(a) (b)
Figure 3 : Non-isolated integrated chargers using traction inverter (AC machine not used) (a) cascaded
inverters – (b) CSI

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 Using the DC/DC FEC (traction inverter and motor windings not used) (Fig.4)

All the previous configurations present one or more of the following disadvantages such as the need of
a special designed electric machine, the dependency on the machine’s type, the difficulty in accessing
the neutral point of the windings and the reduced reliability due to mechanical contacts.
In the powertrain of an EV, depending on the battery and dc-link voltages, a bidirectional DC/DC
converter could be interfaced between the battery and the inverter. This converter can then be
integrated with the onboard charger topology. Such integration removes the difficulties and
disadvantages previously mentioned.
In [48], a front end three phase interleaved DC/DC boost converter is proposed to be used in multi-
wheeled EVs (Fig.4). This bidirectional converter is used for boosting and regenerative braking in
motoring mode. Its structure can be reconfigured via mechanical switches or electronic devices to act
as a three phase PWM PFC rectifier followed by a step down converter for battery charging.

Figure 4 : Non-isolated integrated charger using DC/DC FEC (traction inverter and AC machine not
used)

Based on the same idea, [49] describes a motor drive circuit that includes a plurality of bidirectional
buck/boost converters coupled to one of two existent energy storage devices. Two of these converters
are configured to act as a full bridge PFC rectifier to charge the storage device from an external energy
source.

Another proposed structure uses one shared inductor, five active switches with anti-parallel diodes,
and a diode to achieve motoring and single phase charging modes. The AC/DC rectification part of the
proposed interface is based on bridgeless AC/DC conversion [50], [51].

Isolated on-board chargers

Galvanic isolation is not a mandatory requirement in standards related to EVs but it can greatly ease
the safety requirements.
Machine used as Low frequency transformer (Fig.5)
Isolated integrated three phase chargers, where the motor is used as a low frequency transformer, are
reported in [52]–[61].

Isolated Integrated Charger based on a split-phase PM motor (Fig5.a)

The charger proposed in [52], [53] and patented in [54] is based on a split phase PM machine with
double stator windings.
In traction mode, each two windings are connected to each other to form a classical Y or Δ connected
three-phase machine. For the charging mode, a relay based device is used to reconfigure the stator
windings. A contactor is also needed to connect the system to the utility grid (Fig.5.a).
Since they are located on the same pole-pair as the grid-side windings, the inverter side windings pick
up the induced voltage due to the developed flux inside the machine. So, they become equivalent to an
isolated three-phase voltage source and the inverter acts as a three-phase boost rectifier that charges
the battery with PFC capability. However, since the motor rotates at grid synchronous speed, an extra
mechanical clutch is needed to physically disconnect the motor from the wheels.

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 Wound-type rotor induction motor (Fig.5.b)

In case of a wound-type rotor induction machine, the rotor windings can be used to form a primary
side of a transformer (Fig.5.b) [55], [56].
In traction mode, the rotor poles are short-circuited as a classical three-phase induction machine.
In charging, a switching device is used to connect the rotor windings to the three-phase grid. The
stator windings always connected to the inverter constitute the secondary side of the transformer.
The advantages of the proposed charger are the possibility of bidirectional power flow, low harmonic
distortion, a unit power factor and galvanic isolation. However, disadvantages include high
magnetization currents; and the extra costs of the wound rotor, the contactors and the mechanical lock
that should be used to maintain the rotor at standstill during charging.

(a) (b)
Figure 5 : Isolated integrated chargers where the ac machine is used as a low frequency transformer
(a) split phase PM motor – (b) wound-type rotor IM
Switched reluctance motors

A proposal has been made in [57] to use a four-phase variable reluctance motor having closely
coupled main and auxiliary windings as an isolating transformer when on charge. By properly
commutating the thyristors, single phase or three phase charging becomes possible.
The grid voltage is rectified by an additional diode bridge. The current is drawn from the main
windings and then transferred via auxiliary windings into the battery. The rotor remains in the aligned
position during charging but unity power factor is not performed.
The topologies proposed in [58]–[61] also allow battery charging from single phase or three phase
mains. The charger is formed by at least two closely-coupled coils, each with different numbers of
turns, wound coaxially on the same stator poles.

AC machines with off-board transformer

An isolated charging technique comprising an off-board transformer is presented in [62], [63].

On-board fast battery charging of EVs using a multiphase voltage source and a multiphase propulsion
motor is considered in [62], [63]. It’s assumed that the charging station is equipped with a multiphase
supply system (n >3) based on a three-phase to n-phase transformer.
In charging mode, the neutral point of the multiphase motor is opened and the grid currents are
distributed through the coils of the machine so that the resulting magnetic field will be canceled or will
map into the non-flux/torque producing plane. The main drawback of this charger is the need of a
special transformer as mentioned earlier. This is still an over-cost that makes the solution less
attractive.
In [64]–[67] contacts are used to disconnect the AC machine from the inverter and prevent it from
rotating during charging.

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 Selection Criteria
The design of the EV’s charger is a key challenge. To make the right choice, designers and engineers
should take into account different factors:
• Grid and battery diversity
• Efficiency
• Safety issues
• Shaft rotation or rotor vibration during charging (if machine is used during charging)
• Sinusoidal current absorption and low line current harmonics (unity power factor operation)
• Suitability for V2G operation (Bidirectional converters)
• Electro-magnetic interference (EMI) - Common Mode and Differential Mode Noises
• Charging power: single phase/three-phase

Other aspects to be considered during the design process include the cost, volume, weight and the
compliance with universal/local standards and official codes.

Conclusion
This paper has provided an overview of the various on-board integrated chargers in use today. By
reusing traction components for charging purposes, the onboard converter can be made inexpensive
with only few additional components. Selection of a particular EV charger is impacted by different
factors like the cost, weight, volume of the charger and the machine’s type.

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