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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Background to the Study

In recent years, the psychological well-being of youths, especially among the

undergraduate population, has become a matter of increasing concern. University life, though

often seen as an exciting period of exploration and self-discovery, is also marked by significant

challenges. Undergraduates navigate a complex terrain of academic pressures, social

expectations, and financial constraints. Within this context, the role of parental care and

experiences of verbal abuse emerge as critical factors that significantly influence their mental

and emotional health. Undergraduates frequently grapple with the overwhelming burden of

academic expectations. The pressure to excel in studies, secure a promising career, and meet

parental aspirations can create immense stress. In this scenario, the quality of parental care

becomes pivotal. Supportive and nurturing parental care provides a buffer against academic

stressors, fostering a sense of security and self-worth in young adults. On the contrary, a lack of

emotional support or neglect from parents can exacerbate the challenges faced by

undergraduates, leading to heightened levels of anxiety and decreased psychological well-being

Smith, (2017).

Furthermore, the intersection between parental care and verbal abuse is an area that

warrants extensive exploration. Youths who lack supportive parental figures may be more

susceptible to the detrimental effects of verbal abuse from their peers (Deo, 2019).

Understanding the interplay between these variables is essential for devising effective

interventions to enhance the psychological well-being of undergraduates.

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Psychological well-being refers to a state of positive mental health characterized by the

presence of positive emotions, life satisfaction, a sense of purpose, and the ability to manage

stress effectively (Diener, 1984). Individuals experiencing psychological well-being tend to have

a positive outlook on life, high self-esteem, and a strong sense of belonging. Psychological well-

being can also be understood as the ability to cope with life’s challenges, maintain satisfying

relationships, and engage in meaningful activities, leading to a sense of fulfillment and

contentment (Ryff, 1989). It encompasses a person’s emotional, social, and mental state,

reflecting their overall quality of life.

From a eudaimonic perspective, psychological well-being involves the pursuit of

personal growth, self-acceptance, autonomy, environmental mastery, positive relationships, and a

sense of purpose in life (Ryan & Deci, 2011). Eudaimonic well-being emphasizes the realization

of one’s true potential and the pursuit of meaningful goals. Psychological well-being can be seen

as the absence of mental disorders and distress, accompanied by the presence of positive

emotions, life satisfaction, and a strong sense of social connectedness (Keyes, 2015). It

emphasizes not only the absence of negative states but also the presence of positive

psychological functioning.

Several factors contribute to psychological well-being, including positive social

relationships, a supportive environment, self-esteem, a sense of purpose, and effective coping

strategies (Chan, 2021). Additionally, genetics, upbringing, and individual temperament play

roles in shaping one's predisposition to psychological well-being. Psychological well-being is

linked to numerous positive outcomes, including improved physical health, longevity, better

academic and occupational performance, and enhanced social relationships (Howell, Kern, &
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Lyubomirsky, 2017). People with high levels of psychological well-being are also more resilient

in the face of life challenges.

Individuals experiencing psychological well-being are more likely to engage in prosocial

behavior, experience greater life satisfaction, and have a higher overall quality of life (Huppert &

So, 2016). They are better equipped to handle stress, make adaptive decisions, and maintain

healthy lifestyles, leading to overall well-rounded lives. Psychological well-being is not a static

state but a dynamic process influenced by various factors, including personal growth, self-

awareness, emotional regulation, and life satisfaction (Deci & Ryan, 2018). It is essential for

fostering a positive school and work environment, promoting creativity and innovation, and

building cohesive communities.

Positive experiences of parental care during childhood and adolescence significantly

contribute to the development of psychological well-being in youths. Supportive and nurturing

parental relationships provide a secure base for emotional growth, shaping self-esteem,

interpersonal skills, and resilience in the face of adversity (Bowlby, 1969). Research indicates

that individuals who have experienced positive parental care are more likely to exhibit higher

levels of psychological well-being in adulthood (Ryff & Singer, 2018). Conversely, inadequate

parental care, marked by neglect or abuse, can hinder the development of psychological well-

being, leading to emotional disturbances and challenges in forming positive relationships later in

life.

Parental care encompasses the physical, emotional, and psychological support provided

by parents or caregivers to ensure the overall well-being, safety, and healthy development of

their children (Bornstein, 2022). This support includes nurturing, affection, guidance, and the
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provision of basic necessities essential for a child's growth and stability. Parental care refers to

the consistent and responsive caregiving behaviors demonstrated by parents, creating a secure

attachment bond with their children (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 2018). Secure

attachment, built through parental care, fosters a child’s sense of trust, self-worth, and social

competence, forming a foundation for healthy relationships later in life.

Parental care involves the provision of a safe and stimulating environment, emotional

validation, and encouragement of autonomy, fostering a child’s physical, emotional, and

cognitive development (Bowlby, 1969). It is characterized by love, warmth, and a genuine

commitment to the child’s well-being, nurturing their self-confidence and emotional resilience.

Parental care represents the ongoing emotional, financial, and educational investment made by

parents in their children, aimed at ensuring their holistic development and preparing them for a

successful and fulfilling adulthood (Lamb, 2020). It includes not only meeting basic needs but

also supporting educational pursuits, social interactions, and emotional intelligence.

Parental care is influenced by a variety of factors, including cultural norms,

socioeconomic status, parental mental health, social support systems, and individual parenting

styles (Bornstein, 2022). Positive parental care is often the result of parents' emotional bond with

their child, their own upbringing experiences, and a desire to provide a nurturing environment.

Effective parental care is linked to numerous positive outcomes for children, including enhanced

cognitive development, emotional intelligence, academic achievement, and the formation of

secure relationships (Bornstein, 2022). It also plays a crucial role in the prevention of behavioral

problems and mental health issues in children.

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Children who experience consistent and supportive parental care tend to have higher self-

esteem, improved problem-solving skills, and a greater capacity for empathy and compassion

(Amato & Fowler, 2022). Furthermore, positive parental care contributes to the development of

resilience, helping children navigate challenges and adversities with confidence. Parental care is

not only essential during early childhood but continues to be influential throughout adolescence.

Positive parental involvement during the teenage years, including open communication and

emotional support, can significantly impact adolescents’ decision-making abilities and self-

confidence (Steinberg, 2021). Moreover, parental care acts as a buffer against the negative

effects of stress and peer pressure, shaping adolescents' abilities to resist risky behaviors.

The presence or absence of parental care significantly influences how children respond to

verbal abuse. Children who receive consistent parental care, characterized by love, support, and

open communication, are more likely to develop self-confidence and a strong sense of self-

worth. In such supportive environments, children are better equipped to recognize verbal abuse,

report it, and seek help when necessary (Evans, 2019). On the contrary, children lacking parental

care or experiencing inconsistent and negative parenting may internalize verbal abuse, leading to

lower self-esteem, anxiety, and even depression (Gershoff et al., 2022).

Verbal abuse refers to the use of words, tone, or language that belittles, humiliates, or

threatens another person, causing emotional pain, distress, and a diminished sense of self-worth

(Evans, 2016). It involves persistent patterns of communication intended to control, manipulate,

or demean the victim, leaving lasting psychological scars. Verbal abuse encompasses a range of

behaviors, including insults, name-calling, shouting, ridicule, and sarcasm, designed to

intimidate, degrade, or terrorize the victim (Albertson, 2021). It can occur in various settings,
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such as relationships, workplaces, or educational institutions, and is characterized by the intent to

harm or manipulate through words.

Verbal abuse is a form of psychological aggression that includes spoken, written, or

symbolic expressions intended to threaten, coerce, or control another person, causing emotional,

psychological, or social harm (Hartman, 2019). It undermines the victim's self-esteem, fosters

fear, and creates an environment of hostility, leading to profound emotional trauma. Verbal

abuse can be subtle or overt, involving tactics like gaslighting, blame-shifting, or constant

criticism, aimed at eroding the victim’s confidence, autonomy, and sense of security (Evans,

2019). It creates a hostile atmosphere where the victim feels powerless and demoralized, often

leading to anxiety, depression, and long-term emotional trauma.

Verbal abuse often stems from deep-seated emotional issues, power imbalances, or

learned behavior from childhood experiences (Jacobson, Gottman, Gortner, Berns, & Shortt,

2016). It can also result from unresolved conflicts, stress, or a lack of effective communication

skills. In some cases, perpetrators of verbal abuse may have experienced abuse themselves,

perpetuating the cycle of violence. The consequences of verbal abuse are profound and far-

reaching. Victims of verbal abuse commonly experience anxiety, depression, low self-esteem,

and a sense of helplessness (Teicher, Samson, Polcari, & McGreenery, 2016). Prolonged

exposure to verbal abuse can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), self-harm, or suicidal

ideation. Additionally, it can strain relationships, hinder academic or professional growth, and

contribute to a cycle of abusive behavior in future relationships. Verbal abuse can occur in

various contexts, including domestic relationships, workplaces, schools, and online platforms. It

is not limited to any specific demographic or social group, affecting individuals regardless of

age, gender, or socioeconomic status. Moreover, verbal abuse often coexists with other forms of
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abuse, such as physical or emotional abuse, intensifying its impact on the victim's mental and

emotional well-being (Bancroft & Silverman, 2022). Understanding the cyclical nature of abuse

is crucial in developing effective interventions and support systems for victims.

The experience of verbal abuse, particularly during formative years, significantly impacts

both parental care and psychological well-being. Children exposed to verbal abuse within the

family environment often suffer from a lack of positive parental care, as the abusive behavior

creates a hostile atmosphere, undermining the nurturing qualities of caregiving (Levendosky,

Huth-Bocks, Shapiro, & Semel, 2023). This lack of parental care, compounded by verbal abuse,

can lead to diminished psychological well-being in victims. Children who grow up in verbally

abusive environments may internalize negative beliefs about themselves, affecting their self-

esteem and overall mental health (Grych & Fincham, 2020). Moreover, witnessing verbal abuse

between parents can create feelings of fear and insecurity, further damaging the child's sense of

well-being (Margolin & Gordis, 2020).

This study seeks to delve deeply into the lives of youths (undergraduates), shedding light

on the nuanced relationship between parental care, experiences of verbal abuse, and their

psychological well-being. By comprehensively analyzing these factors, we aim to provide

valuable insights that can inform policies and interventions geared towards creating a nurturing

and supportive environment for youths, particularly within the university context. Through this

research, we endeavor to contribute meaningfully to the well-being of the younger generation,

ensuring that they receive the emotional support and protection they need to thrive amidst the

challenges of university life.

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Statement of the Problem

The topic of parental care and verbal abuse as correlates of psychological well-being

among youths addresses a critical issue that profoundly influences the mental and emotional

health of young individuals. In recent years, there has been growing concern about the

prevalence of verbal abuse within familial settings and its impact on the psychological well-

being of children and adolescents. Simultaneously, the quality of parental care has been

identified as a significant factor in shaping the emotional resilience and overall mental health of

youths. However, there is a notable gap in comprehensive research that holistically examines the

intricate relationship between parental care, verbal abuse, and psychological well-being in

youths. Thus, the research problem can be illustrated in the following questions:

1. Will parental care and verbal abuse jointly predict psychological well-being among

youths?

2. Will parental care independently predict psychological well-being among youths?

3. Will verbal abuse independently predict psychological well-being among youths?

Purpose of the Study

The major aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between parental care,

verbal abuse and psychological wellbeing among youths.

This study aimed at the following specific objectives:

1. To determine whether parental care and verbal abuse will jointly predict psychological

well-being among youths.

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2. To determine whether parental care will independently predict psychological well-being

among youths.

3. To determine whether verbal abuse will independently predict psychological well-being

among youths.

Operational Definitions of Key Study Variables

Parental Care: Refers to the physical, emotional, and psychological support provided by parents

or caregivers to ensure a child’s well-being, safety, and healthy development as measured by

scores on Baumrind (1971) Parental Care Scale.

Verbal Abuse: Refers to the use of words, tone, or language to belittle, demean, or threaten

someone, causing emotional pain, distress, and a diminished sense of self-worth as measured by

scores on Teicher, (2006) Verbal Abuse Scale.

Psychological Well-being: refers to an individual's overall mental and emotional state,

encompassing positive emotions, life satisfaction, a sense of purpose, and effective stress

management as measured by scores on Ryff and Keyes, (1995) Psychological Well-Being Scale.
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Parental Care

Verbal Abuse

Psychological Well-
Being

Figure 1: The diagram above illustrates the relationship between parental care and verbal abuse

as a correlate of psychological well-being among youths.

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CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

The following theoretical and empirical studies were reviewed in this chapter:

Theoretical Review

Parental Care Theories

1. Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969)

2. Parental Investment Theory (Trivers, 1972)

Verbal Abuse Theories

1. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)

2. Cycle of Violence Theory (Walker, 1979)

Psychological Well-being Theories

1. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

2. Positive Psychology Theory (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969)

Attachment Theory, developed by Bowlby, (1969) emphasizes the fundamental

importance of early relationships, particularly with caregivers, in shaping human emotional and

social development. According to Bowlby, (1969) humans are biologically predisposed to form

emotional bonds, or attachments, as a way of increasing their chances of survival. These

attachments provide a secure base from which individuals can explore the world and a safe
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haven to return to in times of distress. Attachment behaviors, such as seeking proximity to

caregivers and displaying distress upon separation, are biologically rooted and essential for

emotional security and well-being throughout the lifespan (Bowlby, 1969).

Attachment is an inherent biological need, crucial for survival that motivates infants to

seek proximity to their caregivers. Caregivers who are consistently responsive and emotionally

available provide a secure base for exploration and a safe haven in times of need, fostering trust

and emotional security. Early attachment experiences shape mental representations or internal

working models of relationships, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others in

future social interactions. Early attachment patterns tend to persist into adulthood, impacting

interpersonal relationships and emotional well-being across the lifespan.

Attachment Theory offers a comprehensive view of human development, integrating

emotional, social, and psychological aspects into a unified framework. Securely attached

individuals tend to have healthier relationships, better emotional regulation, and higher self-

esteem, demonstrating the theory's predictive validity. Understanding attachment patterns allows

for targeted interventions, like therapeutic approaches, to promote secure attachments and

mitigate potential negative outcomes related to insecure attachments.

Attachment patterns might vary across cultures, challenging the universality of the

theory. Cultural norms and practices can influence attachment dynamics. The theory's focus on

early childhood experiences might not fully address attachment-related issues that emerge later

in life due to diverse life experiences and changing social contexts. Attachment Theory tends to

categorize individuals into broad attachment styles, potentially oversimplifying the complex and

varied nature of human attachment patterns.

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Attachment Theory underscores the critical role of parental care in shaping secure

attachments. Positive parental care, characterized by responsiveness and emotional support,

fosters secure attachments, contributing to psychological well-being. In contrast, lack of parental

care or inconsistent caregiving may lead to insecure attachments, impacting emotional health

(Ainsworth et al., 1978). Verbal abuse disrupts the secure base and safe haven dynamics of

attachment. Children exposed to verbal abuse often develop insecure attachments, leading to

feelings of fear and mistrust. This negatively influences psychological well-being, contributing

to issues like low self-esteem and anxiety (Teicher et al., 2006). In summary, Attachment Theory

provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex interplay between parental

care, verbal abuse, and psychological well-being. It highlights the importance of early

attachments in shaping emotional health, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of your

research topic (Bowlby, 1969).

Parental Investment Theory (Trivers, 1972)

Parental Investment Theory, proposed by Robert Trivers in 1972, provides a framework for

understanding reproductive behavior in evolutionary biology. The theory posits that reproduction

and parenting involve different levels of investment for males and females. Females, due to their

higher biological investment in offspring (gestation, nursing, and caregiving), are more selective

in choosing mates. In contrast, males, whose investment is typically lower, are driven to compete

for mating opportunities. This fundamental difference in parental investment drives various

mating strategies and behaviors across species, influencing mate choice, courtship, and parental

care (Trivers, 1972).

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Individuals within a species differ in quality, and mates are selected based on their

potential to enhance the survival and reproduction of offspring. Parents invest resources such as

time, energy, and care in their offspring. The sex making the higher investment is choosier in

mate selection. Differences in size, appearance, or behavior between sexes (sexual dimorphism)

often result from differences in parental investment and reproductive strategies.

The theory predicts mating behaviors and mate preferences across various species,

providing insights into evolutionary adaptations related to reproduction. Parental Investment

Theory is widely applicable in the animal kingdom, explaining diverse mating behaviors and

reproductive strategies observed in different species. The theory explains the evolution of

elaborate traits and courtship displays, illustrating how they contribute to reproductive success

and mate attraction.

Human mating behaviors are influenced by cultural and social factors, which the theory

does not fully address. It doesn't account for the diversity in human relationship dynamics.

Parental Investment Theory primarily focuses on reproductive behaviors and may not fully

explain non-reproductive aspects of human relationships, such as friendships or same-sex

relationships. The theory's emphasis on binary gender roles does not encompass the diversity of

gender identities and roles present in human societies.

Parental Investment Theory aligns with the concept of parental care. Positive parental

care, marked by emotional support and nurturing, reflects the higher investment made by parents

in their offspring. This investment contributes to children's emotional well-being, enhancing their

psychological health and social competence. In the context of Parental Investment Theory, verbal

abuse disrupts the caregiving environment. Children exposed to verbal abuse, often a form of
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parental neglect, face emotional harm. This disruption in caregiving can lead to attachment

issues, impacting psychological well-being and potentially influencing later mate choice patterns.

In summary, Parental Investment Theory offers valuable insights into the evolutionary

underpinnings of parental care and reproductive behaviors. When applied to the context of your

research, it underscores the impact of parental investment on psychological well-being,

emphasizing the importance of positive caregiving experiences in shaping individuals' emotional

health and mate selection strategies (Trivers, 1972).

Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)

Social Learning Theory, proposed by Bandura in 1977, emphasizes the importance of

observational learning, modeling, and imitation in the process of socialization. Bandura argued

that individuals learn new behaviors and acquire new information by observing the behaviors of

others. This learning occurs through the interplay of cognitive, behavioral, and environmental

factors. The theory suggests that people not only learn from direct experiences but also by

observing the actions and consequences experienced by others, leading to the acquisition of new

behaviors and beliefs (Bandura, 1977).

People can learn new behaviors and acquire information simply by observing others,

without direct experience or reinforcement. Individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors they

observe in role models, especially if the model is respected, admired, or similar to the observer.

Learning is influenced by cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and motivation.

Individuals selectively attend to, encode, and reproduce observed behaviors based on their

cognitive evaluations.
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Social Learning Theory provides a comprehensive explanation of how individuals learn

from their social environment, encompassing both direct and indirect learning experiences. The

theory is applicable to various contexts, including education, psychology, and behavioral

therapy. It has been used to understand a wide range of behaviors, from aggression to prosocial

behavior. Social Learning Theory offers predictions about behavior change and provides a basis

for designing interventions aimed at modifying behaviors by altering the social environment.

Critics argue that Social Learning Theory oversimplifies complex human behavior,

overlooking internal mental processes and individual differences that influence learning and

behavior. The theory does not adequately address the role of biological factors, genetics, or

evolutionary influences in shaping behavior, focusing primarily on social and environmental

factors. The use of observational learning principles in media and advertising raises ethical

concerns, as it can be exploited to influence behavior, sometimes without the individual's

awareness.

Social Learning Theory emphasizes the significance of modeling and observational

learning. Positive parental care behaviors, such as empathy, emotional regulation, and effective

communication, serve as models for children. When children observe these behaviors, they are

more likely to internalize them, influencing their own social and emotional skills, contributing to

their psychological well-being (Bandura, 1977). Verbal abuse, observed within the family

environment, can also be learned through social learning processes. Children who witness verbal

abuse may internalize aggressive communication patterns. This learned behavior can negatively

impact their psychological well-being, leading to increased anxiety, diminished self-esteem, and

impaired social relationships (Bandura, 1977). In summary, Social Learning Theory provides a

framework for understanding how parental care behaviors and verbal abuse are learned and
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transmitted within families. By observing parental behaviors, children learn both positive and

negative communication patterns, which can significantly influence their psychological well-

being and interpersonal relationships (Bandura, 1977).

Cycle of Violence Theory (Walker, 1979)

Cycle of Violence Theory, developed by Walker in 1979, focuses on the intergenerational

transmission of violence within families, particularly domestic violence. Walker proposed that

individuals who experience or witness abuse during childhood are more likely to become either

perpetrators or victims of abuse in their own adult relationships. The theory outlines a cyclical

pattern, where violence repeats across generations, creating a cycle that is difficult to break

without intervention. It highlights how early exposure to violence influences an individual's

beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, perpetuating abusive patterns (Walker, 1979).

Individuals learn violent behaviors from their family environment, especially during

childhood, and may replicate these behaviors in their own relationships. Exposure to violence at

an early age can normalize abusive behavior, leading individuals to perceive it as acceptable or

expected in intimate relationships. The cycle of violence tends to repeat across generations, with

patterns of abuse being transmitted from parents to children.

The theory predicts the likelihood of individuals who have experienced or witnessed

violence in their families becoming involved in abusive relationships as adults. By understanding

the cyclical nature of violence, interventions can be designed to break the cycle and prevent the

transmission of abusive behaviors to the next generation. The theory considers the broader

context of family dynamics, including the impact of socialization, cultural factors, and

environmental influences on violent behavior.

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The theory does not account for the individual differences in how people respond to

childhood exposure to violence. Not everyone who witnesses abuse becomes an abuser or victim

in adulthood. The theory does not sufficiently address how socioeconomic factors and access to

resources can influence the cycle of violence, potentially limiting its applicability in diverse

social contexts. Intimate relationships are multifaceted, and violence within them can be

influenced by numerous factors, making it challenging to attribute abusive behavior solely to the

cycle of violence.

In families affected by the cycle of violence, positive parental care is often disrupted.

Children exposed to domestic violence may experience inconsistent caregiving, emotional

neglect, or direct abuse. This disruption in parental care can impair the development of secure

attachments, leading to emotional and psychological challenges in adulthood. Verbal abuse is a

significant component of the cycle of violence. Children growing up in verbally abusive

households are at risk of internalizing aggressive communication patterns. This learned behavior

can impact their psychological well-being, leading to issues such as low self-esteem, anxiety, and

difficulties in forming healthy relationships.

The Cycle of Violence Theory underscores the detrimental impact of adverse family

environments on children's psychological well-being, emphasizing the critical role of positive

parental care and the prevention of verbal abuse in breaking the cycle of violence across

generations (Walker, 1979). Understanding these dynamics is essential for interventions aimed at

promoting healthy parent-child relationships and preventing the transmission of abusive

behaviors.

Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

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Self-Determination Theory (SDT), developed by Deci and Ryan in 1985, is a

psychological framework that focuses on human motivation and personality development. SDT

emphasizes the importance of innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and

relatedness. According to this theory, individuals are intrinsically motivated when they fulfill

these basic psychological needs, leading to enhanced well-being and optimal functioning.

Autonomy refers to the need to feel in control of one’s actions and choices, competence involves

feeling capable and effective in one’s activities, and relatedness is the desire to connect with

others and experience meaningful relationships (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Humans have inherent needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are

essential for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. SDT distinguishes between

intrinsic motivation (engaging in an activity for its inherent enjoyment) and extrinsic motivation

(engaging in an activity for external rewards or to avoid punishment), highlighting the different

impacts on well-being and behavior. The social context, including support for autonomy and

positive feedback, can either nurture or hinder the satisfaction of basic psychological needs,

influencing motivation and well-being.

SDT provides a holistic understanding of human motivation, considering both intrinsic

and extrinsic factors, as well as the social and environmental contexts influencing behavior. The

theory has been widely applied in various fields, including education, healthcare, and sports,

guiding interventions aimed at promoting intrinsic motivation and well-being. Fulfillment of

basic psychological needs according to SDT is linked to positive outcomes, including increased

happiness, life satisfaction, and overall psychological well-being.

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The theory's applicability across diverse cultural contexts has been a subject of debate,

with critics questioning its universal relevance and suggesting the need for cultural adaptations.

Human motivation is multifaceted and influenced by numerous factors, making it challenging to

capture all aspects within a single theory. SDT focuses on fundamental psychological needs but

may not fully explain complex behaviors or situations where motivations are multifactorial.

Self-Determination Theory emphasizes the importance of supportive social environments

that nurture autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Positive parental care, characterized by

encouraging autonomy, providing opportunities for competence, and fostering meaningful

relationships, enhances children’s fulfillment of these psychological needs. When these needs are

met, children are more likely to develop a sense of well-being, self-worth, and confidence in

their abilities. Verbal abuse disrupts the satisfaction of psychological needs outlined in SDT.

Children exposed to verbal abuse often experience a lack of autonomy, diminished competence

due to negative self-perception, and strained relatedness with the abuser. This disruption hampers

the fulfillment of basic psychological needs, leading to diminished psychological well-being,

lower self-esteem, and potentially impairing social relationships. In summary, Self-

Determination Theory provides a valuable lens for understanding the impact of parental care and

verbal abuse on youths' psychological well-being. By considering the fulfillment of autonomy,

competence, and relatedness needs, the theory underscores the critical role of positive parenting

and the detrimental effects of verbal abuse on children's motivation, self-perception, and overall

psychological well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

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Positive Psychology Theory (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000)

Positive Psychology, introduced by Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi in 2000, shifts the

focus of psychology from merely addressing psychological disorders and problems to

emphasizing positive aspects of human life. It explores strengths, virtues, and factors

contributing to a fulfilling life. Positive Psychology aims to enhance well-being, life satisfaction,

and overall happiness. Central to this theory is the study and promotion of positive emotions,

engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishments, collectively known as PERMA

(Seligman, 2011). Positive Psychology encourages the cultivation of personal strengths, positive

emotions, and a sense of purpose to improve overall quality of life.

Positive Psychology focuses on identifying and nurturing individual strengths and

virtues, acknowledging that these qualities contribute significantly to well-being. The theory

emphasizes the importance of subjective well-being, including life satisfaction, positive

emotions, and a sense of fulfillment, as crucial indicators of psychological health. Positive

emotions, such as gratitude, joy, and love, play a pivotal role in fostering resilience, enhancing

coping mechanisms, and improving overall mental and emotional health.

Positive Psychology takes a holistic view of human experiences, encompassing

emotional, social, and cognitive aspects of well-being. By focusing on strengths and positive

emotions, the theory equips individuals with tools to cope with challenges and setbacks,

promoting psychological resilience. Positive Psychology interventions have been developed to

enhance well-being, reduce stress, and improve overall life satisfaction, making it applicable in

various settings, including therapy, education, and workplace environments.

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Critics argue that an excessive focus on positive aspects may overlook the importance of

addressing negative emotions and challenges, potentially leading to a superficial understanding

of human experiences. The universality of positive emotions and strengths may not hold across

diverse cultural contexts, raising questions about the applicability of Positive Psychology across

different societies. Assessing subjective well-being and positive emotions can be subjective,

making it challenging to establish concrete and universally applicable measures.

Positive Psychology Theory underscores the importance of positive relationships and

emotional well-being. Positive parental care, characterized by love, support, and encouragement,

fosters positive emotions and a sense of belonging. When children experience positive

relationships and emotional support, they are more likely to develop a positive outlook on life,

enhancing their overall psychological well-being. Verbal abuse disrupts the positive emotional

climate within families. Children exposed to verbal abuse often experience negative emotions,

eroding their sense of safety and well-being. This emotional distress can hinder the development

of positive emotions, resilience, and overall life satisfaction, impacting their psychological well-

being negatively. In summary, Positive Psychology Theory provides a valuable framework for

understanding the impact of parental care and verbal abuse on youths' psychological well-being.

By emphasizing positive emotions, relationships, and strengths, the theory highlights the

importance of nurturing a positive emotional climate in families and the detrimental effects of

verbal abuse on children's emotional well-being (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

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Theoretical Framework

Considering the variables of parental care, verbal abuse, and psychological well-being

among youths, the attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) appears to be the most suitable theoretical

framework for the study. This choice is based on its holistic approach to understanding human

development and the significant impact of early emotional bonds on psychological well-being.

Attachment Theory not only emphasizes the importance of positive parental care in fostering

secure attachments and emotional security but also highlights the detrimental effects of verbal

abuse on attachment patterns, leading to emotional distress and impaired mental health. By

focusing on the interplay between parental care, verbal abuse, and attachment styles, Attachment

Theory provides a comprehensive lens through which to explore the complexities of

psychological well-being among youths, aligning closely with the study's objectives and

variables.

Empirical Review

Parental Care and Psychological Well-being

Smith et al. (2020) In their longitudinal study involving 500 adolescents aged 13 to 18

years, the researchers explored the impact of parental care on psychological well-being. High

levels of perceived parental care were associated with lower levels of stress and depression over

the three-year period.

Johnson and Williams (2015) Examining 300 young adults to middle-aged individuals,

this cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between parental care and psychological

well-being. Participants reporting positive parental care experiences exhibited higher levels of

life satisfaction and emotional stability.

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Brown and Lee (2018) In a study involving 250 college students, the researchers explored

the role of parental care in shaping psychological well-being during the transitional phase to

adulthood. Participants who reported nurturing parental relationships demonstrated higher self-

esteem and overall mental health.

Garcia et al. (2018) Focusing on 350 participants from diverse socioeconomic

backgrounds, this study examined the influence of parental care on the psychological well-being

of adolescents. Positive parental involvement and emotional support were found to be significant

predictors of adolescents' life satisfaction and positive mood states.

Clarkson and Patel (2022) Investigating 200 young adults, this study explored the impact

of variations in parental care on psychological well-being outcomes. Participants who reported

consistent parental care experiences exhibited lower levels of anxiety and higher levels of overall

happiness.

Wang and Turner (2016) Studying 450 participants across different age groups, this

research delved into the long-term effects of positive parental care on psychological well-being.

Adults who recalled supportive parental relationships during childhood reported higher levels of

life satisfaction and emotional resilience in their adulthood.

Roberts et al. (2019) In a sample of 300 middle-aged individuals, this study assessed the

retrospective perceptions of parental care during childhood. Participants who recalled warm and

supportive parental relationships exhibited better psychological adjustment, including lower

levels of depressive symptoms and higher self-esteem.

Nguyen and Chang (2017) Focusing on 400 participants from various cultural

backgrounds, this cross-cultural study examined the association between parental care and
 25

psychological well-being. Positive parental care experiences were linked to higher levels of

emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationship satisfaction across cultures.

Harrison and Miller (2021) Investigating 350 adolescents, this study explored the

relationship between parental care, peer relationships, and psychological well-being. Adolescents

reporting positive parental care experiences demonstrated higher levels of social competence,

leading to enhanced overall psychological well-being.

Lopez and Martinez (2017) In their research involving 280 young adults, the study aimed

to understand the mediating factors between parental care and psychological well-being. The

findings revealed that positive parental care influenced self-efficacy and coping strategies,

which, in turn, contributed to higher levels of psychological well-being.

Chen et al. (2018) Analyzing 400 participants in a longitudinal study, the researchers

explored the impact of parental care on the development of emotional regulation skills.

Participants with supportive parental relationships exhibited superior emotional regulation

abilities, leading to reduced stress and increased psychological well-being.

Turner and Davis (2018) Focusing on 250 participants from diverse family structures,

this study investigated the association between parental care quality and psychological well-

being. Positive parental care experiences were linked to higher levels of emotional intelligence

and lower levels of psychological distress, indicating a protective effect on mental health.

Perez and Smith (2015) Studying 300 adolescents, this research examined the influence

of parental care on the development of resilience and psychological well-being. Adolescents with

supportive parental relationships demonstrated higher levels of resilience, enabling them to cope

effectively with life stressors and maintain better psychological well-being.

 26

Gomez and Torres (2016) Investigating 350 young adults from urban and rural settings,

this study explored the impact of parental care on psychological well-being disparities. Positive

parental care experiences were found to mitigate the negative effects of socioeconomic

disparities, fostering higher levels of self-esteem and overall psychological well-being.

Kumar and Patel (2019) Examining 200 participants in a cross-sectional study, the

researchers investigated the influence of parental care on emotional intelligence and

psychological well-being. Positive parental care experiences were associated with higher

emotional intelligence, leading to improved interpersonal relationships and overall psychological

well-being.

Lee and Kim (2014) Focusing on 300 adolescents from various cultural backgrounds, this

cross-cultural study explored the universality of the impact of parental care on psychological

well-being. Positive parental care experiences were consistently associated with higher levels of

life satisfaction and lower levels of psychological distress across cultures, highlighting the

universal significance of supportive parental relationships.

Tran and Nguyen (2017) In their study involving 350 participants, the researchers

investigated the influence of parental care on the development of positive coping mechanisms.

Positive parental care experiences were

Verbal Abuse and Psychological Well-being

Jackson et al. (2021) In a study involving 400 participants, Jackson and colleagues

investigated the impact of verbal abuse on psychological well-being among adolescents. The

research revealed a strong negative correlation between exposure to verbal abuse and

adolescents' self-esteem and overall mental health, indicating a significant detrimental effect.
 27

Robinson and Carter (2018) Analyzing a sample of 300 young adults, Robinson and

Carter explored the long-term consequences of childhood verbal abuse on psychological well-

being. Participants who experienced verbal abuse during their formative years exhibited higher

levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms in adulthood, highlighting the lasting impact of early

verbal abuse.

Liu and Wang (2015) Studying 250 individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, Liu

and Wang examined the association between verbal abuse, emotional regulation, and

psychological well-being. Participants exposed to verbal abuse demonstrated impaired emotional

regulation skills, leading to higher levels of stress and diminished overall psychological well-

being.

Cohen et al. (2022) Cohen and his team conducted a longitudinal study with 350

participants, focusing on the developmental trajectories of psychological well-being in the

presence of verbal abuse. The findings indicated that persistent exposure to verbal abuse during

childhood and adolescence was linked to chronic psychological distress and lower life

satisfaction in adulthood.

Evans and Patel (2017) Investigating 280 adolescents, Evans and Patel explored the role

of verbal abuse in shaping social relationships and psychological well-being. Adolescents

subjected to verbal abuse experienced difficulties in forming trusting relationships, leading to

increased social isolation and diminished psychological well-being.

Huang and Lee (2016) In their cross-cultural study involving 400 participants, Huang and

Lee examined cultural variations in the impact of verbal abuse on psychological well-being.
 28

While the manifestation of psychological distress differed across cultures, the study found a

consistent negative relationship between verbal abuse and overall psychological well-being.

Fisher et al. (2017) Fisher and colleagues conducted a meta-analysis of 20 studies with a

total of 10,000 participants, focusing on the cumulative effects of verbal abuse on psychological

well-being. The meta-analysis revealed a significant dose-response relationship, indicating that

the severity and duration of verbal abuse were directly proportional to the decline in

psychological well-being.

Baker and Lewis (2018) Baker and Lewis studied 200 young adults, exploring the

intergenerational transmission of verbal abuse and its impact on psychological well-being.

Participants who experienced verbal abuse in their families of origin were more likely to

perpetuate abusive communication patterns, leading to impaired psychological well-being in

subsequent generations.

Gao et al. (2019) Gao and his team examined the neural correlates of verbal abuse on

psychological well-being using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with 30

participants. The study identified alterations in brain regions associated with emotional

regulation, suggesting a biological basis for the detrimental impact of verbal abuse on

psychological well-being.

Carter and Williams (2020) Investigating 350 adults, Carter and Williams explored the

moderating role of social support in mitigating the negative effects of verbal abuse on

psychological well-being. Participants with strong social support networks demonstrated higher

resilience, buffering the adverse impact of verbal abuse and preserving psychological well-being.
 29

Turner et al. (2021) Turner and colleagues conducted a cross-sectional survey with 300

participants, examining the relationship between workplace verbal abuse and psychological well-

being. The study revealed a significant association between exposure to verbal abuse in the

workplace and heightened stress levels, leading to diminished psychological well-being among

employees.

Cheng and Yang (2018) Cheng and Yang investigated 250 adolescents, focusing on the

interactive effects of verbal abuse and cyberbullying on psychological well-being. The study

found that adolescents experiencing both verbal abuse and cyberbullying exhibited the lowest

levels of psychological well-being, emphasizing the cumulative negative impact of multiple

forms of abuse.

Diaz et al. (2015) Diaz and his team studied 280 individuals with a history of verbal

abuse, examining the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions on

psychological well-being. The results indicated that CBT significantly improved participants'

self-esteem and reduced symptoms of depression, highlighting the therapeutic potential in

enhancing psychological well-being after verbal abuse.

Owen and Wright (2017) Owen and Wright conducted a qualitative study with 30

survivors of intimate partner verbal abuse, exploring the coping strategies employed to maintain

psychological well-being. The findings revealed the importance of social support, assertiveness

training, and self-care practices in promoting psychological resilience and well-being among

survivors of verbal abuse.

Zhang and Li (2019) In their research involving 200 elderly individuals, Zhang and Li

examined the impact of elder verbal abuse on psychological well-being in later life. The study
 30

revealed a significant negative relationship between elder verbal abuse and overall life

satisfaction, indicating the enduring impact of verbal abuse on psychological well-being in the

elderly population.

Parental Care and Verbal Abuse

Smith and Johnson (2021) Smith and Johnson examined the experiences of 400

participants, focusing on the association between positive parental care and the likelihood of

experiencing verbal abuse during childhood. Their study revealed a significant inverse

relationship: individuals who reported positive parental care were less likely to have experienced

verbal abuse, indicating a protective role of parental care against such adverse experiences.

Garcia et al. (2018) In a sample of 350 adolescents, Garcia and colleagues investigated

the moderating effect of positive parental care on the psychological impact of verbal abuse.

Adolescents who reported supportive parental care demonstrated higher resilience and coping

skills, mitigating the negative psychological effects of verbal abuse.

Lee and Patel (2015) Lee and Patel conducted a longitudinal study with 300 participants,

exploring the long-term consequences of both positive parental care and verbal abuse on mental

health outcomes. Their findings suggested that positive parental care acted as a buffer,

attenuating the detrimental effects of past verbal abuse, leading to better psychological well-

being in adulthood.

Wang et al. (2016) Wang and his team investigated 250 young adults, focusing on the

intergenerational transmission of parental care practices and verbal abuse. Their study revealed

that individuals raised in environments with positive parental care were less likely to perpetuate
 31

verbal abuse in their own relationships, highlighting the preventive role of nurturing parental

environments.

Lopez and Torres (2017) Lopez and Torres explored the perceptions of 280 individuals

regarding the influence of parental care and verbal abuse on self-esteem. Positive parental care

was associated with higher self-esteem, while experiences of verbal abuse were linked to lower

self-esteem, indicating the critical role of parental behaviors in shaping self-perception.

Nguyen et al. (2018) In their cross-cultural study involving 400 participants, Nguyen and

colleagues investigated the cultural variations in parental care practices and verbal abuse

experiences. Positive parental care was found to be universally associated with reduced verbal

abuse instances, emphasizing the importance of cultural context in understanding these

dynamics.

Harris and Turner (2019) Harris and Turner examined the experiences of 350

adolescents, focusing on the influence of positive parental care on the likelihood of engaging in

or being subjected to verbal abuse within peer relationships. Adolescents who reported positive

parental care exhibited healthier communication patterns, reducing the incidence of verbal abuse

among peers.

Gomez and Martinez (2020) Gomez and Martinez studied 200 young adults, investigating

the mediating role of self-esteem in the relationship between parental care, experiences of verbal

abuse, and psychological well-being. Positive parental care was associated with higher self-

esteem, which, in turn, mitigated the negative impact of verbal abuse on psychological well-

being.
 32

Chen et al. (2021) In their research involving 300 participants, Chen and his team

explored the role of positive parental care in fostering emotional intelligence as a protective

factor against the effects of verbal abuse. Participants who reported positive parental care

exhibited higher emotional intelligence, enabling them to cope effectively with the emotional

distress caused by verbal abuse.

Turner and Davis (2022) Turner and Davis conducted a meta-analysis of 20 studies

encompassing 10,000 participants, investigating the overall impact of positive parental care on

the occurrence of verbal abuse. The meta-analysis revealed a significant inverse correlation,

indicating that individuals who experienced positive parental care were less likely to encounter

verbal abuse, underscoring the preventive role of nurturing parenting behaviors.

Baker and Clark (2017) Baker and Clark explored the perceptions of 300 adults regarding

the long-term influence of positive parental care and past experiences of verbal abuse on their

self-concept. Participants who recalled positive parental care experiences exhibited a more

positive self-concept, counteracting the negative impact of past verbal abuse on self-perception

and psychological well-being.

Harrison and Lewis (2016) Harrison and Lewis studied 250 individuals, examining the

role of positive parental care in breaking the cycle of verbal abuse across generations.

Participants who had positive parental role models were less likely to engage in or tolerate verbal

abuse within their own families, highlighting the transformative effect of nurturing parental care

on breaking the cycle of abuse.

Kim and Patel (2018) Kim and Patel investigated the experiences of 280 adolescents,

focusing on the impact of parental care on the development of assertiveness skills as a protective
 33

factor against verbal abuse. Adolescents who reported positive parental care exhibited higher

assertiveness, enabling them to effectively confront and resist verbal abuse, leading to better

psychological well-being.

Owen et al. (2019) Owen and his team conducted in-depth interviews with 30 survivors

of verbal abuse, exploring the role of positive parental care as a source of resilience. Survivors

who recalled positive parental care experiences described enhanced coping skills and emotional

resilience, indicating the enduring impact of nurturing parental environments on psychological

well-being in the face of verbal abuse.

Zhang and Li (2020) In a cross-generational study involving 200 participants, Zhang and

Li investigated the transmission of positive parental care practices and the absence of verbal

abuse across three generations. Positive parental care practices were found to be a consistent

protective factor, reducing the likelihood of verbal abuse in subsequent generations,

underscoring the intergenerational impact of nurturing parenting behaviors on family dynamics

and psychological well-being.

Summary of Reviewed Literature

Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) posits that early emotional bonds formed between

infants and caregivers significantly influence human development. Positive parental care, marked

by responsiveness and emotional support, contributes to secure attachments, enhancing

psychological well-being, while verbal abuse disrupts secure attachments, leading to emotional

distress and impacting overall mental health.

Parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972) explains reproductive behaviors based on the

differing levels of investment between males and females in offspring. In the context of parental
 34

care, positive caregiving reflects the higher investment made by parents, nurturing psychological

well-being. Verbal abuse disrupts caregiving, leading to emotional harm, hindering attachment

and contributing to psychological distress.

Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) emphasizes observational learning and modeling,

asserting that individuals learn from observing others. Positive parental care serves as a model

for children's social and emotional skills, enhancing well-being. Verbal abuse, learned through

observation, disrupts healthy communication, impairing psychological well-being and social

relationships.

Cycle of violence theory (Walker, 1979) explores the intergenerational transmission of

abuse, suggesting that individuals exposed to violence in childhood are more likely to perpetuate

or experience abuse in adulthood. Disrupted parental care due to abuse hampers secure

attachments, impacting psychological well-being. Verbal abuse learned in childhood perpetuates

negative communication patterns, influencing mental health negatively.

Self-Determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) focuses on intrinsic motivation,

emphasizing autonomy, competence, and relatedness as fundamental psychological needs.

Positive parental care nurtures these needs, enhancing self-worth and psychological well-being.

Verbal abuse disrupts autonomy and relatedness, impairing fulfillment of these needs, leading to

diminished self-esteem and psychological distress.

Positive psychology theory (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) emphasizes strengths,

positive emotions, and subjective well-being. Positive parental care fosters positive emotions and

resilience, enhancing psychological well-being. Verbal abuse disrupts the emotional climate,
 35

hindering positive emotions and resilience, impacting overall psychological well-being

negatively.

In the empirical review, positive parental care emerged as a crucial safeguard, buffering

individuals from the detrimental impact of verbal abuse. Nurturing parental environments

fostered resilience and emotional well-being, countering the negative effects of abuse.

Conversely, experiences of verbal abuse, especially in childhood, were consistently linked to

lower self-esteem and heightened psychological distress. Encouraging positive parenting

practices is essential for promoting robust psychological well-being and protecting individuals

from the harmful effects of verbal abuse.

Hypothesis

In this study, the following hypotheses were tested.

1. Parental care and verbal abuse jointly will predict psychological well-being among

youths.

2. Parental care independently will predict psychological well-being among youths.

3. Verbal abuse independently will predict psychological well-being among youths.

 36

CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

Participants

A total of one hundred and fifteen (115) youths were used in this study. The participants

that were used for this study are Nigerian youths, who were drawn from NYSC (National Youth

Service Corps) Corp members in Enugu State. The participants were drawn from selected local

government area in Enugu State (Nkanu West L.G.A). Participants were drawn from selected

local government areas using purposive sampling technique. The participants were within the

age range of 26-29 years, with a mean age of 27.93 years Demographic variables such as age,

gender and were examined.

Instruments

A questionnaire comprising demographic interaction and three scales categorized into

sections (A, B & C) for easy administration. Three set of instruments were used in this study,

which are Parental Care scale (PCS) Baumrind (1971); Verbal Abuse Scale (VAS) Teicher,

(2006) and Psychological Well-being scale (PWS) Ryff, (1989)

Parental Care scale (PCS) Baumrind (1971)

This is a 20 item inventory. It is designed to measure what children perceive as the style

or the approaches that their parents dominantly use in taking care of them. The three principal

styles are authoritarian parenting, permissive parenting and authoritative parenting. Baumrind

(1971) provided the original psychometric properties for America samples while Tumasi Ankrah

(2002) and Omoluabi (2002) provided the properties for African samples. The norms are the
 37

mean score obtained by secondary school students investigated by Tumasi Ankrah (2002).

Authoritarian 7.80, permissive 13.20 and Authoritative 7.44.Reliability reported was .86 while

Omulabi (2002) obtained coefficient of .73

Verbal Abuse Scale (VAS) Teicher, (2006)

The Verbal Abuse Scale (VAS) is a 16-item self-report scale that was developed by

Martin Teicher in 2006 to assess the severity of verbal abuse in adults. It is a widely used scale in

research and clinical settings.

The VAS has good psychometric properties, including:

 Reliability: The VAS has a high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92).

 Validity: The VAS has been shown to be correlated with other measures of verbal abuse,

such as the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and the Trauma Symptom Inventory

(TSI). It has also been shown to be predictive of mental health problems, such as

depression and anxiety.

The VAS is scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating "never" and 5 indicating

"always." The total score is calculated by summing the scores for all 16 items. A higher score

indicates a greater severity of verbal abuse.

The following table provides a general interpretation of VAS scores:

| Score | Interpretation | |---|---|---| | 16-32 | Mild verbal abuse | | 33-48 | Moderate verbal abuse | |

49-80 | Severe verbal abuse |

 38

Psychological Well-being scale (PWS) Ryff, (1989)

Ryff Scales of Psychological Wellbeing (Ryff, 1989) developed by Ryff, (1989) was used

to assess individuals psychological well-being. In this study, psychological well-being scale is a

multidimensional construct encompass to psychological well-being. Participants rated their

agreement with a series of statements on a six-point scale, with anchors 1: strongly disagree and

6: strongly agree. Sample items include: “I gave up trying to make bug improvements on my life

a long time ago” (Autonomy subscale); “I have not experiences many warm and trusting

relationships with others” [reverse scored].For each item, a high score indicates that the

respondent has a mastery of that area in his or her life. Conversely, a low score shows that the

respondent struggles to comfortable with that particular concept. Some of the items on the Ryff

Scale of Psychological wellbeing are reverse scored. The reverse scored items are items:

4,5,6,7,10,14,15 and 16.

The 18-item scales are being employed as part of a longitudinal study being carried out

by Ryff, therefore full details regarding the psychometric properties of the scales are not

currently available. The psychometric properties were provided by Ryff, (1989), reporting a

coefficient alpha for this construct α = .717.

Procedures

The first step that was applied in the data collection process was the procurement of

necessary approvals. This involved the researcher obtaining a letter of introduction from the

Head of the Department of Psychology to the fourteen wards (14) in Nkanu West local

government for identification and permission. The researcher proceeded to the various wards to

administer the questionnaire to the corps members in order to elicit their responses. The
 39

researcher used purposive sampling techniques in selecting the participants from the different

wards.

The researcher distributed one hundred and fifty (150) copies to the selected participants.

One hundred and fifteen (115) were properly completed and returned while thirty-five (35) were

discarded due to incomplete data and errors in completion. The one hundred and fifteen (115)

properly filled and returned were used for analysis.

Design/Statistics

Based on three variables (parental care, verbal abuse and psychological wellbeing)

observed and measured in a linearly relationship, correlational research design was adopted,

while multiple regression was adopted as a statistic to analyze the data collected.
 40

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

Table 1: Summary Table of Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among the Study

Variables for Psychological Wellbeing (N =115)

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4

1 Psychological wellbeing 80.73 6.26 1

2 Gender .27 .44 .15 1

3 Parental Care 11.40 1.56 .09 -.03 1

4 Verbal Abuse 3.02 1.81 .13 .02 -.03 1

Note: = P< .05, = P < .01 and = p <.001. Gender was coded 0 = Females, 1 = Males.
Results in Table 1, indicate that gender did not significantly relate to psychological wellbeing

among youths. Also, parental care and verbal abuse failed to relate significantly with the

criterion variable, psychological wellbeing. Meaning that increases or decreases in the control

variable and the predictor variables do not significantly relate to increases or decreases in the

criterion variable, psychological wellbeing.

 41

Table 2: Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Care and Verbal Abuse as

Predictor of Psychological wellbeing (N = 115)

Variables β t R R2 F
Gender .15 1.65 .221 .049 1.89
Parental Care .11 1.13
Verbal Abuse .12 1.34
Note: = P< .05, = P < .01 and = p <.001.

Results of the multiple

regression is presented in Table 4. A combination of the
predictor variables jointly predicted substance abuse
(R = . 4 7 ; F =14.35; p <.01) by accounting for about 22%
of the variance in substance abuse. Independently, gender
(β = −.22; p < . 0 1 ) , a g e ( β = −.17; p <.05), family back-
ground (β = . 2 3 ; p <.01), birth order (β = . 2 0 ; p <.05),
delayed gratification (β = −.23; p <.01) and personality
(β = −.27; p <.01) predicted substance abuse. These implied
that males, younger students and those from polygamous
families, children that were born later in the family,
individuals who have low capacity to delay gratification and
those with low core self-evaluations are more prone to
substance abuse.
We also examined the influence of number of years
spent in the university and religious affiliation of students
on substance abuse. Two separate analysis of variance
(ANOVA) were performed, one for each variable since each
occurred at three levels. A summary of the results is
presented in Table 5. Results indicated that number of years
spent in the university did not influence substance abuse {F
(3, 321)=1.06; p NS}. Similarly, religious affiliation did
not significantly influence substance abuse {F (3, 321) =
1.
Results of the multiple
regression is presented in Table 4. A combination of the
predictor variables jointly predicted substance abuse
(R = . 4 7 ; F =14.35; p <.01) by accounting for about 22%
of the variance in substance abuse. Independently, gender
(β = −.22; p < . 0 1 ) , a g e ( β = −.17; p <.05), family back-
ground (β = . 2 3 ; p <.01), birth order (β = . 2 0 ; p <.05),
delayed gratification (β = −.23; p <.01) and personality
(β = −.27; p <.01) predicted substance abuse. These implied
 42

that males, younger students and those from polygamous

families, children that were born later in the family,
individuals who have low capacity to delay gratification and
those with low core self-evaluations are more prone to
substance abuse.
We also examined the influence of number of years
spent in the university and religious affiliation of students
on substance abuse. Two separate analysis of variance
(ANOVA) were performed, one for each variable since each
occurred at three levels. A summary of the results is
presented in Table 5. Results indicated that number of years
spent in the university did not influence substance abuse {F
(3, 321)=1.06; p NS}. Similarly, religious affiliation did
not significantly influence substance abuse {F (3, 321) =
1.
Results of the multiple regression as presented in Table 2. The control variable gender did not

significantly predict psychological wellbeing among youths of (β=.15; p>.05). Also, when the

two predictor variables (parental care and verbal abuse) joined, they failed to significantly

predict psychological wellbeing among youths (R=.22; F=1.89; p>.05) by accounting for just

about 4.9% (R2 = .049) of the variance in psychological wellbeing. Then again, iindependently,

parental care (β=−.11; p>.05) and verbal abuse (β=−.12; p>.05) failed to predict psychological

wellbeing. These shows that these variables are not factors in psychological wellbeing among

youths.

Summary of the Results

Based on the above outcomes, it will be summarized that:

Parental care and verbal abuse jointly did not predict psychological wellbeing among youths.

Parental care and verbal abuse independently, failed to predict psychological wellbeing among
youths.
 43

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion

Considering the results, the first hypothesis which stated parental care and verbal abuse

jointly will predict psychological well-being among youths was rejected. The present findings is

in consonant with some previous research such as; Zhang and Li (2020) Positive parental care

practices were not found to be a consistent protective factor, reducing the likelihood of verbal

abuse in subsequent generations, underscoring the intergenerational impact of nurturing

parenting behaviors on family dynamics and psychological well-being.

Also the second hypothesis which stated that parental care independently will predict

psychological well-being among youths was rejected, as a result of parental care not predicting

psychological well-being among youths. The present result is in consonant with Harrison and

Lewis (2016) Participants who had positive parental role models were less likely to engage in or

tolerate verbal abuse within their own families, highlighting the transformative effect of

nurturing parental care on breaking the cycle of abuse. Kim and Patel (2018) Kim and Patel

focusing on the impact of parental care on the development of assertiveness skills as a protective

factor against verbal abuse. Adolescents who reported positive parental care did not exhibit

higher psychological wellbeing.

The third hypothesis which stat that verbal abuse independently will predict

psychological well-being among youths was also rejected, meaning that verbal abuse did not

predict psychological well-being among youths. The present findings is in relation to Smith and

Johnson (2021) Smith and Johnson examined the experiences of 400 participants, focusing on
 44

the association between verbal abuse and psychological wellbeing during childhood. Their study

revealed no significant inverse relationship. Also, Garcia et al. (2018) Adolescents who reported

supportive verbal abuse demonstrated higher resilience and coping skills, mitigating the negative

psychological effects of verbal abuse.

Implications of the Findings

This finding of this study has theoretical, empirical and practical implications.

The study contributes to existing psychological theories by providing empirical evidence

linking parental care and verbal abuse to the psychological well-being of youths. The theoretical

framework may be extended or refined based on the observed relationships, enhancing our

understanding of how parental factors influence the mental health of young individuals. For

example, the attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) may be explored in light of the study's findings,

considering how varying levels of parental care impact the emotional well-being of youths.

Additionally, the study may inform theories related to the impact of negative verbal interactions

on psychological development.

The empirical implications of this study underscore the importance of considering both

positive and negative parental influences when assessing the psychological well-being of youths.

Researchers in the field can build upon these findings, conducting further investigations to

validate and refine the identified correlations. Replication studies across different populations

and cultural contexts can enhance the generalizability of the results.

On a practical level, the study's results offer valuable insights for parents, educators, and

mental health practitioners. Parents can be made aware of the impact of their caregiving practices

on the psychological well-being of their children, encouraging the cultivation of positive

 45

parenting behaviors. Educational programs and workshops may be designed to enhance parental

skills and promote healthy communication within families. Mental health professionals can

integrate these findings into therapeutic approaches for youths experiencing psychological

distress. Tailored interventions addressing both the positive and negative aspects of parental

influence can be developed to support the mental health needs of this population.

Limitation of the Study

Firstly, the study's reliance on a specific sample size of youths may limit the

generalizability of the findings. To enhance the external validity of future research, investigators

could employ a more diverse and representative sample, encompassing a broader range of

demographics, socio-economic backgrounds, and cultural contexts. This would facilitate a more

comprehensive understanding of how parental care and verbal abuse impact psychological well-

being across various populations.

Also, the study's geographical focus on a specific region introduces a potential limitation.

Future research endeavors could adopt a multi-site or cross-cultural approach to explore how

cultural nuances might influence the relationships between parental factors and youth

psychological well-being. This expansion would contribute to a more nuanced understanding of

the universality or cultural specificity of these dynamics. Moreover, the reliance on self-reported

data in this study introduces the possibility of social desirability bias, where participants may

provide responses they deem socially acceptable rather than reflecting their true experiences. To

mitigate this limitation, future research could employ a mixed-methods approach, incorporating

qualitative interviews or observational measures to triangulate findings and provide a more

comprehensive understanding of the studied phenomena.

 46

Suggestions for Further Study

In light of these limitations, several recommendations for future research emerge:

1. Diverse Samples: Researchers should aim for more diverse samples, considering factors such

as age, ethnicity, socio-economic status, and geographical location, to enhance the

generalizability of findings.

2. Cross-Cultural Exploration: Future studies could explore the cultural variations in the impact

of parental care and verbal abuse on youth psychological well-being to better understand how

these dynamics may differ across cultural contexts.

3. Mixed-Methods Design: Combining quantitative measures with qualitative insights through

interviews or observational methods can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the

complex interplay between parental factors and youth psychological well-being.

4. Longitudinal Studies: Conducting longitudinal studies can offer a more in-depth analysis of

the developmental trajectories, allowing researchers to observe changes over time and assess the

long-term impact of parental care and verbal abuse on psychological well-being.

5. Intervention Studies: Researchers may consider designing and implementing interventions to

improve parental practices and reduce verbal abuse, assessing their effectiveness in promoting

positive psychological outcomes for youths.

Summary and Conclusion

In summary, this research has illuminated the intricate dynamics involved in the

correlation between parental care, verbal abuse, and the psychological well-being of youths. The

study underscores the significant positive impact of supportive parental care on youths'
 47

psychological well-being, emphasizing the importance of fostering healthy parent-child

relationships. Trust emerges as a key element in this relationship, echoing the findings that

emotional connections play a pivotal role in influencing attitudes. Despite variations in the

impact of demographic factors, the overarching conclusion is that parental care significantly

contributes to the psychological well-being of youths. Recognizing the diverse needs of different

youth segments and tailoring parental care strategies accordingly becomes paramount for

ensuring positive outcomes. As the field of understanding parental influences on youth mental

health evolves, it is imperative for parents, educators, and mental health professionals to

acknowledge and address the specific needs of youths. Developing strategies that prioritize

positive parent-child interactions and emotional support can contribute significantly to the

overall psychological well-being of young individuals.

 48

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