COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EHVAC AND

HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

by

Akash Sharma (1402921024)

Archit Bansal (1402921039)

Arnab Banerjee (1402921039)

Submitted to the Department of Electrical and Electronics

in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

in

Electrical and Electronics

KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, U.P., Lucknow

June, 2018
 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
KIET Group of Institutions Ghaziabad
Ghaziabad– 201206, Uttar Pradesh
(NBA Accredited Department)

Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

An ISO-9001:2008 Certified Institute

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of our
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another
person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except
where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.

Name: Akash Sharma Name: Archit Bansal

Roll No.: 1402921024 Roll No.: 1402921039

Date: Date:

Name: Arnab Banerjee

Roll No.: 1402921040

Date:

13 Km Stone, Ghaziabad- Meerut Road (NH-58), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh-201206, INDIA

W: www.kiet.edu
 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
KIET Group of Institutions Ghaziabad
Ghaziabad– 201206, Uttar Pradesh
(NBA Accredited Department)

Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

An ISO-9001:2008 Certified Institute

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Project Report entitled “Comparative analysis of EHVAC and
HVDC Transmission Systems” which is submitted by Mr. Akash Sharma, Mr. Archit
Bansal and Mr. Arnab Banerjee in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of
degree B. Tech. in Department of Electrical and Electronics of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Technical University, U.P., Lucknow, is a record of the candidates’ own work carried out
by them under my/our supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is original and has
not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

Date: Supervisor

13 Km Stone, Ghaziabad- Meerut Road (NH-58), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh-201206, INDIA

W: www.kiet.edu
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech Project undertaken
during B. Tech. Final Year. We owe gratitude to our guide/guides Professor Yaduvir
Singh, Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, KIET Group of Institutions,
Ghaziabad for his throughout support and guidance during the entire course of our work.
His sincerity and perseverance has been a constant source of motivation for us. It is only
his hard efforts that has made our objective possible.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Professor N K Gupta,

Head, Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, KIET Group of Institutions,
Ghaziabad for his constant support and during the development of the project.

We also are obliged for the contribution of all faculty members of the department for their
throughout assistance and cooperation during the project work. Last but not the least, we
also thank our friends for their contribution in the completion of the project.

Name: Akash Sharma Name: Archit Bansal

Roll No.: 1402921024 Roll No.: 1402921039

Date: Date:

Name: Arnab Banerjee

Roll No.: 1402921040

Date:

iv
 ABSTRACT
Today the Energy Demands have reached to a big value of 500 Exa-Joules, and the need
for the Energy Demand is going to increase in the coming years. The activities in today’s
life are primarily focused on devices which consume electric power for their operations.
The electricity is used for a variety of purposes starting from small activities such as
running a washing machine in the home to running big motors at industries.

Power transmission was initially carried out in the early 1880s using Direct Current
(D.C). With the availability of transformers (for stepping up the voltage for transmission
over long distances and for stepping down the voltage for safe use), the development of
robust induction motor (to serve the users of rotary power), the availability of the superior
synchronous generator, and the facilities of converting A.C. to D.C. when required, A.C
gradually replaced D.C.

Although D.C was replaced by A.C it holds various advantages over A.C which cannot be
looked over and with the advent of EHVAC and HVDC there is a need to compare both
and identify which is better of both.

v
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Existing Transmission system details 10

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: General diagram of power flow 2

Figure 1.2: A typical ASCR used in overhead transmission 3

Figure 1.3: 3-phase high voltage overhead transmission line 4

Figure 1.4: EHVAC transmission diagram 5

Figure 1.5: HVDC transmission system 6

Figure 1.6: India’s power map showing national grid at present 9

Figure 1.1: EHVAC transmission system 12

Figure 1.2: ACSR conductor 15

Figure 1.3: Representation of the transformer 16

Figure 1.4: A typical SF6circuit breaker 17

Figure 1.5: Basic protection diagram 18

Figure 1.6: EHVAC transmission model 500 MW 18

Figure 1.7: Input power 20

Figure 1.8: Transformer waveforms 21

Figure 1.9: Output power factor 22

Figure 1.10:Input power 23

Figure 1.11: Transformer characteristics under LG fault 24

Figure 1.12: Output power under LG fault 25

Figure 1.13: Input power under LLL fault 26

vii
Figure 1.14: Transformer under LLL fault 27

Figure 1.15: Fault and line current 28

Figure 1.16: Output power and power factor 29

Figure 2.1: Monopolar link 31

Figure 2.2: Bipolar link 31

Figure 2.3: Homopolar link 32

Figure 2.4: HVDC transmission system 500 MW 35

Figure 2.5: Input power 37

Figure 2.6: Converter transformer voltage 38

Figure 2.7: Primary and secondary characteristics 39

Figure 2.8: Power under normal condition 40

Figure 2.9: Input power 41

Figure 2.10: Converter transformer waveforms 42

Figure 2.11: Fault and line current variation with firing angle 43

Figure 2.12: Line voltage and line current 44

Figure 2.13: Output power 45

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
EHVAC Extra High Voltage Alternating Current

HVDC High Voltage Direct Current

AC Alternating Current

DC Direct Current

ASCR Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced

FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System

LTA Long-Term Access

STOA Short Term Open Access

RLC Resistance Inductance Capacitance

LG Line to Ground

LLL Line to Line to Line

ix
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ii

CERIFICATE iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Types of Transmission System ............................................................................ 1

1.1.1. What is Transmission of Electricity? ........................................................... 1

1.1.2. Description of a Transmission Systems ....................................................... 1

1.1.3. Types of Transmission Systems ................................................................... 2

1.1.4. Transmission System based upon type of Electric Current (AC or DC) ..... 4

1.2. Losses in Transmission System ........................................................................... 6

1.3. Advantages of High-Voltage Power Transmission ............................................. 7

1.4. Transmission System in India ............................................................................. 8

CHAPTER 2 EHVAC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 11

2.1. Introduction to EHVAC System ........................................................................ 11

2.2. Types of Transmission and Distribution ........................................................... 12

2.2.1. Primary Transmission ................................................................................ 12

2.2.2. Secondary Transmission ............................................................................ 13

2.2.3. Primary Distribution................................................................................... 13

2.2.4. Secondary Distribution............................................................................... 13

2.3. Components used in EHVAC Transmission ..................................................... 13

2.3.1. Type of Conductor Material ....................................................................... 13

x
 2.3.2. Transformer ................................................................................................ 15

2.3.3. Circuit Breakers ......................................................................................... 16

2.3.4. Relays ......................................................................................................... 17

2.4. MATLAB Model ............................................................................................... 18

2.5. MATLAB Model Parameters ............................................................................ 18

2.6. Waves under Normal Conditions ...................................................................... 20

2.7. Waves under Fault Conditions .......................................................................... 23

2.7.1. Line to Ground(LG) Fault .......................................................................... 23

2.7.2. Waveforms under LLL Fault ..................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 3 HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 30

3.1. Introduction to HVDC System .......................................................................... 30

3.1.1. Monopolar Link ......................................................................................... 30

3.1.2. Bipolar Link ............................................................................................... 31

3.1.3. Homopolar Link ......................................................................................... 31

3.2. Components of HVDC Transmission System ................................................... 32

3.2.1. Converters .................................................................................................. 33

3.2.2. Converter Transformer ............................................................................... 33

3.2.3. A.C Harmonic Filters ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2.4. DC Smoothing Reactor .............................................................................. 34

3.2.5. DC Filters ................................................................................................... 34

3.3. MATLAB Model ............................................................................................... 35

3.4. MATLAB Model Parameters ............................................................................ 35

3.5. Waveforms under Normal Conditions............................................................... 37

3.6. Waves under Fault Conditions .......................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EHVAC AND HVDC SYSTEM 46

4.1. Comparison Parameters and Definitions ........................................................... 46

xi
 4.1.1. THD of EHVAC ........................................................................................ 46

4.1.2. Voltage Regulation..................................................................................... 47

4.2. Efficiency .......................................................................................................... 47

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 49

REFERENCES 50

xii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Types of Transmission System

1.1.1. What is Transmission of Electricity?

Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy from a power
generating power plant, such as a power plant, to an electric substation. The
interconnected line which help in this movement are known as the transmission
network. This is different from the local wiring between high-voltage substation and
consumers, which are typically referred as electrical power distribution. The
combination of transmission and distribution networks are known as the grid. In the
United Kingdom, India, Malaysia and New Zealand, the network is known as the
"National Grid".

1.1.2. Description of a Transmission Systems

Most of the transmission lines are High Voltage 3 phase AC, but the single-phase
AC is seldomly used for the railway electrification. High-voltage direct-current
(HVDC) transmission is basically used for achieving greater efficiency over very long
distance of transmission. HVDC technology is used for the exchange of power
between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links are purposely to
stabilize large power distribution networks where sudden new loads or blackouts, in
any one part of the network can result in synchronization problems and cascading
failures. Electricity is transmitted at high voltages from 115KV to above for reducing
the energy losses which occurs in long distance transmission. Power is normally
transmitted through overhead power cables. Underground power cable installation
basically has got higher installation cost and large operational limitations but reduced
maintenance costs. Underground transmission is generally used in urban areas or
environment sensitive locations. A lack of electrical energy storage facilities in
transmission system network leads to key limitation. Electrical energy must be

Page 1 of 63
generated at the same rate at which it is demanded or consumed. A control system is
required to ensure that the power generation precisely matches the demand. In case
the power demand exceeds the generation of power, such imbalance can cause
generating stations and transmission equipment’s to automatically disconnect or shut
down for prevention of any damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a cascading
series of shut downs and a major regional blackout. Examples include the US
Northeast blackouts of the year 1965, 1977, 2003, and major blackouts in other US
regions for years 1996 and 2011. Electric transmission networks are interconnected
into regional, national, and even continent-wide networks to reduce the risk of such a
failure by providing multiple redundant, alternative routes for power to flow should
such shut downs occur. Transmission companies calculate the maximum capacity of
each line to make sure that spare capacity is always available in the event of a failure
that may in another part of the network.

Figure 1.1: General diagram of power flow

1.1.3. Types of Transmission Systems

Basically, in the very beginning the transmission system (electrical), is classified
into 2 broad categories such as overhead transmission and underground transmission.

1.1.3.1. Overhead Transmission

High-voltage overhead cables are not covered by insulation. The conductor material
used is aluminium alloy, divided into several strands and then reinforced with steel
strands. Copper is also used for overhead transmission of power, but aluminium is
lighter in weight, performance is slightly degraded from copper, but cost is much less.
Improved conductor material and design is used to increase capacity and modify
transmission circuits. Conductor sizes range from 12 mm2 to 750 mm2 with variable
resistance and current-carrying capacity. Thicker wire will lead to a relatively small
increase in capacity due to the skin effect in which causes most of the electric current
flows close to the surface of the conductor. Because of this current limitations issues,
Page 2 of 63
multiple parallel cables known as bundle conductors are used when higher capacity of
power transfer is needed. Bundle conductors are used at high voltages to reduce
energy losses that are caused by corona discharge.

Today, transmission-level voltages are usually atv110 kV and above. Lower

voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are used sub-transmission voltages, but are also
used on long lines with light loads. Voltages which are less than 33 kV are used for
the distribution. Voltages above 765 kV are extra high voltage and require different
design as compared to equipment used at lower voltages.

Figure 1.2: A typical ASCR used in overhead transmission

The overhead transmission cables use air for the purpose of insulation, therefore the
design of the overhead transmission line requires minimum clearances to be made for
maintaining safety. Harsh weather conditions which includes high wind and low
temperatures also leads to power outages. Wind speed of range 43 kmph can permit
conductors to encroaches upon operating clearances which can result in flashovers
and loss of supply. Oscillatory motion of the conductors can be termed as galloping or
fluttering depending on the frequency and amplitude of the oscillations produced.

Page 3 of 63
 Figure 1.3: 3-phase high voltage overhead transmission line

1.1.3.2. Underground Transmission

Electric power can be transmitted via underground power cables. Underground

cables are less affected by extreme weather conditions. But, the cost of an insulated
cable and excavation are costlier than overhead cables. Faults occurring in
underground transmission lines take longer to locate and repair them. Underground
cables are also limited by their thermal capacity, which leads to less overload capacity
than overhead lines. Long underground AC cables have also got capacitance
problems, which reduces the ability to provide power to loads beyond 80 kilometres.
DC cables are not at all limited in length by their capacitance.

1.1.4. Transmission System based upon type of Electric Current (AC or DC)
The two basic types of Transmission System based upon type of electric currents
are: EHVAC (Extra High Voltage Alternating Current) and HVDC (High Voltage
Direct Current).

1.1.4.1. EHVAC (Extra High Voltage Alternating Current) Transmission System

The increased demand of electric power requires increased generation of electrical

power. As the electricity generation takes place at remote places, an effective and
efficient distribution system is necessary. The problems encountered in AC
transmission systems particularly in long distance transmission have led to the
development of the DC transmission system. HVAC Transmission system can be
further divided into two parts:
Page 4 of 63
 (a) Transmission System
(b) Distribution System

Both above parts are further subdivided into:

(1) Primary Transmission

(2) Secondary Transmission

Generation and transmission are now three-phase. The secondary transmission is

also three-phase, whereas the distribution to the customer may be three phase or
single depending on the type of the consumer.

Figure 1.4: EHVAC transmission diagram

1.1.4.2. HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) Transmission System

The HVDC electric power transmission system uses direct current for the
transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the AC transmission systems. For
long-distance transmission of power, HVDC systems is less expensive and suffer
lower amount of electrical losses. For underwater power cables. For short distances,
the higher cost of the DC equipment’s in comparison to the AC equipment m because
of the benefits of direct current links. HVDC uses voltages between 100 kV and 1,500
kV.

HVDC Transmission system also allows power transmission between

unsynchronized AC transmission systems. As the power flow with the aid of HVDC
network link can be controlled independently without the dependence of the phase
angle between that of the source and load, it can also stabilize network against

Page 5 of 63
disturbances due to quick changes in the power supply. HVDC Transmission system
allows transfer of power between grids operating at frequencies of 50 Hz and 60 Hz.
This improves the stability and economy of each grid by permitting exchange of
power between incompatible networks.

TYPES OF HVDC LINKS:

1) Monopolar Link

2) Homopolar Link

3) Bipolar Link

Figure 1.5: HVDC transmission system

1.2. Losses in Transmission System

Transmission of electricity using high voltage reduces the energy loss due to
resistance, which depends on the specific conductors, the amount of current flowing,
and also on the length of the transmission cable. For example, a 160 km line rated at
765 kV carrying 1000 MW of power has loss from 1.2% to 0.6%. A 345-kV line
carrying the same load for the same distance will have loss of 4.3%. For a given
magnitude of power, high values of voltage reduce the current and thus reduces the
loss caused by resistance. If the voltage is increased by a factor of ten it reduces the

Page 6 of 63
current also by a factor of 10 and therefore the losses are reduced by a factor of 100,
provided the same conductor size is used in both cases. If the conductor size cross-
sectional area is reduced by ten-fold to match the lower current, the losses are also
reduced by ten-fold. Long-distance transmission system is used with overhead lines at
voltages ranging from 115 to 1,200 kV. When high voltages, more than 2,000 kV
exists between the conductor and the ground, phenomenon like corona discharge
losses are so effective that they can reduce the resistive losses in the line conductors.
Methods to reduce corona losses will include conductor having larger diameters or
bundled conductors.

The issues which affect the resistance and the losses of a conductor cable used for
transmission systems and distribution systems purpose includes factors like
temperature, spiralling and the skin effect of the conductors. The resistance of the
conductor increases with the increase in temperature. Temperature changes in electric
power line has a significant effect on power losses of the line. The skin effect causes
the net resistance of a conductor to increase at higher frequencies.

In any alternating current transmission network, the inductance and capacitance of

the conductors can be important. Currents that flow in response to these properties of
the circuit, constitute for reactive power flow, which transmits no real power to the
load. The reactive currents cause extra heating losses in the transmission circuit. The
ratio of active power to apparent power is defined as the power factor. As reactive
current increases, the power factor reduces. Transmission systems with low power
factor have losses higher than the systems with high power factor. For improving the
power factor, we use capacitor banks, VAR compensators etc.

1.3. Advantages of High-Voltage Power Transmission

Power Transmission at high voltages leads to decrease in resistive losses over long
distances. Thus, improved efficiency due to high voltage transmission allows large
amount of amount of power to be delivered and reduces the operational costs.

Assume that the electrical grid delivers electricity from a generator to a single point
for consumption, modelled by a pure resistance R, if the wires are long enough they
have a significant resistance RC. If the resistances are connected in series without any

Page 7 of 63
transformer between them, the circuit will then act as a voltage divider, because the
same current I= V/(R+RC) will flow through the resistance and the powered device.
Therefore, the useful power is:

PR =V2 * I = V. R/R+RC * V/ R+RC = R/R+RC. PV

As the transformer converts the voltage level by either stepping up or stepping

down. If we suppose an ideal transformer with a voltage ratio, then the circuit is again
equivalent to a voltage divider, but the transformer-consumption branch has an
apparent resistance of a2R. The useful power is then:

PR = V2 * I2 = V2 / (a2R + RC) = a2R/ (a2R + RC). PV

For a > 1 (conversion of high voltage converts to a low voltage near the
consumption point), a larger fraction of the generator's power is transmitted to the
consumer point and a lesser fraction is lost in heating.

1.4. Transmission System in India

Smooth transfer of Electricity is a very important subject in India and both Centre
and State is responsible for it. NTPC, NHPC, THDC, NEEPCO, SJVNL, NLC etc.
are all the central generating stations and POWERGRID is the Central Transmission
Control Network. At the State level, there is TRANSCO in the respective States.

The country INDIA has been divided into five electrical Regions viz. Northern
(NR), Eastern (ER), Western (WR), Southern(SR) and North Eastern (NER).
However, NR, ER, WR and NER are synchronously interconnected and operating as
single grid known as the Central Grid whose capacity is about 110,000MW. The
Southern region is asynchronously connected to the Central Grid with the help of
HVDC links.

Page 8 of 63
 Figure 1.6: India’s power map showing national grid at present

The backbone of transmission system in India is mainly through 400 kV AC

network which is approximately 90,000 circuit kilometres (ckm.(=2xroute km)) of
line length. The highest voltage level of transmission is 765kV with line length of
approximately 3120 ckm. There are about 7,200 ckm of 400 kV system, 5500 MW,
+/- 500 kV long distance HVDC system, an HVDC Monopole of 200 MW and four
HVDC Back-to-Back links of 3000MW capacity. They all are supported by about
1,23,000 ckm. of 220kV transmission network. All the above five regions are
interconnected through National Grid comprising hybrid AC/HVDC system. The
Present inter-regional transmission capacity of the National Grid is about 20,800 MW.

The details of the existing transmission system in India are given below:

Page 9 of 63
 Table 1.1: Existing Transmission system details

Transmission Lines Unit As on March 2009

765 kV ckm 3118

HVDC+/- 500 kV ckm 7172

400 kV ckm 89496

220 kV ckm 122960

Total- Transmission Lines ckm 222746

Substations

HVDC Terminal Capacity MW 8700

765 kV MVA 4500

400kV MVA 111202

220 kV MVA 177190

Total-AC Substation Capacity MVA 292892

The present transmission system must meet the transmission requirements as well as
the Open Access requirements. The Long-Term Access (LTA) gives the transmission
system the strength required for future generation additions and for the Short Term
Open Access (STOA) facilitates for increased real time trading in electricity, utilizing
the inherent margins provided for required redundancies as per planning criteria. The
STOA leads to market determined generation dispatches resulting in supply at
reduced prices to the distribution utilities and ultimately to the consumers. In the year
2008-09, the volume of energy traded under Short term open access was about 31
Billion units.

Page 10 of 63
 CHAPTER 2
EHVAC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
2.1. Introduction to EHVAC System

The modern industrial as well as domestic circle due to ever increasing requirements
demands bulk generation of electricity. Commonly generation is facilitated at distant
areas, due to need of efficient system. The problems of AC transmission particularly
in long distance transmission have led to the development of DC transmission. HVAC
Transmission system can be divided into two parts:

(a) Transmission System

(b) Distribution System

Both above parts are further subdivided into:

(1) Primary Transmission

(2) Secondary Transmission

Three phase transmission and generation are generally preferred. The user end
distribution to the consumers could be three or single phase depending upon the
requirements.

Page 11 of 63
 Figure 2.1: EHVAC transmission system

2.2. Types of Transmission and Distribution

2.2.1. Primary Transmission

In Figure 2.1 power is generated via the three phase generators in the central
generating station at 6.6kV, 11k, 13.2 or 32 kV. The voltage is then stepped up by
suitable three phase transformers, to 132 kV.

Using high voltages for transmission of power requires lower cross section of
conductor which reduces the cost of conductor material used.

But, the cost of the insulation used rises. The transmission voltage is hence
determined by economic aspects. Higher transmission voltage due to lower current
flow, reduce ohmic losses and improves voltage regulation.

Page 12 of 63
2.2.2. Secondary Transmission
Now from the receiving station, power is transmitted at 33KV by underground
cables which is known as secondary or low voltage transmission. At the substation the
voltage level is again brought down from 3kv to 3.3kv, using step down transformers.

2.2.3. Primary Distribution

The substation output at 3.3 kV can be directly provided to a consumer whose
demand is over 50kVA using specific feeders which is called primary distribution.

2.2.4. Secondary Distribution

The secondary distribution is used at 440V or 230 Volts. The lowering of the
voltage levels from 3.3 kV to 440/230 Volts is achieved by the step-down action of
the transformer at substations(distribution).

The system that is used for secondary distribution is 440/230 Volt, 3 phase system..
The frequency used in India is fifty hertz.

2.3. Components used in EHVAC Transmission

2.3.1. Type of Conductor Material

ACSR - aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced, a standard of industry from 20th
century, consists of a solid steel with strands of 1350 aluminium conductors
surrounding the steel core. Previously, the higher concentration of steel was used to
obtain higher mechanical strength soon increased to a substantial portion of the cross-
section of the ACSR, but in modern utilities, as conductors tend to have larger cross
sections, the convention has changed to less steel content. Due to wide requirement
areas, ACSR is available in a broad range of steel content - from 7% by weight for the
36/1 stranding to 40% for the 30/7 stranding. Previous designs of ACSR such as 6/1,
30/7, 30/19, 54/19 and 54/7were built with high steel content, 26% to 40%, with focus
on strength maybe because of the vibration fatigue phenomenon. Nowadays, for
larger-than-AWG sizes, the most used cables are 18/1, 45/7, 72/7, and 84/19, having
steel content from 11% to 18%.For the fairly higher strength 54/19, 54/7, and 26/7
cables, the steel content is 26%, 26% and 31%, respectively. The high-strength ACSR
8/1, 12/7 and 16/19 cables, are commonly used for overhead ground wires, river
crossings, etc.

Page 13 of 63
 The inner-core wires of ACSR are zinc coated (galvanized) steel, available in
standard weight Class A coating or heavier coatings of Class B or Class C. Class B
coatings have two times the thickness of Class A, and Class C coatings about three
times as thick as Class A. The inner cores can also be of aluminium coated
(aluminized) steel or aluminium clad steel. The latter produces a conductor designated
as ACSR/AW in which the aluminium cladding comprises 25% of the cross-section of
the wire, with at least coating thickness of 10% of the overall radius. The reinforcing
wires may be in a central aluminium core or distributed throughout the cable.
Galvanized or aluminized coats are thin and are applied to reduce corrosion of the
steel wires. These thin coated wires have a conductivity of about 8% IACS. The
apparent conductivity of ACSR/AW reinforcement wire is 20.3% IACS.

2.3.1.1. ACSR Strandings

A high strength Aluminium-Magnesium-Silicon Cables were designed to swap with

the bigger strength 6/1 ACSR conductors square measure usually referred to
as AAAC, these conductors supply wonderful semi-conductive properties with
a conduction of fifty-two. 5% IACS, wonderful sag-tension characteristics effective
corrosion resistance thereto of ACSR. The temper of 6201 is often T81.
6201 metal alloy conductors square measure generally tagged as O.D. equivalents for
6/1 and 26/7 ACSR constructions. The O.D. equivalent 6201 conductors have
roughly the precise capability and strength as their ACSR equivalents with a
stronger strength-to-weight magnitude relation. 6201
conductors additionally show well higher electrical loss characteristics than their
equivalent single layer ACSR constructions. However, the
thermal constant of enlargement is bigger than that of ACSR. like AAC
conductors, the utmost short temperature of 6201 is to be unbroken below 340°C to
stop dangerous conductor tempering. Relative to ACSR, AAAC's lighter weight,
comparable strength and current carrying capability, lower electrical losses and
superior corrosion resistance and therefore this conductor is wide accepted as a
distribution conductor. It's very restricted use as a transmission conductor.
ACAR -(Aluminium Conductor-Aluminium Alloy Reinforced) - ACAR hybrids
1350 associated 6201 metal alloy strands to produce a transmission conductor with an
optimum balance of electrical and mechanical properties. This conductor consists of
1 or additional layers of 1350-H19 metal strands helically wrapped over one
Page 14 of 63
or additional 6201-T81 metal alloy wires. The core might comprises one
or additional 6201 strands. the main advantage of the ACAR conductor is that
the proven fact that all strands square measure interchangeable between Common
Market and 6201, therefore allowing the planning of a conductor
with associate optimum balance between mechanical and electrical characteristics. In
effect, ACAR may be a composite aluminium-aluminium alloy
conductor that is designed for every application to optimize properties. Inverse ACAR
conductors are there with the more durable 6201 metal alloy wires being on the outer
surface of the conductor and also the 1350 metal creating up the core of the
conductor.

Figure 2.2: ACSR conductor

2.3.2. Transformer
A transformer is a stationary electrical device which transfers electrical energy
among two or more circuits via electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one
coil of the transformer produce a varying magnetic field(varying with respect to
space), which in order induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or "voltage" in the
other coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils, without any electrical
conduction between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831
explains this effect. Transformers are used to vary the alternating voltages and
currents in electric power applications

Page 15 of 63
 Figure 2.3: Representation of the transformer

2.3.3. Circuit Breakers

A circuit breaker is an automatic electrical switch that is designed to protect an
electrical circuit from the potential damage that can be caused by flow of current with
magnitude higher than the rated current value of the conductor. Its basic function is to
block the flow of electrical current after a fault is detected. While a fuse operates once
and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) after the fault is cleared to resume normal operation.

Circuit breakers are manufactured in various sizes, from small devices that protect
low-current circuits or individual household appliance, up to large switchgear
engineered to guard high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The basic function of
a circuit breaker, RCD or a fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a
faulty system is common abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).

Page 16 of 63
 Figure 2.4: A typical SF6circuit breaker

The SF6 Circuit Breaker is commonly used for the protection of the Transmission
System.

2.3.4. Relays
A relay is basically an electrically operated switch. Relays commonly use an
electromagnet to mechanically function a switch, with different operating principles
also being used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are generally used to control a
circuit by another low-power signal, or where multiple circuits are to be operated by
single signal. Earlier, relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as
amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it
on another circuit. Relays were used majorly in telephone exchanges and early
computer systems to perform logical operations.

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 Figure 2.5: Basic protection diagram

2.4. MATLAB Model

Figure 2.6: EHVAC transmission model 500 MW

2.5. MATLAB Model Parameters

• 'Il_phase_A: 3- Phase Parallel RLC ' = 1219.80 Arms -19.05 °

• 'Il_phase_B: 3- Phase Parallel RLC ' = 1219.80 Arms -139.05 °

• 'Il_phase_C: 3- Phase Parallel RLC ' = 1219.80 Arms 100.95 °

• 'Il_phase_A: Three-Phase Series RLC Load ' = 1222.11 Arms -34.98 °

• 'Il_phase_B: Three-Phase Series RLC Load ' = 1222.11 Arms -154.98 °

• 'Il_phase_C: Three-Phase Series RLC Load ' = 1222.11 Arms 85.02 °

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• 'Il_transformer_1_winding_1: 600MVA 735//400 kV ' = 384.58 Arms -35.07 °

• 'Il_transformer_1_Lm: 600MVA 735//400 kV ' = 0.58 Arms -123.61 °

• 'Il_transformer_2_winding_1: 600MVA 735//400 kV ' = 384.58 Arms -155.07 °

• 'Il_transformer_2_Lm: 600MVA 735//400 kV ' = 0.58 Arms 116.39 °

• 'Il_transformer_3_winding_1: 600MVA 735//400 kV ' = 384.58 Arms 84.93 °

• 'Il_transformer_3_winding_L0: 600MVA 735//400 kV' = 0.00 Arms 90.74 °

• 'Il_transformer_3_Lm: 600MVA 735//400 kV ' = 0.58 Arms -3.61 °

• 'Il_transformer_1_winding_2: 600MVA 400//735 kV ' = 444.46 Arms -168.47 °

• 'Il_transformer_1_Lm: 600MVA 400//735 kV ' = 1.70 Arms -97.68 °

• 'Il_transformer_2_winding_2: 600MVA 400//735 kV ' = 444.46 Arms 71.53 °

• 'Il_transformer_2_Lm: 600MVA 400//735 kV ' = 1.70 Arms 142.32 °

• 'Il_transformer_3_winding_2: 600MVA 400//735 kV ' = 444.46 Arms -48.47 °

• 'Il_transformer_3_winding_L0: 600MVA 400//735 kV' = 0.00 Arms -2.98 °

• 'Il_transformer_3_Lm: 600MVA 400//735 kV ' = 1.70 Arms 22.32 °

• 'Il_phase_A: 400 kV ' = 1415.62 Arms 11.45 °

• 'Il_phase_B: 400 kV ' = 1415.62 Arms -108.55 °

• 'Il_phase_C: 400 kV ' = 1415.62 Arms 131.45 °

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2.6. Waves under Normal Conditions

Figure 2.7: Input power

The HVAC 500MW system under normal conditions.

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 Figure 2.8: Transformer waveforms

The transformer magnetization current, core loss current and the fault current under
normal conditions are depicted in the above waveforms.

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Figure 2.9: Output power factor

Page 22 of 63
2.7. Waves under Fault Conditions

2.7.1. Line to Ground(LG) Fault

Figure 2.10:Input power

When an LG fault is applied on the transmission system i.e. one of the phases is
shorted with ground, the unsymmetrical fault invokes rapid transients(at t=0.5
seconds). These transients affect the whole stresses over distribution transformers and
instantaneous surge maybe observed.

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 Figure 2.11: Transformer characteristics under LG fault

The line fault directly affects the secondary of 400/735KV and primary current in
735/400kV being electrically coupled, the rest winding currents are also somewhat
affected due to the magnetic coupling.

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 Figure 2.12: Output power under LG fault

As soon as one of the phases is grounded at t=0.50secs, the phase current increases
rapidly and henceforth affecting the output phase current and the average power. The
transients are cleared via circuit breaker at t=0.55 seconds with reaction time being
0.05 seconds.

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2.7.2. Waveforms under LLL Fault

Figure 2.13: Input power under LLL fault

The reverse flow of active power is complimented with massive reactive power
transients incorporated by severe symmetrical LLL fault.

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 Figure 2.14: Transformer under LLL fault

The primary and secondaries of both sending and receiving transformers being
electrically or magnetically coupled with the transmission line suffer transients in all
the phases.

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 Figure 2.15: Fault and line current

Huge transients up to a magnitude of 6500 Amps are visible at the instant of fault,
which eventually increases the phase currents and hence the overall line currents. The
current transient dies at 0.525 seconds and hence are cleared in total time of 0.025
seconds.

Page 28 of 63
 Figure 2.16: Output power and power factor

When the LLL fault occurs, the sub transient and transient period effectively last 0.1
seconds. The current flow and hence active and reactive power flow reverses, and
effective transmission line power factor drops to a minimum of 0.15.

Page 29 of 63
 CHAPTER 3
HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

3.1. Introduction to HVDC System

A high voltage transmission system uses direct current to transfer electrical power
from generating station to receiving station compared to the most used alternating
current (AC) system. HVDC transmission system may prove to be less expensive and
suffers less losses in transmission of electrical power for long distances. In
applications like underwater applications HVDC system may prove to be a better
option as it doesn’t require charging and discharging the cable capacitances in each
cycle. However due to the high cost of AC to DC conversion equipment may not be
suitable for shorter distances but sometimes it can be justified. HVDC uses voltages
between 100 kV and 1,500 kV.

Power transmission can be enabled between unsynchronized AC transmission

systems with help of HVDC. Rapid changes in power induces disturbances in network
which can be stabilized with the help of HVDC link as the power flow in the link is
controlled by phase angle between source and load. HVDC system can also enable
power transfer between grids running at different frequencies, such as 50 Hz and 60
Hz. The advantage of power exchange between incompatible networks improves
stability and economy of all the grids using the system.

The types of HVDC links are:

1) Monopolar Link

2) Bipolar Link

3) Homopolar Link

3.1.1. Monopolar Link

A monopolar system includes a single conductor where the ground is used as return
conductor. Mostly negative polarity of the conductor is used to reduce interferences.
Page 30 of 63
For application such as submarine systems this link can be used and use sea water as a
return conductor.

Figure 3.1: Monopolar link

3.1.2. Bipolar Link

A Bipolar link utilizes two conductor which includes one positive and another
negative polarity conductor. The ground point is kept at mutual or ground point is
kept constant at the mean potential. The terminals of the bipolar link consist of two
converters which are kept at an equal voltage in series. Under the condition of all
neutral grounded then there will be no ground current and the poles will operate at
equal currents. Half of the rated power can be transferred when one of the conductors
is at fault.

Figure 3.2: Bipolar link

3.1.3. Homopolar Link

Homopolar system utilizes more than one conductor where all the conductors are
usually of same polarity and usually negative and the link always operates with
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ground return. More than half of the power can be transferred in the event of a
conductor failure, the system can be overloaded but will be at the cost of more line
losses. This method is not applicable to the bipolar link as it utilizes graded insulation
for both its opposite polarity conductor. Preference is given to homopolar conductor
when it is not possible to reduce continuous ground currents. The advantages this type
of link offers is less corona loss and less radio interference.

Figure 3.3: Homopolar link

3.2. Components of HVDC Transmission System

The source usually used is a SC source and the generation is also done in AC. One
of the most important need of a DC system is the conversion of AC to DC at one side
and DC to AC at another side. This requires the use of rectifiers and inverters with
very high-power rating.

Essential requirements of HVDC system are

(1) 6/12 pulse converters.

(2) Converter transformers along with suitable ratio and tap changing.
(3) Filters on both AC side and DC side to reduce harmonic generation at the
converters and for the reduction of harmonics.
(4) A smoothing reactor on the DC side which can decrease harmonic current in the
DC line and potential transient over currents.
(5) Shunt capacitors required to compensate reactive power generation due to
converters as they operate on lagging power factor.
(6) DC transmission lines or cables required for transmission.

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3.2.1. Converters
Converters enable the conversion of AC to DC at sending side and DC to AC at
receiving side. A six-pulse bridge is used as the basic building block of the converter.
The six-pulse bridge is made of 6 “valves” each of which may contain many series-
connected thyristors to accomplish the required DC rating in the HVDC arrangement.
A purposely built building, known as ‘valve hall’, is normally used for a six-pulse
bridge in an HVDC transmission scheme.

For cases where the same station contains both the sending and receiving end of the
HVDC link, typically same valve is used for valves associated with both sides of the
link.

3.2.2. Converter Transformer

The converter transformer is basically used to interface the AC system and the
thyristor valves. Commonly HVDC converter transformer experiences DC voltage
insulation stress and AC voltage stress that occur in a power transformer.
Fundamentally AC and DC stress are different. The AC voltage stresses are expressed
by geometry and permittivity of materials which found in the insulating oil, and the
stresses in DC are controlled by the resistivity of the material where resistivity is
governed by operating conditions. The transformer is designed with respect to thermal
conditions which takes into account the fundamental frequency load and AC
harmonic currents which flows from converter to converter transformer and then to
AC harmonic filters.

The generation of AC current harmonics and reactive power absorption is operated

in converter. Shunt connected switchable AC harmonic filters are used to limit AC
harmonic currents and absorbed reactive power, the harmonic filters are either directly
connected to converter busbar or through a filter busbar. Conventional AC circuit
breakers are used in the automatic switching of AC harmonic filters which ensures the
limitation of harmonics and reactive power. The AC harmonic filters include series
connection of high voltage capacitor banks with medium voltage circuit of reactors,
resistors and capacitor banks. Proper selection of components is done to ensure the
required performance of AC harmonic filter and it also ensures adequate rating.

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3.2.3. DC Smoothing Reactor
DC smoothing reactors are normally needed for power transmission, while there no
requirement for it in Alstom Grid back-to-back schemes. The DC smoothing reactor
provides various functions for DC transmission, but it is principally used for:

(1) Reduction of DC current ripple in the overhead transmission line.

(2) Reduction of maximum potential fault current that may flow through the DC
transmission circuit to a converter fault.
(3) Modification of DC side resonances to frequencies which are not the multiples
of the fundamental AC frequency.
(4) Protection of thyristor valves from quick front transients originated in the DC
transmission line.

3.2.4. DC Filters
The DC smoothing reactor, usually a large air-insulated reactor, is placed at the
HVDC converter’s high voltage terminal and is rated at or below 500 kV DC. Usually
DC smoothing reactor is split between the high voltage terminal and neutral terminals.

Converter operation generates voltage harmonics at the DC terminal of the converter

which means sinusoidal AC harmonic components are superimposed on the DC
terminal voltage. The induction of AC harmonic component of voltage causes AC
harmonic current flow in DC circuit. The field generated by these currents can link
with conductor near to it like open-wire telecommunication systems which results in
induction of harmonic current in those systems. Back-to-back scheme enables the
harmonics containment within the valve hall which includes adequate shielding.
Cable scheme includes a cable screen which provides enough shielding. But in open-
wire DC limits the number of harmonics in the DC line. The DC filter physically
similar like an AC filter is connected through a capacitor bank to the high voltage
potential and in order to provide the desired tuning and damping other capacitors
along with reactors and resistors are then connected to the high voltage capacitor
bank.

Page 34 of 63
3.3. MATLAB Model

Figure 3.4: HVDC transmission system 500 MW

3.4. MATLAB Model Parameters

• 'Il_phase_A: Subsystem1/5th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 168.92 Arms 89.36 °

• 'Uc_phase_A: Subsystem1/5th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 251263.55 Vrms -0.64 °

• 'Il_phase_B: Subsystem1/5th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 168.92 Arms -30.64 °

• 'Uc_phase_B: Subsystem1/5th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 251263.55 Vrms -120.64 °

• 'Il_phase_C: Subsystem1/5th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 168.92 Arms -150.64 °

• 'Uc_phase_C: Subsystem1/5th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 251263.55 Vrms 119.36 °

• 'Il_phase_A: Subsystem1/7th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 166.59 Arms 89.39 °

• 'Uc_phase_A: Subsystem1/7th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 247796.94 Vrms -0.61 °

• 'Il_phase_B: Subsystem1/7th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 166.59 Arms -30.61 °

• 'Uc_phase_B: Subsystem1/7th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 247796.94 Vrms -120.61 °

• 'Il_phase_C: Subsystem1/7th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 166.59 Arms -150.61 °

• 'Uc_phase_C: Subsystem1/7th 80 Mvar Q=100 ' = 247796.94 Vrms 119.39 °

• 'Uc_phase_A: Subsystem1/80 Mvar ' = 245694.77 Vrms -0.55 °

• 'Uc_phase_B: Subsystem1/80 Mvar ' = 245694.77 Vrms -120.55 °

Page 35 of 63
• 'Uc_phase_C: Subsystem1/80 Mvar ' = 245694.77 Vrms 119.45 °

• 'Uc_phase_A: Subsystem1/C 80 Mvar ' = 244285.30 Vrms -0.54 °

• 'Uc_phase_B: Subsystem1/C 80 Mvar ' = 244285.30 Vrms -120.54 °

• 'Uc_phase_C: Subsystem1/C 80 Mvar ' = 244285.30 Vrms 119.46 °

• 'Il_phase_A: 3- Phase Parallel RLC ' = 573.22 Arms 58.75 °

• 'Il_phase_B: 3- Phase Parallel RLC ' = 573.22 Arms -61.25 °

• 'Il_phase_C: 3- Phase Parallel RLC ' = 573.22 Arms 178.75 °

• 'Il_phase_A: Subsystem1/Q=3 ' = 165.06 Arms 87.28 °

• 'Il_phase_B: Subsystem1/Q=3 ' = 165.06 Arms -32.72 °

• 'Il_phase_C: Subsystem1/Q=3 ' = 165.06 Arms -152.72 °

Page 36 of 63
3.5. Waveforms under Normal Conditions

Figure 3.5: Input power

Page 37 of 63
Figure 3.6: Converter transformer voltage

Page 38 of 63
 Figure 3.7: Primary and secondary characteristics

The converter transformer and the rectifier waveforms under normal operating
conditions are shown in the Figure 3.6 and Figure 3.7.

Page 39 of 63
Figure 3.8: Power under normal condition

Page 40 of 63
3.6. Waves under Fault Conditions

Figure 3.9: Input power

The system is programmed in such a way that it starts and reaches a steady state.
After that to observe the dynamic response of the regulator a step is applied on the
reference current. Finally, at t=0.5 a DC fault is applied on the line, where observation
of the maximum transient in the input power, both active as well as reactive, is done.

Page 41 of 63
 Figure 3.10: Converter transformer waveforms

After the starting transients, the transformer parameters are stable, but at the instant
t=0.5, when the DC fault is artificially applied, the rectifier current rapidly changes
the direction and flows at a magnitude of -2 pu.

The rapid flux changes along with magnetization current of the converter type
transformer is visible.

Page 42 of 63
 Figure 3.11: Fault and line current variation with firing angle

At t = 0.5 s, a DC fault is applied.

At t = 0.55 s, the alpha angle is automatically forced by the protection system (not
simulated) to reach 165 degrees and the Forced_alpha input of the current regulator
goes high (1). The rectifier operates inverter mode and sends back the energy stored
in the line to the 345-kV network.

Page 43 of 63
 Figure 3.12: Line voltage and line current

0 < t < 0.3 s

Trace shows the reference current (magenta) and the measured Id current (yellow).
The reference current is set to 0.5 pu (1 kA). The DC current starts from zero and
reaches a steady-state in 0.1 s.

0.3 < t < 0.5 s

At t = 0.3 s, the reference current is increased from 0.5 pu (1 kA) to the nominal
current 1pu (2 kA).

0.5 < t < 0.55 s

Page 44 of 63
 The fault current (trace 3) increases to 5 kA and the Id current increases to 2 pu (4
kA) in 10 ms. Then, the fast regulator action lowers the current back to its reference
value of 1 pu.

Figure 3.13: Output power

Here, the alpha angle is forced by the protection system (not simulated) to reach 165
degrees when the Forced_alpha input of the current regulator goes high (1). The
rectifier thus passes in inverter mode and sends the energy stored in the line back to
the 345-kV network. As a result, the arc current producing the fault rapidly decreases.
The fault is cleared at t = 0.555 s when the fault current zero crossing is reached.

Page 45 of 63
 CHAPTER 4
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EHVAC AND
HVDC SYSTEM

4.1. Comparison Parameters and Definitions

After the analysis of EHVAC and HVDC transmission system models made on
MATLAB Simulink, though that we have finally concluded the system performance
of EHVAC and HVDC transmission systems based on 3 parameters:

1. Total harmonic distortion

2. Efficiency
3. Voltage regulation

4.1.1. THD of EHVAC

To understand a system with an input and an output we begin our understanding
with an ideal system whose transfer function is linear and time-invariant. When a
signal passes through a non-ideal, non-linear device, some additional component of
frequencies are added with the original components of the frequency. THD is referred
as the measurement of the extent of that distortion from the original value.

When the main performance considered is purity of the original sine wave consisting
of the fundamental harmonic component, the measurement then is most commonly
defined as the ratio of the RMS amplitude of a set of higher harmonic frequencies to
the RMS value of amplitude of the first harmonic or the fundamental, frequency
component.

THD is given by:

√V22 + V32 + V42 + ⋯

THDF =
V1

Total harmonic distortion of EHVAC transmission system: 27.3%

Page 46 of 63
4.1.2. Voltage Regulation
The Voltage Regulation formula is basically associated with the following relation
that is the change in the voltage level when there is a load connected to the case when
there is no load connected.

Voltage regulation in transmission lines occurs due to the impedance in the

transmission line between its sending and receiving ends. Transmission lines
internally have some amount of resistance, inductance, and capacitance that all
change the voltage continuously of the line. Both the magnitude and phase angle of
voltage change in a real transmission line. These effects of line impedance can be
modelled with simplified circuits such as the short line approximation, the medium
line approximation and the long line approximation.

Percent voltage regulation is given by:

Vs − VR
Voltage Regulation = × 100%
VR

Where,

VS is the sending end voltage,

VR is the receiving end voltage.

Voltage regulation of EHVAC transmission system: 22.2%

Voltage regulation of HVDC transmission system: 20%

4.2. Efficiency

Transmission efficiency of the systems is the percentage of input power that is being
delivered to the receiving end form the sending end and it also consist of the losses
that is there in the path of the transmission. The percentage transmission efficiency is
given by:

VR IR Cos∅R
Transmission Efficiency = × 100%
VS IS Cos∅S

Transmission efficiency of EHVAC system: 78.4%

Page 47 of 63
Transmission efficiency of HVDC system: 96%

Page 48 of 63
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

The detailed description of EHVAC and HVDC transmission systems have been
discussed. The comparison between EHVAC and HVDC transmission system have
been carried out. For 300 Km line it has been proven that HVDC has better voltage
regulation and transmission efficiency. It is also a well-known fact that HVDC has
less corona and losses and no skin effect is present in HVDC transmission system.
Though EHVAC transmission system pose some advantages too but it cannot
overshadow the advantages of HVDC transmission system. Thus, the HVDC
transmission system’s advantages has been properly documented in comparison to
EHVAC transmission system after the comprehensive analysis of EHVAC and
HVDC transmission systems.

Page 49 of 63
 REFERENCES
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Chaudhari., “Comparative analysis of HVDC and EHVAC”, International
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Transmission Technologies", IEEE Power and Energy Magazine, March-April
2007.
3. Vahid Behravesh, Nahid Abbaspour, "New Comparison of HVDC and HVAC
Transmission system", International Journal of Engineering Innovation and
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Page 50 of 63
12. Kala Meah, student member IEEE, and Sardul Ula, Senior Member, IEEE
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