UNIT-4

Materials
Ferrous Materials (Extra)

Definition:

 Ferrous materials are primarily composed of iron.

Types of Ferrous Materials:

 Steel:
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with small amounts of other elements.
 Various types of steel exist, including low carbon steel, high carbon steel,
stainless steel, and alloy steel.
 Steel is known for its strength, versatility, and wide range of applications.
 Cast Iron:
 Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon, with other elements
present in smaller amounts.
 It has high compressive strength but is brittle and has low tensile strength.
 Common types include gray iron, white iron, and ductile iron.

Characteristics of Ferrous Materials:

 Magnetic Properties:
 Ferrous materials, especially iron and steel, exhibit magnetic properties.
 Corrosion Susceptibility:
 Ferrous materials can be prone to corrosion, especially in the presence of
moisture and oxygen.
 High Melting Point:
 Iron-based materials generally have high melting points.
Non ferrous materials (Extra)

Definition:

 Non-ferrous materials do not contain iron as their primary constituent.

Types of Non-ferrous Materials:

 Aluminum:
 Lightweight metal with good corrosion resistance.
 Widely used in aerospace, automotive, and packaging industries.
 Copper:
 Excellent electrical conductivity.
 Used in electrical wiring, plumbing, and various electronic components.
 Brass:
 Alloy of copper and zinc.
 Exhibits good corrosion resistance and is often used in decorative
applications.
 Titanium:
 Lightweight, strong, and corrosion-resistant metal.
 Commonly used in aerospace, medical implants, and sports equipment.

Characteristics of Non-ferrous Materials:

 Non-magnetic:
 Non-ferrous materials do not exhibit magnetic properties.
 Corrosion Resistance:
 Many non-ferrous materials, such as aluminum, copper, and titanium, have
good corrosion resistance.
 Lower Melting Points:
 Non-ferrous metals generally have lower melting points compared to iron-
based materials.
Composition, properties, and its applications of
low and high carbon steels
Low Carbon Steels:
1. Composition:

 Low carbon steels typically contain less than 0.25% carbon.

 Other alloying elements, such as manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and small amounts of
other elements, are present.

2. Properties:

 Ductility and Formability:

 Low carbon steels are highly ductile and easily formable.
 They can be cold-worked, bent, and shaped without undergoing significant
deformation resistance.
 Strength:
 Relatively low strength compared to high carbon steels and alloy steels.
 Suitable for applications where high strength is not the primary requirement.
 Weldability:
 Good weldability, making them suitable for welding and fabrication processes.

3. Applications:

 Structural Components:
 Used in construction for structural components in buildings and bridges.
 Commonly employed in the fabrication of beams, columns, and plates.
 Automotive Industry:
 Used in the manufacturing of automotive parts due to their formability and
weldability.
 Examples include body panels, chassis components, and brackets.
 Sheet Metal Applications:
 Widely used in sheet metal applications for various industries.
 Commonly used for manufacturing ducts, panels, and other sheet metal products.
High Carbon Steels:
1. Composition:

 High carbon steels have a carbon content typically exceeding 0.6%.

 May also contain alloying elements such as manganese, silicon, and small amounts of
other elements.

2. Properties:

 Hardness and Strength:

 High carbon steels are characterized by high hardness and strength.
 Suitable for applications requiring wear resistance and durability.
 Less Ductility:
 Compared to low carbon steels, high carbon steels are less ductile and more
prone to brittleness.
 Machinability:
 Machining high carbon steels can be challenging due to their hardness.

3. Applications:

 Cutting Tools:
 High carbon steels are widely used for cutting tools such as drills, saws, and
blades.
 The hardness and wear resistance make them suitable for these applications.
 Springs:
 Commonly used for manufacturing various types of springs.
 The high strength and ability to withstand repeated loading make them suitable
for spring applications.
 Railway Tracks:
 High carbon steels are used in the manufacturing of railway tracks.
 The hardness and strength contribute to the durability and longevity of railway
infrastructure.

In short
 Low Carbon Steels:
 Composition: Less than 0.25% carbon, with other alloying elements.
 Properties: Ductile, easily formable, relatively low strength.
 Applications: Structural components, automotive parts, sheet metal.

 High Carbon Steels:
 Composition: Carbon content exceeding 0.6%, with alloying elements.
 Properties: High hardness, strength, less ductility.
 Applications: Cutting tools, springs, railway tracks.

Alloy Steel

Definition:

 Alloy steels are steels that have been alloyed with various elements to enhance
specific properties.

Types of Alloy Steels:

 Low Alloy Steels:

 Contain small amounts of alloying elements (other than carbon) such as
manganese, silicon, or copper.
 Provide improved strength and hardenability compared to plain carbon
steels.
 High Alloy Steels:
 Contain higher percentages of alloying elements, including chromium,
nickel, molybdenum, and others.
 Exhibit enhanced corrosion resistance, heat resistance, and other
specialized properties.

Characteristics of Alloy Steels:

 Enhanced Properties:
 Alloying elements improve specific properties such as strength, hardness,
wear resistance, and corrosion resistance.
 Versatility:
 Alloy steels can be tailored for specific applications by adjusting the types
and amounts of alloying elements.
 Applications:
  Used in a wide range of applications, including automotive components,
aircraft parts, tools, and structural elements.

Cast Iron

1. Definition:

 Cast irons are a family of ferrous alloys with a high carbon content, typically
exceeding 2%.

2. Types of Cast Irons:

 Grey Iron:
 Contains flake graphite, giving it a gray appearance when fractured.
 Has good castability and damping capacity.
 Commonly used in engine blocks, pipes, and machinery.
 Malleable Iron:
 Heat-treated white iron with the carbon in the form of irregularly shaped
nodules (graphite).
 Exhibits improved ductility compared to white iron.
 Used in applications where higher strength and ductility are required.
 Nodular (or Ductile) Iron:
 Contains spheroidal graphite nodules, imparting increased ductility and
toughness.
 Used in applications requiring a combination of strength and ductility,
such as gears, crankshafts, and heavy-duty machinery parts.
 White Iron:
 Hard and brittle iron with a high carbon content.
 Used in applications requiring wear resistance, such as in abrasion-
resistant castings.

3. Characteristics of Cast Irons:

 High Carbon Content:

  Cast irons have a high carbon content, which contributes to their hardness
and brittleness.
 Good Castability:
 Cast irons have excellent fluidity during casting, allowing for intricate
shapes and designs.
 Applications:
 Used in a variety of applications, including engine blocks, pipes, cookware,
and components requiring wear resistance.

In short Cast Iron and Alloy steel

 Alloy Steels:
 Alloyed with various elements to enhance specific properties.
 Versatile and used in a wide range of applications.
 Types include low alloy steels and high alloy steels.
 Cast Irons:
 High carbon content and excellent castability.
 Types include grey iron, malleable iron, nodular iron (ductile iron), and
white iron.
 Used in applications ranging from engine blocks to wear-resistant
components.

Smart materials (extra)

Piezoelectric Materials:
 Response to Stimulus: Generate an electric charge in response to mechanical stress or
deformation.
 Applications:
 Sensors and Actuators

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs):

 Response to Stimulus: Regain their original shape after deformation when subjected to
a certain temperature change.
 Applications:
 Biomedical Devices
 Aerospace Industry

Thermochromic Materials:
 Response to Stimulus: Change color in response to temperature variations.
 Applications:
 Smart Windows
 Temperature-sensitive Labels

Electroactive Polymers (EAPs):

 Response to Stimulus: Change shape or size in response to an electric field.
 Applications:
 Soft Robotics
 Haptic Feedback Devices

Magnetorheological (MR) and Electrorheological (ER) Fluids:

 Response to Stimulus: Change viscosity in response to a magnetic (MR) or electric (ER)
field.
 Applications:
 Shock Absorbers
 Clutches and Breaks

Hydrogels:
 Response to Stimulus: Swell or shrink in response to changes in pH, temperature, or
other environmental factors.
 Applications:
  Drug Delivery Systems
 Soft Robotics

Photochromic Materials:
 Response to Stimulus: Change color in response to light exposure.
 Applications:
 Eyeglasses
 Security Inks

Self-healing Materials:
 Response to Stimulus: Capable of repairing damage autonomously.
 Applications:
 Polymer Composites
 Automotive Coatings

Thermoelectric Materials:
 Response to Stimulus: Generate electric voltage in response to a temperature gradient.
 Applications:
 Waste Heat Recovery
 Portable Power Generation

Heusler alloys (check if in syllabus)

Heusler alloys are a class of intermetallic compounds that exhibit interesting and unique
properties, making them valuable for various technological applications. These alloys
have a specific crystal structure and are often composed of three elements, one of which
is typically a transition metal.

Composition:
Heusler alloys typically have a formula XYZ, where:

 X: A transition metal, such as manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), or nickel (Ni).
 Y: A metal from the main group, such as aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), or indium (In).
 Z: Another transition metal, often different from X, and sometimes including antimony
(Sb) or tin (Sn).
Examples of Heusler alloys include Ni-Mn-Ga, Co2MnAl, and Fe2VAl.

Properties:
1. Shape Memory Effect:
 Many Heusler alloys exhibit a shape memory effect, where they can revert to a
pre-defined shape after being deformed.
2. Magnetic Properties:
 Heusler alloys can have unique magnetic properties, including ferromagnetism
and magnetic shape memory effects.
3. High Spin Polarization:
 Some Heusler alloys, especially those containing transition metals, have high spin
polarization, making them interesting for spintronic applications.
4. Thermoelectric Properties:
 Certain Heusler alloys show promising thermoelectric properties, making them
potential candidates for converting waste heat into electrical energy.
5. Tunable Properties:
 The properties of Heusler alloys can often be tuned by adjusting the composition,
allowing for customization based on specific application requirements.

Applications:
1. Magnetic Shape Memory Alloys:
 Example: Ni-Mn-Ga
 Applications:
 Actuators and sensors.
 Magnetic refrigeration.
2. Spintronics:
 Example: Co2MnAl
 Applications:
 Magnetic tunnel junctions for non-volatile memory devices.
 Spin valves for magnetic sensors.
3. Thermoelectric Devices:
 Example: Fe2VAl
 Applications:
 Thermoelectric generators for converting waste heat into electrical power.
 Energy harvesting in automotive and industrial settings.
4. Magnetic Sensors:
 Example: Ni-Mn-Sn
 Applications:
  Magnetic field sensors.
 Magnetic random-access memory (MRAM).
5. Superconductors:
 Example: NbCoSn
 Applications:
 High-temperature superconductors for various applications, including
medical imaging and energy storage.
6. Catalysis:
 Some Heusler alloys are explored for catalytic applications due to their unique
electronic structure.

Polymers (check if in syllabus)

Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating structural units called monomers.
They are versatile materials with a wide range of properties, making them valuable in
various industries.

Properties of Polymers:
1. High Molecular Weight:
 Polymers consist of long chains of repeating units, resulting in high molecular
weight.
2. Flexibility:
 Many polymers are flexible and can be molded into various shapes.
3. Low Density:
 Polymers often have low density, contributing to their lightweight nature.
4. Insulating Properties:
 Many polymers are insulators, making them useful in electrical applications.
5. Chemical Resistance:
 Polymers can exhibit resistance to chemical degradation, depending on their
composition.
6. Tensile Strength:
 Tensile strength varies among polymers; some are strong and others more elastic.
7. Transparency:
 Transparency varies; polymers can be transparent, translucent, or opaque.
Types of Polymers:
1. Natural Polymers:
 Examples: Proteins (e.g., silk, wool), cellulose, rubber.
 Sources: Derived from plants, animals, or microorganisms.
2. Synthetic Polymers:
 Examples: Polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, PET.
 Production: Manufactured through chemical processes.
3. Thermoplastics:
 Soften and become moldable when heated, solidify when cooled.
 Examples: Polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC.
 Applications: Packaging, containers, pipes.
4. Thermosetting Polymers:
 Harden irreversibly when heated.
 Examples: Bakelite, epoxy resins.
 Applications: Insulating materials, adhesives.
5. Elastomers:
 Exhibit elasticity and return to their original shape after deformation.
 Examples: Natural rubber, silicone rubber.
 Applications: Tires, seals, gaskets.
6. Biodegradable Polymers:
 Capable of breaking down into natural substances.
 Examples: Polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA).
 Applications: Biodegradable packaging, medical implants.
7. Condensation Polymers:
 Formed through the elimination of small molecules during polymerization.
 Examples: Nylon, polyester.
 Applications: Fibers, fabrics, packaging.
8. Addition Polymers:
 Formed through the addition of monomers without the elimination of by-
products.
 Examples: Polyethylene, polypropylene.
 Applications: Packaging, containers, films.

Applications of Polymers:
1. Packaging:
 Thermoplastics like polyethylene and polypropylene are widely used for
packaging materials.
2. Construction:
  Polymers are used in pipes, insulation, adhesives, and coatings in the construction
industry.
3. Automotive:
 Polymers contribute to lightweight components, such as bumpers, interior
components, and tires.
4. Textiles and Apparel:
 Synthetic fibers like polyester and nylon are extensively used in clothing and
textiles.
5. Medical Applications:
 Biocompatible polymers are used in medical implants, drug delivery systems, and
surgical devices.
6. Electronics:
 Polymers are used in insulation, flexible circuits, and as encapsulating materials in
electronics.
7. Agriculture:
 Polymers are used in agricultural films, irrigation systems, and as materials for
crop protection.
8. Consumer Goods:
 Polymers are found in a variety of consumer goods, including bottles, toys, and
kitchenware.
9. Adhesives and Sealants:
 Polymers play a crucial role in adhesives and sealants for bonding and sealing
applications.
10. Environmental Applications:
 Biodegradable polymers contribute to eco-friendly products and packaging.

Ceramics

Properties of Ceramics:
1. Hardness:
 Ceramics are generally hard and have high resistance to wear. This property
makes them suitable for applications where durability and abrasion resistance
are essential.
2. Brittleness:
 Ceramics tend to be brittle and can fracture under high stress. This property
influences the design and application of ceramics to avoid sudden failure.
 3. High Melting Point:
 Ceramics typically have high melting points, allowing them to withstand high
temperatures without undergoing significant deformation.
4. Low Thermal Conductivity:
 Most ceramics have low thermal conductivity, making them effective insulators.
This property is valuable in applications where thermal insulation is required.
5. Chemical Stability:
 Ceramics are often chemically stable and resistant to corrosion. This property
contributes to their longevity in harsh environments.
6. Electrical Insulation:
 Ceramics are good electrical insulators, making them suitable for applications in
electrical components and insulating materials.
7. Transparency or Opacity:
 Ceramics can be transparent, translucent, or opaque, depending on their
composition. This property is exploited in applications like optical lenses and
windows.
8. Biocompatibility:
 Some ceramics, particularly bio-ceramics, exhibit biocompatibility, making them
suitable for medical applications such as implants and dental restorations.

Types of Ceramics:
1. Traditional Ceramics:
 Composition: Clay-based (e.g., porcelain, earthenware, stoneware).
 Applications: Pottery, tableware, bricks, tiles.
2. Structural Ceramics:
 Composition: Alumina (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4).
 Applications: High-strength components for aerospace, automotive, and
machinery.
3. Refractory Ceramics:
 Composition: Alumina, silica (SiO2), zirconia (ZrO2).
 Applications: Furnace linings, kiln furniture, crucibles.
4. Electroceramics:
 Composition: Piezoelectric ceramics (e.g., lead zirconate titanate).
 Applications: Sensors, actuators, transducers.
5. Bio-ceramics:
 Composition: Hydroxyapatite, bioglass.
 Applications: Dental implants, bone grafts.
6. Glass-Ceramics:
 Composition: Controlled crystallization of glass.
  Applications: Cookware, dental restorations, optical lenses.
7. Advanced or Technical Ceramics:
 Composition: Silicon carbide, alumina, boron nitride.
 Applications: Cutting tools, bearings, semiconductor components.

Applications of Ceramics:
1. Electronics:
 Ceramics are used in electronic components such as capacitors, insulators, and
piezoelectric devices.
2. Aerospace:
 Structural ceramics find applications in aircraft components due to their high
strength and heat resistance.
3. Automotive:
 Ceramics are used in spark plugs, catalytic converters, and high-performance
brake systems.
4. Medical Devices:
 Bio-ceramics are employed in dental implants, bone grafts, and prosthetics due
to their biocompatibility.
5. Construction:
 Ceramics like tiles, bricks, and sanitaryware are widely used in construction.
6. Energy:
 Ceramics play a role in the production of fuel cells, insulating materials, and
components for high-temperature applications.
7. Cookware and Kitchenware:
 Glass-ceramics are used in cookware, while traditional ceramics are used for
pottery and tableware.
8. Communication:
 Ceramics are used in the manufacturing of insulators and substrates for
communication devices.
9. Art and Decoration:
 Traditional ceramics find extensive use for artistic and decorative purposes.