High Voltage Technology Summary High to low E-​field

The objective of High Voltage Technology is to control the electrical field strength

Under all operating conditions and circumstances, the electrical field strength should be
(significantly) less than the breakdown field strength.

High voltage: > 1000 kV AC or 1500 kV DC

up to 36kV distribution
up to 1200kV transmission

Electric field calculations:

Electric Fields Exact solution Indirect solution Seperation of variables: U(x, y, x) = f(x) g(y) h(z)
The electrostatic field between electrodes can be calculated by a) A simple charge configuration is used for which the equipotential lines can be easily
solving the Laplacian equation calculated
Magnetic energy density > 100.000 higher than electric energy density
Important condition: electrodes are equipotential planes b) Metal electrodes replace some suitable equipotential lines and the field strength at the
Voltage generates an electric field
Only three electrode configurations can be calculated electrodes is calculated using the original field distribution
Current generates a magnetic field using the exact method c) Mostly the calculation starts using point or line charges
Exact solutions are only available for:
Infinitely wide parallel plates E = U/d 1) In case of two parallel cylinders two line charges are taken which both
Most important HV design
(E is independent of the location between the electrodes cause a cylindrical field
characteristics: and E is perpendicular to the plates) 2) The resultant field is calculated by superimposing the fields of the two line
1. Charge (μC) charges
2. (highest) Electric field 3) As a result, equipotential cylindrical planes are obtained
strength (kV/cm) 4) Two of these cylindrical planes are replaced by cylindrical metal electrodes
and the field strength at the surface of these cylinders is calculated
3. Voltage distribution
(capacitive) Symmetry!! E-​field from space charge
Total Force: F = qE + qv x B Infinitely long coaxial cylinders
E = Q/(4pi*e0er*r^2)
units = C/((C/Vm)* m²) = V/m

Conformal mapping

differentiate E to 0 to get optimal geometry,R_opt = R/e = U/r = eU/R

Just the quadrant: Eair(x) = epsilon *U/(x ln(R/r))
Concentric spheres
also cylindrical busbar
In a curl-​free field, the potential U(x) is independent of
the route to x

An electric field of 1kV/mm in air (εr=1) releases a surface charge of roughly 9μC/m2
Background field vs field inside!
Field strength is highest in the low permittivity material optimal geometry, differentiate
to zero -> Ropt = R/2, Eopt =
Higher er -> lower field 2U/r 4U/R

Rogowski profile: Capacitive voltage distribution: cavity = air!

Often encountered in HV constructions due to:
- Physical size Inductor at high frequency/phenomena = open circuit
- Many (identical) stacked elements
Typical capacitance values:
- Post/suspension insulator ~10pF
- Bushings : 100 – 1000 pF Independently of the size:
- Transformers (>1MVA): 1000 – 10000pF • a (welding) joint/seam protrusion increases the local field strength 2-​fold
Finite difference method:
• a welding drop or bolt protrusion increases the local field strength 3-​fold
- Cables: 100 – 300 pF/m 1. A mesh is superimposed on the problem space
- GIS: ~50pF/m 2. The potential of each mesh point is a weighted average of the potential of its
- MOSA block: 50 – 200 pF neighbours (using a Taylor-​row expansion in the vicinity of the mesh point
3. The problem is solved iteratively, and the potentials of the mesh points converge to a Field emission
MOSA: MetalOxide Surge Arrester final value
It is mainly used for overvoltage protection at all voltage levels in a power system.

Equipotential lines and field/flux lines should be perpendicular

Field/flux lines should end perpendicular to all (metal) electrodes Heat emission
Equipotential lines and field/flux lines should be smooth, except at interfaces where the
relative permittivity changes

The (theoretical) maximum obtainable field strength at a sharp corner = infinite

Insulation
conductor: valence band and conductor band overlap
Vacuum and gas: low pressure Microparticle induced breakdown

semiconductor: bandgap 0.1 - 0.3 eV

insulator: bandgap > 3 eV
Insulation breakdown:
1. The electric field accelerates a free electron
2. The electron gains kinetic energy (1⁄2mv2)
3. On collision with an atom or molecule, ionization takes
place if the electron has sufficient energy
4. An electron avalanche may develop
5. If the avalanche sustains itself, breakdown occurs
6. If the accelerated electron meets an atom of a molecule
depends on the mean free path λ
7. λ is the average distance between collisions in the
direction of the electric field
8. If λ is larger than the distance between the electrodes →
no collision
9. λ depends on gas density (number of atoms/molecules
per cm3 and the size of the gas molecules
No first electron from the gas, where does it come from?
From the cathode by field emission or by heat
emission (thermally assisted field emission)
No discharge medium present
Creation of its own medium
High energetic electrons (long mean free path)
Interaction with vacuum-​chamber “walls”
GIL spacers:
Ionization: thermal, photo, collision
Mean free path λ and ionization factor α
Vacuum insulation:
1. Electrodes: use hard materials (stainless steel, titanium)
2. Polish the electrode surfaces to a sub-​micron finish
3. Wash in ultrasonics baths
4. Condition the vacuum gap by applying low-​energy breakdowns while
continuously pumping to remove metal vapour and other gases
Micro protrusions and microparticles are evaporated
Slowly increase applied voltage: each breakdown occurs at a higher level
V_breakdown = C * sqrt(d)
Start electron:
1. A start electron is needed to start a process that eventually might lead to
a breakdown Avalanches
2. The start electron is released from the gas or electrode by
a. Cosmic radiation
b. Field emission
c. Thermal emission
3. There is a time-​lag till the first electron becomes available
4. The time-​lag is inversely proportional to the gas volume t_lag ~ 1/V
5. The order of magnitude for the time-​lag is 1h for 1mm3 (a few ms for a
litre)

Optimized interface design

HV Technology 17
• Reduce cathode field by
enhancing anode field Townsend breakdown mechanism:
• Create electron trap close
to the cathode Paschen’s law
Feedback by the γ-​process

Circuit breaker:
• Suitable for distribution voltage levels (up to 132kV is available)
• Short circuit currents up to 10’s of kA
• Major function: current interruption
• High-​speed moving contacts → magnetic operated spring
system
• Current distribution across the contact surface established by
magnetic field
system with special construction, why?
• Short arc-​extinguishing time
• Gap distances of 0.5mm to 5 mm
• High di/dt transients can be generated
(current breaking)
High pressure 1) Anode initiated streamer, x_cr = d
Minimum condition for breakdown
2) Mid-​gap streamer, xcr < d

1. Avalanche reaches anode

Breakdown in a homogeneous field, α∗ = constant
2. Residual space charge increases the field strength
near the tip
3. When > 108 ions, extra ionization thus more
photons
4. More photons → more ionizations per unit length
5. More ionizations→ more avalanches
6. More avalanches → more ions
7. More ions → increase of field strength
8. More ions → space charge reaches out to cathode
9. Steamer builds up from anode towards cathode
Breakdown in an inhomogeneous field, α∗ = f(E)

Streamer mechanism:
• Time to breakdown is much shorter than can be
derived from Townsend mechanism (ns instead of μs)
• Breakdown voltage is not dependent on cathode
material, feedback occurs in the gas itself
• Breakdown channels are sharp and narrow as
opposed to the diffuse Townsend discharges

Development of a streamer into

an arc
1. Photons radiated from tip
2. Branching can occur
3. Due to the high field close
N_cr = 10^6 - 10^8
to cathode, y-​electrons and
emission electrons
4. Mixture of electrons and
ions from conductive path
5. Formation of an arc at high
Spark and Arc Breakdown in atmospheric air: current
Variables: Pressure p, Temperature T, Humidity, Dust, Electrodude surface, Air current

Corona Space charge: - and + AC voltages, losses

Compressed gas insulation

Electro-​negative gases

The time to breakdown for a streamer mechanism is in general an order of

magnitude shorter than for a Townsend mechanism

Breakdown strength is increased due to a reduction of the

ionization factor alpha by “catching” free electrons by SF6
molecules
Liquids Mineral oils
Synthetic oils
Liquid as dielectric
Mineral oils:
general properties:
Today, mineral, synthetic or silicone-​based
hydrocarbons are used, where the added expense
Usually a highly-​refined mineral oil or synthetic oil:
of a fire-​resistant liquid offsets additional building
stable at high temperature,
cost for a transformer vault. Also, they have higher
excellent electrical insulating properties,
flash points than mineral oil
It is used in:
New developments in the field of vegetable oils:
oil-​filled transformers,
biodegradable, high flame point; but: relatively
power cables and accessories,
large viscosity -> increase of pumping power
some types of high voltage capacitors,
some types of high voltage switches and circuit breakers,
Breakdown
Functions: Pressure breakdown strength vs strength duration
to insulate,
suppress corona and arcing,
to serve as coolant,
Advantages:
Recovery after breakdown
Low permittivity, r = 2 ... 2.5
Low losses, tan in the order of 10-4
Breakdown values at atmospheric pressure better than those of gas
Cooling of the electrodes and windings better than with gas
Disadvantages:
A container is required for the liquid
Solid insulators are also required to support the electrodes
Mineral oil is combustible
Often used in combination with other materials such as paper and transformer board
Due to the stability of PCB and its environmental accumulation, it has not been Intrinsic breakdown: (Mineral oil up to: 200 kV/mm) Humidity Temperature & Humidity
permitted in new equipment since late 1960's in the United States Liquid is thoroughly filtered,
Liquid is de-​ionized,
Liquid is thoroughly dried and degasified,
Particle induced breakdown: Only a small volume is tested, 1 mm3, so the probability of contamination is small,
Larger volumes of insulating oil are never entirely free of impurities even if the liquid is Electrodes should be well-​polished and with a smooth (Rogowski) profile,
filtered Short testing period (impulse voltage) -> no time for dielectric heating or accumulation of particles
Dust particles, fibers, metal slivers Process:
A particle with high permittivity causes field enhancement and the result is an alignment Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and collide with oil molecules →heating of the
of the particles, head to toe: oil,
Local heating decreases the oil viscosity → electrons can move faster → small channels are
occurring where the electrons can easily move,
Temperature locally increases → local micro-​bubbles,
Micro-​bubbles concentrate to vapor channel → gas discharge
Breakdown channel is illuminated, vapor occurs, burned particles, pressure wave occurs
Process depends on viscosity

F = f1 * f2
Barriers in a power transformer Liquid insulation Dissolved gas in oil analysis (DGA)
Analysis of released gasses in transformer oil is
helpful to determine
the processes inside the transformer
DGA “Duval” triangle: Method helps to
assess the nature of a transformer
degradation mechanism and severity
DGA “Duval” pentagon: More elaborated
than “triangle” (recent update based on
180 DGA results) –proportion of gases has
to be calculated

paper barriers: to avoid

particle induced discharge
 Partial discharge and particle-​induced breakdown
If increase the test voltage V 0, The magnitude and small cavity in a dielectric material when a test

Solids frequency of the partial discharges increases voltage V0 is applied

General properties:
Solid insulation is always required, either as support or as insulating medium
Advantages:
Self supporting
No tank is needed as is required for liquid or gas
High breakdown strength Determine cavity size?
Disadvantages: calculate d for 1kV
D>B>A>C
NOT self-​healing
Higher permittivities, sometimes higher losses
often combustible
Less effective cooling than liquid or gas

Answer: to stop single electrons

injection from entering, coating High thick epsilon coating:
stops that
To do electric field grading
Breakdown
(reduce the electric field)

Thermal breakdown: (resistance increases with temperature)

Intrinsic breakdown
Occurs at extremely high electric fields, only when all interfering effects are
Answer: paschen curve
prevented. The intrinsic breakdown strength is only obtained in the laboratory.
Precautions:
Ultra clean materials; no inclusions, no impurities, no micro-​cavities, no moisture
Perfectly smooth electrodes, Rogowski profile
Testing of small volumes to reduce the probability of imperfections
Short test periods to prevent heating and thermal breakdown
Mechanism:
Breakdown initiated by electrons → 10 ns
If electrons are sufficiently energized by the applied E-​field to cross the bandgap
(~20-50 W/m heating power)
they can move freely, and their kinetic energy will increase Voltage life L
To stabilize this situation the energy has to be dissipated
This occurs through collisions with the lattice structure of the material
When the lattice can no longer absorb all the energy an electron multiplication
process starts
Narrow channels become conductive → breakdown

Answer: air can have much more V at small

distances V or E is more important than T
1. Partial discharges are related to discharging defects in the
insulation, and they are not directly related to failures of high
voltage components.
2. Partial discharges are symptoms of discharging defects, and
Typical operational pressure: 10-15 kV/mm (factor 100 less)
they are not directly related to aging processes of the insulation
Combination of materials
Combinations of dielectrics Connection between insulator and electrode Interface at an angle in a high voltage cable joint
In the design of HV components different materials are used in two major design areas:
The main insulation consists of gas or oil where solid materials are used as
mechanical support parts: overhead lines, switchgear.
The main insulation consists of solid materials where gas, oil are used to avoid the
presence of cavities: oil-​filled cables, transformers.
When combining different materials there is a possibility of:
microscopic defects e.g., cavities,
interface delamination, Reduction of breakdown voltage along the parallel interface
impurities
inside constructions with dimensions of several meters height and length (switchgear) or Complicated interfaces: outdoor insulation
km’s length (cables) with a weight of tens of tons (power transformers, generators).
Moreover, combining dielectrics results in interfaces:
Interface perpendicular (Ʇ) to the electric field
Interface parallel (//) to the electric field
Interface at an angle
The higher the voltage, the more details (including shape and orientation) become crucial
Contact between two solid dielectrics
stress control:
remove sharp edges,
reduce electric field
Types of field grading geometrical
flexible metal pipe on outside:
to connect high voltage to
test object and to avoid
corona discharge

Paper layers in a power cable

Interfaces in a cable termination and joint
Resin-​bonded paper

capacitive

electrode and epsilon grading:

Oil impregnated paper is a very reliable insulation material Extra

The “negative” point is shielded by positive space charge
for two reasons: Non-​linear resistive grading
The breakdown voltage of the “negative” point is 50% to
The fibrous structure is entirely filled with oil. Cavities, if 100% higher than that of a “positive” point

they occur, are filled with oil, inclusions and defects are
surrounded by oil, so that any air is excluded
The structure is built up of layers. A possible defect is
always restricted to the thickness of one layer
 Calculating strikes to a lines: Electro-​Geometric Method

Lightning
Lightning Attraction to Structures
Performance
Final stage of leader development: For AC structures < 60 m (Up to EHV)
Negatively charged cloud Reasonable prediction of shielding failures
Downward leader – ionized channel from For AC structures > 60 m (UHV)
Cloud Electrification cloud to earth Predictions underestimate shielding failure rate
Rising air –cools with altitude Charge is concentrated at tip For HVDC
Turbulence and friction of water drops, snow, and Moved in stepped fashion Not able to predict effect of pole voltage
ice E-​field gradient ≈ 1kV/m Positive pole suffer highest outage rate
results in charge separation Ground is positively charged EGM predict highest outage rate on negative
Negative: -15° to -30° C High E-​field at tip of leader pole
Positive: up to 0° C, < -30° C E-​field proportional to charge in channel
Results in Propagation of lightning surges on insulated conductors
Negative at bottom of cloud Final jump: Lightning strokes to lines produce traveling waves
Positive pockets High E-​field at tip of leader Line represented by surge impedance
Strong positive at top E-​field proportional to charge in channel
Ground becomes charged positively Streamer breakdown at tip of leader Lightning surges on insulated conductors Lightning Stroke to the Shielding System
Formation of Streamer Zone • Overhead shield wires (A)
Negative Cloud-​to-​Ground Flash (CG) E-​field gradient ≈ 500 kV/m • Intercept lightning
Flash – entire electrical discharge from cloud to Final jump when streamer zone extend across • Shielding of phase conductors
object remaining gap • Conduct lightning current
Comprise one or more strokes Length of final jump (leader potential/ 500Kv/m) • Less current than
Stroke – single high-​current component in a flash Strike distance same as final jump ground electrode
First stroke Striking distance • Earth electrode (B)
Subsequent strokes Striking Distance S: • Low impedance path to ground
Cloud-​to-​ground (CG) lightning comes from the sky ​S = AI^b
down, but the part you see comes from the ground up. Wavefront Steepness
Used to determine stroke attraction to structures
Maximum Rate of Rise (Steepness)
Rolling sphere concept
Rate of rise correlated with current
Striking distance the same to all objects
peak value
Not applicable to overhead lines
≈ 2 μs virtual front time
Upward Leader
Formation downward leader same as before
Ground and structures are positively charged
Ionization of air at grounded object extremities
(high E-​field)
Positive upward leader grows towards downward leader Lightning Overvoltages in Substation
Transformer
Ground Flash Density GFD = Flashes per square km per year Final jump when streamer zones extend across remaining gap Backflashover on line Acts as open circuit, Voltage doubling
• Obtained from National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) Strike distance not same as final jump Lightning current “captured” on insulated phase Voltage on transformer
conductor Arrester residual voltage
• Historically calculated from number of thunderstorm days Includes final jump and length of upward leader Steepness of incoming surge
• Need at least 11 years (solar cycle) of data for computations Strike distance depending on: Propagate to substation Distance to backflashover location
Prospective lightning current, Height of structure, Applied voltage Refelect at the “open” end (transformer) Distance from arrester
Current distribution: Current in Surge arrester
Magnitude of incoming surge
Lightning is an ideal current source
Surge impedance of the line
Characterized by peak current Arrester residual voltage
Negative First strokes
50% of strokes current higher than 30 000 A
Subsequent strokes (average 3 per flash)
Peak current lower than first stroke current
Flashovers usually caused by first strokes
Not accounted for in calculations
Positive strokes (< 10% of total flashes)
Highest currents
Not a large contributor to outages on Tx lines
Not accounted for in calculations
 The impulse breakdown characteristic of solid insulation material is “flatter” than for gas
The time to breakdown decreases with increasing voltage

Impulse Tests: most important is the clearance distance to the wall and ceiling
The statistical waiting time depends on the overvoltage ratio (U impulse -​Ustatic )/U static
The impulse breakdown voltage depends on the shape of the impulse
Flashover probability function for lightning impulse Flashover models that predict breakdown time
V-​T Curve Penetration
Simple evaluation of time to breakdown DE limit > DE? - flashover
Integration Models
Quantifies the applied voltage “stress” by integrating the voltage over time
Appropriate for lightning (implemented in TFlash)
Leader progression method
Models the development of the discharge across the gap
More appropriate for Switching Surges or long gaps where leader
development is dominant.
Testing procedures Seems to work OK for lighting flashovers with correct parameters.

Application of V-​T characteristic: Steep Front Test

Impulse Generator 20kA peak current and 250μs duration

Application of V-​T characteristic: Spark gap protection

Simple and cheap Chopped Impulse Test
Incomplete (Fast fronted) Testing of transformer
Weather dependent Non-​linear voltage distribution in windings
Do not reseal Switching Impulse Test
Earthed (Interruption) Switching Impulse Strength increases non-​
Isolated (can reseal) linearly with gap length
Chopped wave
Winding stress
statistical time lag:
some time is needed Anomalous Flashover
for formation of the Flashover does not always occur
initial electron across shortest gap
Non- linearity of CFO vs gap length
Not all gaps have same gap factor
Tf may correspond to CWF of longer A. The steepness of the lightning impulse is as important as the peak value
B. A lightning impulse is a traveling wave phenomena
gap
C. The striking distance of lightning increases with the peak current
Large standard deviation