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Fog Stability Index: A novel technique for fog/low clouds detection using
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ISSN: 0143-1161 (Print) 1366-5901 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tres20

Fog Stability Index: A novel technique for fog/low

clouds detection using multi-satellites data over
the Indo-Gangetic plains during winter season

S. H. Arun, Sasmita Chaurasia, Arundhati Misra & Raj Kumar

To cite this article: S. H. Arun, Sasmita Chaurasia, Arundhati Misra & Raj Kumar (2018): Fog
Stability Index: A novel technique for fog/low clouds detection using multi-satellites data over
the Indo-Gangetic plains during winter season, International Journal of Remote Sensing, DOI:
10.1080/01431161.2018.1483085

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING
https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2018.1483085

Fog Stability Index: A novel technique for fog/low clouds

detection using multi-satellites data over the Indo-Gangetic
plains during winter season
S. H. Aruna,b, Sasmita Chaurasiaa, Arundhati Misraa and Raj Kumara
a
EPSA, Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, India; bDepartment of Physics, Gujarat University,
Ahmedabad, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

A novel fog/low clouds detection technique has been implemented Received 1 August 2017
using data from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) and the Accepted 18 May 2018
Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) along with the
Global Forecasting System (GFS) and the European Centre for
Medium Weather Forecast (ECMWF) model wind data. The study
has been carried out during fog seasons of the years 2015–2016
and 2016–2017 over six locations over the Indo-Gangetic (IG) plains.
Fog is indicated if the estimated Fog Stability Index (FSI) is found to
be less than the corresponding dynamically derived threshold
value. The same algorithm is effective for both day and night-time
analysis and has the potential to detect fog even in the presence of
higher clouds. Results are validated with visibility data obtained
from various meteorological stations of the India Meteorological
Department (IMD) located in the IG plains and found to be in
agreement in 84.63% of cases. For qualitative comparison with
FSI, the Indian National Satellites (INSAT-3D) fog products have
also been used. FSI could be the most effective technique for
those satellites which could have a sounder sensor along with an
infrared and microwave channels like the AIRS and the IASI for an
improved and continuous monitoring of fog.

1. Introduction
Northern regions of the India experience severe fog conditions during winter mainly due to
decrease in surface temperature and increase in relative humidity due to many waterbodies,
existing topography, wind condition, and anthropogenic activities. Fog consists of sus-
pended water droplets which restrict visibility and persist for some period. When the
visibility reduced below 1000 m, meteorologically, it is identified as fog (National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration). It is one of the most observable and complex weather
phenomena which can vary in depth. Fog occurrence impacts various human activities like
public health and transportation which includes road, airline, and shipping. It has been
reported that the total economic loss which affects the aviation, marine, and land transport

CONTACT S. H. Arun arunshphysics05@gmail.com Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Jodhpur Tekra,

Ahmedabad-380 015, Gujarat, India
© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

is comparable to those of tornadoes (Gultepe et al. 2007). Therefore, an improved under-

standing, monitoring, forecasting/now casting will benefit the society.
In India, radiation and advection fog are the most common types, in which the former
one results from radiation cooling of the ground and adjacent air. It is a night-time
phenomenon under clear sky and high relative humidity condition. Under these condi-
tions, the ground and the air immediately above it cool rapidly and attain dew point. For
a radiation fog to be more extensive vertically, a light breeze of speed below 5 ms−1 is
necessary. However, when warm and moist air is blown over a cold surface, the
temperature decreases by contact and to a certain extent, by mixing with cold air due
to underlying cold surface. If cooling is sufficient, the results are a blanket of fog called
advection fog. A certain amount of turbulence is needed for proper development of
advection fog. Thus, moderate winds are usually associated with it. Radiative character-
istics of fog over the Indo-Gangetic (IG) plains during the northern winter have been
studied (Sathiyamoorthy, Arya, and Kishtawal 2016). This study suggested that foggy
winter will be colder than non-foggy winter. The western disturbances affect day-to-day
weather of northwest India especially during winter which brings cold wave conditions
and occasionally dense fog conditions over the Indo-Gangetic (IG) plains (Dimri et al.
2006). One of the major reason which leads to fog formation is primarily due to its
proximity to waterbodies like river the Ganga and its tributaries and low wind speed.
The IG plains having a low elevation and the Himalayan range on its northern side block
the flow of wind upward which becomes conductive for trapping fog for longer dura-
tions. Apart from the meteorological conditions and topography, the aerosol loading has
great impact on the fog formation over the IG plains (Gautam et al. 2007; Badarinath
et al. 2009). Agricultural crop burning before winter is observed to have significant role
in the formation of fog over the north India. Another reason is that the increasing
number of thermal power plants which are key source of air pollution can serve as
additional cloud condensation nuclei which lead to the generation of fog over the IG
plains (Prasad, Singh, and Kafatos 2006). The influence of air pollution on the formation
of fog has also been studied in detail (Badarinath et al. 2007). The Delhi has been ranked
as one of the most polluted cities in the world used to witness low visibility due to smog
before the onset of winter season. Dense smog layer reduces the visibility by up to 50 m
and also the air quality has remained poor after the post Diwali season. A harmful
mixture of pollutants and toxic gases to remains close to the surface, thus worsening the
air quality and thereby reducing the visibility. Low wind speed and rise in humidity
conditions in the atmosphere are also favourable for smog. Since, fog and smog have
the similar atmospheric stability condition and also have nearly similar visibility, the
distinction between them is a challenging task.
Earlier day’s in-situ observation of visibility was used for fog detection, but this gives
information about a point location. Many meteorological stations also do not operate at
night-time. To get information about the complete spatial coverage of fog, remote
sensing technology provides better opportunity. Satellite remote sensing is an impor-
tant tool in the detection and now casting of fog events. Detection of fog/low clouds
using satellite data has been taken up since many years (Eyre, Brownscombe, and Allam
1984; Kudoh and Noguchi 1991; Anthis and Cracknell 1999; Bendix 2002; Bendix et al.
2005; Cermak and Bendix 2011; Yi L et al., 2015; Arun et al. 2018). Simulation of bright-
ness temperature using two different spectral channels (3.9 and 10.7 µm–11.2 µm) was
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 3

used to find out a threshold for identification of fog using satellite data (Ellrod 1995; Lee,
Turk, and Richardson 1997; Chaurasia et al. 2011). However, during daytime, the solar
signal mixes into 3.9 µm radiation, thus reducing the efficiency of this method after
sunrise. Choudhury et al. (2007) studied fog–affected regions in the northern India and
the spatial extent of fog for the winter months of different seasons was mapped with
the help of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) images. Chaurasia and
Gohil (2015) developed a new fog detection algorithm which employs temporal differ-
encing technique and spatial homogeneity test to detect day time fog without using the
3.9 µm channel. The main limitation of this method is that no meteorological parameters
which are responsible for the fog formation are included. Use of sounder observations
giving temperature and humidity profile of the atmosphere may be more promising for
fog detection. A fog detection algorithm has been demonstrated which takes into
account the temperature and humidity profile information of the atmosphere along
with surface wind information from model output to detect fog (Song and Yum 2013;
Wantuch 2001).
In the present work, Fog Stability Index (FSI) has been calculated for the detection of
fog using sounder data of the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) and the Infrared
Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) along with the Global Forecasting System
(GFS) and the European Centre for Medium Weather Forecast (ECMWF) model wind
data. For a larger spatial extent, the study has been carried out for fog period of
2015–2016 and 2016–2017 over six locations in the IG plains. The results obtained
have been validated with the in-situ visibility observations.

2. Data and methodology

2.1. Data used
The AIRS is one of six instruments flying on board the NASA’s (National Aeronautics and
Space Administration) Aqua satellites. The AIRS is a high spectral resolution spectrometer
with 2378 bands in the thermal infrared (IR) in the range 3.7 µm–15.4 µm and 4 bands in the
visible (0.4 µm–1.0 µm). The AIRS has a retrieval accuracy of 1 K with 1 km vertical layers and
humidity with 10% accuracy in 2 km layers in the lower troposphere. Each scan line contains
90 IR footprints, with a resolution of 13.5 km at nadir. From an altitude of 705.3 km, an
Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU-A) footprint at nadir is 40.5 km in diameter. The
temperature profiles are reported at 28 pressure levels between 1100.0 Pa and 0.1 Pa.
Combined level 2 products of the AIRS and the AMSU have been used in the present study.
The IASI is an on board the Meteorological Operational (MetOp) satellite in which measure-
ments are done by passive IR remote sensing. The IASI consists of a Fourier transform
spectrometer operating in 3.7 µm–15.5 µm along with an infrared imager in the range of
10.3 µm–12.5 µm. The IASI measured temperature with a vertical resolution of 1 km in the
lower troposphere with an accuracy of 1 K and humidity of the lower troposphere is
measured with a vertical resolution of 2 km with an accuracy of 10%. The IASI level 2 data
which are the collocation between the IASI, the AMSU, the Microwave Humidity Sounder,
and the High resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder with a spatial resolution of 12 km
available through the NOAA class have been used. Multi-spectral imager of the Indian
National Satellites (INSAT-3D) is well capable of generating the images of the Earth in six
4 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

wavelength bands. The INSAT-3D imager fog products having a spatial resolution of 4 km
and temporal resolution of 30 min have been used for the present work. This fog product is
being generated using the INSAT-3D Thermal Infrared (TIR1 (10.8 µm)) and Mid-wave
Infrared (MIR (3.9 µm)) channel data for night-time and TIR1 (10.8 µm) and visible
(0.55 µm –0.75 µm) data for day time (Fog product, INSAT-3D Algorithm Theoretical Basis
Development Document). The GFS is a weather forecast model by the National centres for
Environmental Prediction (NCEP). The most widely used data sets of GFS are surface
temperature, winds, precipitation, soil moisture, temperature, humidity profiles at different
pressure levels etc. The global model output is available at 64 levels and temporal resolution
of 3 h interval at 0.5° equally spaced in latitude and longitude. Wind speed at 10 m is used
along with the AIRS data due to its nearly similar spatial resolution. The ECMWF data with a
spatial resolution of 12.5 km have been used for the computation of wind speed at 10 m for
estimation of FSI with the IASI data due to its nearby spatial resolution character. The high
horizontal sampling of the ECMWF enables better spatial representation.

2.2. Methodology
FSI can be used as an indicator of fog based on the meteorological information available
from the vertical temperature and humidity profiles along with the wind speed informa-
tion. FSI is calculated using the formula (Song and Yum 2013; Wantuch 2001).
FSI ¼ 2jTs  Td jþ2jTs  T850 jþW10 m (1)

Ts is the surface temperature, Td is the dew point temperature at 2 m, T850 is the

temperature at 850.0 Pa, W10 m is the wind speed at 10 m.
The first term (Ts − Td) is known as the dew point depression which can provide the
information regarding to the availability of moisture content near the surface. The
second term (Ts − T850) represent the stability of the atmosphere. In the case for relative
humidity more than that of 50%, a simple approximation can be used to find out the
dew point temperature from relative humidity (Lawrence 2005), that is
ð100  RHÞ
Td ¼Ts  (2)
5
RH is the relative humidity.
For the present study, surface temperature and temperature at 850.0 Pa and surface
relative humidity of the AIRS and the IASI sounder have been used. The complete data
sets of the AIRS and the IASI during winter over the IG plains have been analysed and
studied the variations of meteorological parameters in detail. Different FSI thresholds
have been derived dynamically based upon the meteorological conditions over the IG
plains for different locations. For different locations with FSI having less than the
threshold value has been identified to be covered with fog. According to international
definition, visibility of fog and haze are <1000 m and 2000 m–5000 m, respectively.
There is clear distinction between fog and haze based on visibility. Light drizzle rarely
hinders visibility while heavy drizzle can drop visibility to 1500 m. In case of IG plains,
heavy drizzle are very rare in winter. Smoke can reduce the visibility significantly.
Visibility has been measured in airports located in the IG plains and there is very rare
chance of visibility reduction due to smoke. In the present analysis, we have considered
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 5

only visibility values less than 1000 m to validate with those FSI less than FSI threshold
which is clearly indicating fog. The AIRS is a polar-orbiting satellite having a noon and
mid night-time of pass over the IG plains whereas the IASI is having a morning and
night-time pass over the same region. The AIRS morning pass over the IG plains is near
to 07:00–08:00 UTC and evening pass is in between 20:00–21:00 UTC. The IASI having a
morning and evening pass over the IG plains near to 04:00–05:00 UTC and 15:00–16:00
UTC, respectively. The IASI used for both day time and time fog detection whereas the
AIRS is restricted to night-time analysis only because fog gets initiated around midnight
and deeper towards early morning. However, most of the fog developed during night
gets dissipated by noon, except for some rare cases for which fog persists throughout
the day (Bhushan et al. 2003). The general methodology for detection of fog by using FSI
technique is shown in Figure 1.

3. Study region
The present study has been carried out from December 2015 to January 2016 and from
December 2016 to January 2017 over six major airports namely Amritsar (31.7° N, 74.8° E),
Delhi (28.6° N, 77.1° E), Jaipur (26.8° N, 75.8° E), Lucknow (26.8° N, 80.9° E), Varanasi (25.5° N,
82.9° E), and Patna (25.6° N, 85.1° E) which are located at a sea level height of 237 m, 230 m,

Figure 1. Flow chart for the detection of fog using FSI technique.
6 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

385 m, 123 m, 81 m, and 52 m, respectively, in the IG plains over which dense fog conditions
is observed yearly in winter. The six locations are shown in Figure 2.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Detection of fog/low clouds using FSI technique with the AIRS sounder data
FSI over six locations in the IG plains has been estimated from December 2015 to January 2016
and December 2016 to January 2017 by using the temperature and relative humidity profile
information from the AIRS sounder data along with the GFS wind data. FSI threshold value has
been derived for different locations according to the meteorological conditions dynamically.
Out of 1015 samples used for the analysis, for 871 cases, the FSI technique matches with the
fog/no-fog condition over the locations. The results have been validated with the in-situ
visibility observations and it is found to be in agreement. Scatter plot with the coefficient of
determination (R2) of FSI using the AIRS data and in-situ visibility observations over various
locations are shown in Figures 3(a)–(f). Temporal variation of temperature and wind speed at
10 m are shown in Figures 4(a)–(f) and Figures 5(a)–(f).

Figure 2. Study regions indicated black star-shaped symbol. Amritsar (31.7° N, 74.8° E), Delhi (28.6°
N, 77.1° E), Jaipur (26.8° N, 75.8° E), Lucknow (26.8° N, 80.9° E), Varanasi (25.5° N, 82.9° E), and Patna
(25.6° N, 85.1° E).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 7

Figure 3. Estimated FSI values with the AIRS data versus in-situ visibility observations over (a)
Amritsar, (b) Delhi, (c) Jaipur, (d) Lucknow, (e) Patna, and (f) Varanasi during the fog season from
2015 to 2016 and 2016 to 2017.

The above results show that FSI technique is capable to indicate the presence or absence of
fog in 85.81% of cases. Results need to be further analysed for those cases showing anomaly
for 14.19% of cases. Out of the 85.81% of cases, FSI technique identifies fog events for 33.10%
of cases and agrees with the no-fog condition for 52.71% of cases and both FSI and visibility
observations are in agreement. The results have also been qualitatively validated with the
INSAT-3D fog product. Out of 167 observations over the Amritsar, FSI technique identifies fog
in 52 cases while no-fog has been indicated in 90 cases. The results are in agreement with both
in-situ observations and the INSAT-3D fog maps. However, FSI technique was unable to detect
fog in 6 cases where the visibility observations are found to be less than 1000 m clearly
indicating fog. Moreover, it has given wrong indication of fog in 19 cases where the actual
visibility has been observed to be greater than 1000 m which is a clear indication of absence of
fog. Visibility over the Amritsar was zero on 1 December 2015 at 21:03 UTC, on 10 December
2015 at 21:00 UTC, on 6 January 2016 at 20:09 UTC, on 13 January 2016 at 21:00 UTC, and on 7
December 2016 at 20:08 UTC. The corresponding FSI was estimated to be 8.78, 12.09, 12.34,
8.64, and 10.37, respectively, which were less than the threshold. In all the fog cases over the
Amritsar, wind speed at 10 m as observed to be less than 5.00 ms−1 which is an indication of
radiation fog. In case of the Delhi, the total number of observations was 170 out of which in 140
cases, both FSI and visibility observations are in agreement. FSI technique indicated fog in 62
cases and no-fog in 78 cases whereas the extent of incapability of FSI technique in detection of
8 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

Figure 4. Temporal variation of Ts, Td, and T850 using the AIRS sounder observations over (a)
Amritsar, (b) Delhi, (c) Jaipur, (d) Lucknow, (e) Patna, and (f) Varanasi during the fog season from
2015 to 2016 and 2016 to 2017.

fog over the Delhi has been observed to be 31.11%. The percentage of wrong indication of fog
has been observed to be significantly low (2.50%) over the Delhi. Features of radiation fog have
been observed with low wind speed of less than 5.00 ms−1 in most of the cases. It has been
observed that the relationship between FSI and visibility is not linear in all cases over the Delhi.
High aerosol loading due to air pollution over the Delhi can affect the visibility observation
which could be the reason for those nonlinearities. Low visibility (≤1000 m) has been observed
in 16 cases over the Jaipur and the corresponding FSI was also noticed to be less than the
threshold value in all cases. Wind speed observed was low (≤4.00 ms−1) which is the char-
acteristics of radiation fog. On 15 January 2016 at 20:08 UTC and on 29 December 2016 at 20:03
UTC, visibility observed to be 100 m which is an indication of dense fog. The corresponding FSI
which is less than the threshold also indicated fog. Visibility has been observed to be greater
than 1000 m in 150 observations over the Jaipur which is an indication of absence of fog. Out
of 150 cases, both FSI and in-situ observations are in agreement in 115 cases. FSI technique has
given wrong indication of fog in 23.33% of cases over the Jaipur. It has also been observed that
on 5 December 2015 at 20:09 UTC, on 9 December 2016 at 20:07 UTC, on 13 December 2016 at
20:03 UTC, and on 15 December 2016 at 20:00 UTC over the Lucknow, visibility was less 100 m
and the corresponding FSI (11.21, 15.29, 13.99, 15.31) measured has been observed to be less
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 9

Figure 5. Temporal variation of wind speed at 10 m using the GFS data over (a) Amritsar, (b) Delhi,
(c) Jaipur, (d) Lucknow, (e) Patna, and (f) Varanasi during the fog season from 2015 to 2016 and 2016
to 2017.

than the threshold with a wind speed of less than 4.00 ms−1 which is an indication of radiation
fog. The total number of observations over the Patna has been noticed to be 164 which
comprise of 61 low visibility (≤1000 m) and 103 high visibilities (>1000 m) cases. FSI indicated
fog in 60 out of 61 observations and no-fog in 87 out of 103 cases. The capability of FSI
technique in detection of fog over the Patna has been observed to be very high (98.36%).
However, the extent of wrong indication of fog by FSI technique has also been noticed to be
moderate (15.53%). On 13 December 2016 at 20:03 UTC, on 4 January 2017 at 19:06 UTC, and
on 5 January 2017 at 20:04 UTC, the visibilities have been observed over the Patna to be 100 m,
50 m, and 100 m, respectively. The corresponding FSI (7.79, 5.05, and 6.96) also indicated fog.
The INSAT-3D fog maps have also qualitatively confirmed the presence of fog over the Patna.
The wind speed at 10 m has been observed to be less than 5.00 ms−1 in all cases which is a
significant feature of radiation fog. In case of the Varanasi, the FSI technique indicated fog in 69
cases out of 80 cases and no-fog has been indicated in 84 cases out of 93 cases. FSI technique
failed to indicate fog in 11 cases where the visibility has been observed to be less than 1000 m
which is a clear indication of fog while the extent of wrong indication of fog has been observed
to be significantly low (9.67%). Dense fog of zero visibility has been observed over the
Lucknow on 7 December 2015 at 20:07 UTC, on 1 January 2016 at 20:06 UTC, and on 19
January 2016 at 20:04 UTC. The corresponding FSI (5.01, 6.71, and 9.34) indicated fog and low
10 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

wind speed (≤ 3.00 ms−1) confirmed the radiative characteristics of fog. The analysis using the
AIRS data over six locations is listed in Table 1.
However, for those 14.19% of cases in which FSI and visibility observations are not in
agreement, two possible discrepancies have been noticed. First, visibility data have
shown values greater than 1000 m which indicated the absence of fog while the
corresponding estimated FSI values were observed to be less than the FSI threshold
value indicating fog. Second, visibility data have shown values ≤1000 m indicating fog
whereas no fog has been indicated by FSI technique. For the former case, even though
the FSI is less than the threshold, any of the individual parameters like high dew point
depression, atmospheric instability, or high wind speed may not be favourable for the
formation of fog. Further analysis of such cases is required to be undertaken. The
difference in geolocation between satellite and the exact point locations could be the
most probable reason for the disagreement results in the latter case. The variations in
the meteorological conditions over the IG plains which define the FSI threshold could
also play a crucial role for the disagreement in results. Out of the 25 cases over the
Amritsar, 19 cases shown visibility greater than 1000 m whereas fog has been indicated
by FSI technique instead of no-fog condition. High dew point depression (>8.00 K) has
been observed which could be the reason for the discrepancy. In the remaining 6 cases,
fog has not been indicated by FSI technique even though the visibility shown values
≤1000 m. In case of the Delhi, 28 cases out of 30 have shown low visibility (≤1000 m)
while fog is not indicated by FSI technique which may be due to the difference in
geolocation between satellite and in-situ point location. Visibility has shown values
greater than 1000 m in the remaining two cases whereas fog has been indicated by
FSI technique. The atmospheric stability and dew point depression terms have been
observed to be high (>6.00 K) which could be the reason for the disagreement. All the
35 disagreement results between FSI and visibility over the Jaipur have shown visibility
greater than 1000 m and on the other hand, fog has been indicated by FSI technique
instead of no-fog condition. In most of the cases, dew point depression term has been
estimated to be of high values (>9.00 K) and in few cases, atmospheric stability term also
shown high values (>8.00 K) could be the most probable reasons for the discrepancies.
Out of 17 cases over the Lucknow, 15 cases shown low visibility (≤1000 m) and the
corresponding FSI has not been indicated fog and fog has indicated in the remaining
two cases where the visibility estimated was greater than 1000 m which is an indication
of no-fog condition. FSI indicated fog even though the high dew point depression and
atmospheric stability term has been noticed in 16 cases over the Patna where the

Table 1. Statistics between the AIRS sounder observations with in-situ visibility data.
Number of observations FSI in agreement with visibility data FSI not in agreement with visibility data
Location Fog event No-fog event Fog event No-fog event Fog event No-fog event
Amritsar 58 109 52 90 6 19
Delhi 90 80 62 78 28 2
Jaipur 16 150 16 115 0 35
Lucknow 92 83 77 81 15 2
Patna 61 103 60 87 1 16
Varanasi 80 93 69 84 11 9
Total 397 618 336 535 61 83
FSI: Fog Stability Index.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 11

visibility has shown values greater than 1000 m. Similarly, 9 cases out of 20 cases over
the Varanasi have shown higher visibility of greater than 1000 m. The corresponding FSI
indicated fog instead of no-fog condition. In the remaining 11 cases, fog has been
indicated by the visibility observations while FSI technique failed to do so due to the
difference in geo-location between the satellite and in-situ point location. The temporal
variations of meteorological parameters like temperature and wind speed at 10 m over
six locations are shown in Figures 4(a)–(f) and Figures 5(a)–(f), respectively. The AIRS is a
polar orbiting satellite which is having pass over Northern India twice a day around
08:00 UTC and 20:00 UTC, respectively. The AIRS night-time humidity and temperature
profile information are more suitable for the present study. Majority of the fog cases
discussed here are about night-time fog only. One of the drawbacks of the study with
AIRS data is that in most of the daytime pass of AIRS is in the afternoon and except rare
cases, fog gets dissipated due to sunlight before noon. Only dense fog may persist
throughout the day.
Samples of the AIRS FSI fog maps and the corresponding the INSAT-3D fog product
have been shown in Figures 6(a)–(d). FSI values have been observed to be less than the
corresponding threshold value over the Delhi, Jaipur, and Varanasi on 19 January 2016
at 19:00 UTC. The corresponding INSAT-3D fog image also shows fog. On 21 January
2016 at 20:00 UTC, FSI values over Lucknow, Varanasi, and Patna were observed to be
less than the corresponding threshold and fog has also been detected in the INSAT-3D
fog product.

4.2. Detection of fog/low cloud using FSI technique with the IASI sounder data
The study has been carried out with the IASI sounder data over the same six locations
during the same period. FSI threshold has been derived for different locations dynami-
cally based on the meteorological information provided by the satellite data. The same
technique has been used with the IASI sounder data. The results have been observed to
be in agreement with the in-situ visibility data in 84.09% of cases while anomaly has
been observed in the remaining 15.91% of cases. Estimated FSI values by using the IASI
data along with in-situ visibility observations are shown in Figures 7(a)–(f). Temporal
variations of temperature and wind speed at 10 m are shown in Figures 8 (a)–(f) and
Figures 9 (a)–(f).
Out of the 84.09% of cases, FSI technique detected fog events in 30.63% of cases and
observed to be no-fog condition in the remaining 53.46% of cases. FSI technique was
unable to detect fog/no-fog condition in accordance with the visibility data for 15.91%
of cases. Two types of discrepancy have been observed in these cases; FSI was observed
to be less than the threshold value indicating fog whereas visibility observations were
observed to be above 1000 m indicating no-fog condition and vice-versa. The INSAT-3D
fog maps generated have also been used for the qualitative assessment. Out of the 146
cases over the Amritsar, in 39 cases, both FSI and visibility observations identified the
fog events whereas in 82 cases no-fog condition has been indicated. The results are
found to be not in agreement in the remaining 25 cases. On 13 December 2016 at 15:53
UTC, on 9 December 2016 at 16:44 UTC, on 14 December 2016 at 16:41, and on 17
December 2016 at 15:38, zero visibility was reported over the Amritsar which indicated
dense fog condition. The corresponding FSI values were 19.97, 18.99, 18.27, and 18.80
12 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

Figure 6. Qualitative comparison between the AIRS FSI maps and the INSAT-3D fog product. (a)
Represents the AIRS FSI map on 19 January 2016 at 19:00 UTC and (b) the corresponding INSAT-3D
fog map on 19 January 2016 at 19:00 UTC. Fog is indicated by green colour. (c) The AIRS FSI map on
21 January 2016 at 20:00 UTC and (d) The INSAT-3D fog map on 21 January 2016 at 20:00 UTC.

Figure 7. Estimated FSI values with the IASI data versus in-situ visibility observations over (a)
Amritsar, (b) Delhi, (c) Jaipur, (d) Lucknow, (e) Patna, and (f) Varanasi during the fog season from
2015 to 2016 and 2016 to 2017.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 13

Figure 8. Temporal variation of Ts, Td, and T850 using the IASI sounder observations over (a) Amritsar,
(b) Delhi, (c) Jaipur, (d) Lucknow, (e) Patna, and (f) Varanasi during the fog season from 2015 to 2016
and 2016 to 2017.

which is also below the threshold value. Low wind speed of less than 5.00 ms−1
observed in all cases leads to the assumption that the mechanism of formation of fog
was radiation cooling. It has been observed that both FSI and visibility observations are
in agreement over the Delhi in 135 cases out of 163 cases. FSI identifies fog events in 65
cases out of 82 cases and the corresponding visibility observations are also shown low
visibility. In all cases, the wind speed was observed to be less than 4.00 ms−1 which is the
characteristics of radiation fog. No-fog condition has been indicated by both FSI and the
visibility measurements in 70 cases out of 81 cases whereas in the remaining 11 cases,
the results are not in agreement. Dense fog of zero visibility has been detected over the
Delhi on 14 January 2016 at 15:29 UTC, on 23 January 2016 at 15:44 UTC, 1 December
2016 at 16:08 UTC, and 19 January 2017 at 15:57 UTC. The corresponding estimated FSI
values of 21.46, 19.24, 24.20, and 23.86, respectively, also found to be less than the
threshold indicated fog. High aerosol loading over Delhi due to air pollution could be
the reason for nonlinear relationship between FSI and visibility in most of the cases. In
case of the Jaipur, the total number of observations was 175 out of which in 142 cases,
both FSI and visibility measurements are in agreement. It has been observed that
85.52% of cases over the Lucknow were in agreement with visibility observations. In
all cases, the wind speed associated with FSI was observed to be calm (≤4.00 ms−1)
14 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

Figure 9. Temporal variation of wind speed at 10 m using the ECMWF data over (a) Amritsar, (b)
Delhi, (c) Jaipur, (d) Lucknow, (e) Patna, and (f) Varanasi during the fog season from 2015 to 2016
and 2016 to 2017.

which gives an indication of radiation fog. In 11.29% of cases, visibility has been
observed to be ≤1000 m while the FSI technique failed to indicate fog. Moreover, FSI
technique has given an indication of fog in 16.86% of cases over the Lucknow whereas
the visibility has been observed to be greater than 1000 m, clearly indicating no-fog
condition. Visibility has reached to 10 m on 1 December 2016 at 16:08 UTC, 4 December
2016 at 15:08 UTC, on 7 December 2016 at 15:44 UTC, and on 11 December at 16:02
UTC. The corresponding estimated FSI (23.11, 24.90, 21.75, and 20.91) were also less than
the threshold value. FSI indicated fog in 73 cases out of 77 cases over the Patna and no-
fog in 62 cases out of 72 cases. It has been observed that the visibility has been reached
to 100 m on 7 December 2015 at 15:17 UTC, on 8 December 2015 at 14:56 UTC, and on
30 January 2016 at 15:00 UTC with FSI values of 6.67, 5.38, and 8.25, respectively, which
also indicated fog. Low wind speed of less than 3.00 ms−1 has also indicated the
radiative characteristics of fog. In most of the fog identified events over Patna, the
visibility was observed to be in the range of 500 m–1000 m which indicated that the
intensity of fog was less over Patna as compared to other locations in the IG plains. The
visibility observed to be less than 0 m on 25 December 2016 at 16:11 UTC, on 27
December 2016 at 15:30 UTC, on 5 January 2017 at 15:44 UTC, and on 6 January 2017 at
15:23 UTC over the Varanasi which gives an indication of dense fog. The corresponding
FSI values (22.53, 19.81, 19.47, and 15.06) also measured to be less than the threshold
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 15

value. The capability of FSI technique in detection of fog over the Varanasi has been
observed to be significantly high (96.37%). However, the extent of wrong indication of
fog by FSI technique has also been noticed to be moderately high (25.00%). The analysis
using the IASI data over six locations is listed in Table 2.
FSI values were observed to be less than the threshold value in all 15.91% of cases
which are not in agreement with visibility observations. Out of the 149 cases in which
discrepancy has been noticed, visibility observations were found to be greater than
1000 m in 117 cases which is an indication of the absence of fog. However, FSI is less
than the threshold, any of the individual parameters like high dew point depression,
high atmospheric instability, or high wind speed could be unfavourable for the forma-
tion of fog. On 1 January 2016 at 04:29 UTC and 26 January 2016 at 04:11 UTC over the
Amritsar, FSI was observed to be 13.23 and 9.78, respectively, which was less than the
threshold. The corresponding visibility over the Amritsar was noticed to be 3500 m and
2200 m which corresponds to no fog condition. In the former case, low wind speed
(1.11 ms−1) was observed, but the high atmospheric stability term (6.06 K) could be the
unfavourable condition for the fog formation. In the latter case, atmosphere was stable
(0.43 K) and wind speed was calm (3.24 ms−1), but moderate dew point depression
(2.85 K) has been observed. On 27 December 2015 at 04:35 UTC over the Delhi, FSI was
observed to be 10.37 and the corresponding visibility was 2400 m which shown
disagreement. Here, atmospheric stability term was low (0.66 K) and dew point depres-
sion was moderately high (2.85 K) and the wind speed was considerably moderate
(4.25 ms−1). On 18 December 2016 at 15:38 UTC, estimated FSI was 23.85 over the
Jaipur and the corresponding visibility was reported to be 1700 m. FSI values and
visibility observations were not in agreement. The atmospheric stability term was
observed to be high (8.63 K). Similarly, on 17 January 2017 at 16:35 UTC over the
Jaipur, visibility was reported to be 4000 m and the FSI value (8.31) has been observed
to be less than the threshold. High wind speed (7.80 ms−1) could be the unfavourable
condition for fog formation. It has been observed that FSI values were less than thresh-
old in two cases (23 December 2016 at 03:59 UTC and 10 January 2017 at 16:26 UTC)
over the Lucknow and the corresponding visibility was observed to be high (2000 m and
2500 m). Higher atmospheric instability (6.55 K and 6.37 K) has been noticed in both
cases. In the case of the Patna on 21 December 2015 at 16:11 UTC, and on 21 January
2016 at 03:29 UTC, FSI was below the threshold. The corresponding visibility measured
was 1200 m and 1300 m, respectively. High atmospheric stability term (6.96 K) was the
unfavourable condition for fog formation in the former case whereas high wind speed

Table 2. Statistics between the IASI sounder observations with in-situ visibility data.
Number of observations FSI in agreement with visibility data FSI not in agreement with visibility data
Location Fog event No-fog event Fog event No-fog event Fog event No-fog event
Amritsar 41 105 39 82 2 23
Delhi 82 81 65 70 17 11
Jaipur 2 173 2 140 0 33
Lucknow 77 72 73 62 4 10
Patna 62 83 55 69 7 14
Varanasi 55 104 53 78 2 26
Total 319 618 287 501 32 117
FSI: Fog Stability Index.
16 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

(7.20 ms−1) was the reason for no-fog condition in the latter case. On 4 December 2015
at 16:18 UTC, on 21 December 2015 at 16:11 UTC, and on 13 January 2017 at 16:17 UTC
over the Varanasi, FSI was 14.91,15.48, and 15.29 and visibility was observed to be 1200
m,1300 m, and 2000 m, respectively. Both the wind speed (1.76 ms-1, 2.13 ms-1, and
2.09 ms−1) and dew pint depression (1.52 K, 0.00 K, and 0.15 K) were favourable for the
fog formation, but the unfavourable condition of high atmospheric stability term (6.04 K,
6.68 K, and 6.45 K) has also been observed. In the remaining 32 cases, visibility has been
observed to be less than 1000 m which indicated fog while the FSI observed to be
greater than the corresponding threshold which indicated no fog condition. The differ-
ence in exact geolocation between satellite and in-situ meteorological stations could be
the most probable reason for the disagreement in results. The variations in the meteor-
ological conditions over the IG plains which define the FSI threshold could also play a
crucial role for the disagreement in results. On 7 January 2016 at 16:17 UTC and on 24
December 2016 at 05:17 UTC, the visibilities over the Amritsar were observed to be 0 m
and 500 m, respectively, indicating dense fog. However, the corresponding FSI estimated
has been observed to be 28.62 and 39.02 which were above the threshold, indicating no
fog condition. Similar conditions have been observed over the Delhi on 17 cases where
the visibility observations indicated fog whereas FSI failed to indicate the fog. On 2
January 2016 at 16:59 UTC, on 7 January 2016 at 16:14 UTC, on 8 January 2016 at 15:53
UTC, and on 2 December 2016 at 15:47 have observed to be few cases among them. In
all the above cases, visibilities (200 m, 100 m, 200 m, 200 m) were less than 1000 m
which indicated dense fog over the Delhi while estimated FSI (28.45, 27.43, 27.01, and
30.59) were observed to be well above the threshold which indicated no-fog condition.
On 17 December 2015 at 15:08 UTC, on 4 January 2016 at 15:15 UTC, on 2 December
2016 at 15:47 UTC, and on 20 January 2017 at 15:51 UTC are the four cases over the
Patna where visibility and FSI observations miss-match has been noticed. Estimated FSI
(27.17, 25.72, 31.27, and 29.27) indicated no-fog condition while the lower visibilities
indicated fog over the Patna. The extent of wrong indication of fog by FSI technique
over the Lucknow has been observed to be 11.29% whereas the same over the Varanasi
has been observed to be low (3.63%). In the two disagreement cases (On 3 January 2016
at 15:56 UTC and on 23 January 2016 at 16:54 UTC) over the Varanasi, the visibilities
have been observed to be fairly below 1000 m (900 m and 800 m) and the correspond-
ing FSI (27.74 and 26.04) were just above the threshold. The variations of meteorological
parameters in defining the threshold could be the reason for the discrepancy in the
observation between the visibility and FSI technique in the above cases. Wind speed
variations over six locations are shown in Figures 9(a)–(f). The IASI is a polar orbiting
satellite having two daily passes over the northern India around 04:00 UTC and 16:00
UTC, respectively. So, the IASI sounder observations can be used for both day and night-
time detection of fog.
On 20 January 2016 at 06:00 UTC, dense fog has been observed over the Delhi,
Lucknow, Varanasi, and Patna. FSI value over the Delhi has been observed to be less
than the FSI threshold value and the remaining locations were uncovered by the IASI
pass. On 13 January 2016 at 06:00 UTC, the northern parts of the Rajasthan were covered
with fog. The corresponding IASI FSI fog map clearly indicates fog by showing less FSI
values. Some IASI FSI fog maps and the corresponding INSAT-3D fog images have been
shown in Figures 10(a)–(d).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 17

Figure 10. Qualitative comparison between the IASI FSI maps and the INSAT-3D fog product. (a)
Represents the IASI FSI map on 13 January 2016 at 06:00 UTC and (b) the corresponding INSAT-3D
fog map on 13 January 2016 at 06:00 UTC. Fog is indicated by green colour. (c) The IASI FSI map on
20 January 2016 at 05:00 UTC and (d) The INSAT-3D fog map on 20 January 2016 at 05:00 UTC.

5. Conclusion
In the present work, FSI technique has been used for the detection and analysis of fog
over six locations in the IG plains using the sounder data of the AIRS and the IASI along
with the GFS and the ECMWF model wind data, respectively, during winter of the years
2015–2016 and 2016–2017. Depending on the FSI threshold derived based on the
meteorological conditions for different locations dynamically, the present technique
can be used as an indicator of fog. The main objective of the present study is on the
detection of fog over the IG plains during winter. However, the persistence of fog varies
according to meteorological conditions. Most of the fog get dissipated after the onset of
sunlight. In the present work, we have analysed not only fog but also non-fog conditions
during winter and validated with the in-situ visibility observations and the results are in
agreement in most of the cases.
However, the FSI technique is much effective in detection of fog; some limitations
were observed in the present study. One of the major drawbacks in the present
study is the discontinuity in data availability due to use of polar satellite which
passes over a particular geo-location after a certain period. Moreover, the AIRS
passes over the study region during daytime after the fog is generally dissipated.
So, most of the data sets used in the present study with the AIRS have been limited
to night-time only.
Through this study, we have made an attempt to employ a recently developed fog
detection technique by using the AIRS and the IASI sounder data together with the GFS
18 S. H. ARUN ET AL.

and the ECMWF model wind data. The proper detection of surface temperature and
surface relative humidity becomes a difficult task in the presence of fog or other clouds
for those satellites not having a microwave channel. If relative humidity and temperature
information’s at surface level could be provided in regular time interval, then geosta-
tionary satellites like the INSAT-3D sounder could be used for the continuous monitoring
of fog with the FSI technique due to its good temporal resolution. Therefore, it can be
suggested that FSI could be the most effective technique in case the geostationary
satellites could have a sounder sensor along with an infrared and microwave channels
for an improved and continuous monitoring of fog.

Acknowledgements
Authors are thankful to Shri. Tapan Misra, Director, Space Applications Centre (SAC), ISRO for
providing his encouragement and support to carry out the present study. We express our sincere
gratitude to MOSDAC (SAC, ISRO) for providing the INSAT-3D data. We also express our sincere
gratefulness to IMD for providing visibility data over different meteorological stations.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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