PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

FINAL EXAM REVIEWER

Chapter 7 – Fluid Mechanics

A fluid can either be a liquid or a gas that continuously change in shape when subjected to shear stress.
Fluid Statics - study of fluids at rest in equilibrium
Fluid dynamics - study of fluids in motion

Mass Density and Specific gravity

-The behavior of a fluid can be observed by its mass density which is defined as the mass per unit volume.
And it is denoted by the Greek letter rho (p) and in equation form

Pressure in a fluid
A fluid at rest exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in contact with it. This force is due to the
motion of the molecules which collides with the surroundings.
Gauge Pressure is the excess pressure above the atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure is the total
pressure in an object.

Pascal’s Law: Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the
fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.

Buoyancy

Archimedes’ Principle: When a body is completely submerged or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid
exerts an upward force (“the buoyant force”) on the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the body.

Fluid Flow

An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible and has no internal friction. Internal friction in a fluid causes
shear stresses as when fluid flows inside a tube or around an obstacle.

Flow Line - The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid.

Steady Flow - If the overall flow pattern does not change with time.

A streamline line is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid velocity at that point.

Laminar flow occurs when adjacent layers of fluid slide smoothly past each other and the flow is steady.

Turbulent flow occurs when the flow pattern is continuously changing.

Viscosity and Turbulence

The opposing force (internal friction) relative to the motion of a fluid is called Viscosity.

Turbulence - irregularity in the flow of the fluid

Chapter 8 – Temperature, Heat, and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Thermal Contact - Two objects are in thermal contact if energy can be exchanged between them.

Thermal Equilibrium - Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if they are in thermal contact and no net
exchange of energy.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

“If systems A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.”
The zeroth law of thermodynamics was called the “zeroth” law because it only came to light after the first,
second and third law had already been named. Since it is more fundamental to all of them the name
“zeroth” seemed more appropriate.

Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in area or volume in response to a change in
temperature. As we can see, thermal expansion plays an important part in various engineering
applications.
Thermal Stress - is stress created by any change in temperature to a material.
Quantity of Heat

Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to a temperature difference
between the system and surroundings.
Chapter 9 – Law of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Processes - are processes that involve changes in the state of thermodynamic systems.
A thermodynamic system can interact with its surroundings or environment in at least two ways, one of
which is heat transfer and the other one is through work done into or out the system.

Heat and Work

Work Done During Volume Changes

Internal Energy

- Internal energy of a system, U, can be tentatively defined as the sum of the total kinetic energies of all
its constituent particles plus the sum of the total potential energies of interaction among particles.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is a generalization of the principle of conservation of energy to include
energy transfer through heat as well as mechanical work.
Thermodynamic Processes

Adiabatic Process

A process with no heat transfer into or out of a system, that is, Q = 0. This no transfer of heat flow can be
done either by thermally insulating the system or carrying out the process so quickly so that there will be
no time for heat flow of appreciable amount to happen. From our first law of thermodynamics, we have
Heat Engines

heat engine is any device that transforms heat partly into work. It takes in energy by heat and partially
converts it to other forms, such as electrical and mechanical energy. Usually, this energy by heat it takes
in called the working substance is any matter that can undergo inflow and outflow of heat.
Kelvin Planck Statement

“No heat engine operating in a cycle can absorb energy from a reservoir and use the energy completely
into mechanical work.”

Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

For this engines, energy is injected into the engine which is the work W in Figure 9.5, resulting in heat
being extracted from the cold reservoir and given off to the hot reservoir. The system now works as a heat
pump. The heat pump requires a net input of mechanical work unlike a heat engine has a net output of
work. QC is positive while W and QH are both negative for the energy flow diagram shown in Figure 9.7.
Refrigerator/Clausius Statement

“It is impossible for any process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter
body.”

Internal-Combustion Engine

Internal-combustion engines are heat engines that generate power by burning of gasoline, oil, or other
fuel with air inside the engine, the hot gases produced are being used to drive a piston or do other work
as they expand. The combustion of fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral
part of the working fluid flow circuit.

The Otto Cycle

The Carnot Engine

Engines working in Otto and diesel cycle although form a cycle are not reversible cycle as the working
medium changes after each cycle. The Carnot cycle, on the otherhand, is a reversible cycle where a
working fluid undergoes a cycle of isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression
and adiabatic compression.
Entropy

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated as a quantitative relation with the concept of entropy.
The Third Law of Thermodynamics