Department of Civil Engineering, BMS College of Engineering, Bengaluru-19. - Shamanth Gowda. T - ‘Module 1: Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Introduction to Civil Engineering: Surveying, Structural Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, Hydraulics & Water Resources, Transportation Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Construction planning & Project management Basic Materials of Construction: Bricks, Cement & mortars, Plain, Reinforced & Pre- stressed Conerete, Structural steel, Construction Chemicals. Structural elements of a building: foundation, plinth, lintel, chejja, Masonry wall, column, beam, slab and staircase - Student rote to improve: Supplement your understanding on the related concepts by referring to text books and valid resources. ~ It is_suggested_to_ study and elaborate this notes along with the key points mentioned/discussed and noted during classroom session, ~ Corrections and additions (if any) are welcome for further improvement, ~ Engineering Disciplines and Building Science Introduction to Civil Engineering: The most basic stream of engineering which dates back to the earliest time when human beings started to live under the shade of house as a society. Under the current technically advanced era, Civil Engineering is an engineering science which applies physical and scientific principles for design, development and maintenance of both constructed infrastructure and naturally built environment. Civil Engineering Infrastructure and their effects: Few out of many are listed below: ‘* Buildings/Townships/Housing & Urban planning — Basic necessity for Societal development © Roads and bridges - Transportation and Economic development Railways Transportation and long distance movement of goods * Airways! Harbours - International movement and Global development ‘© Water management systems - Ensuring supply of fresh water for daily survival © Waste handling facilities - for a poltution free environment Role of a civil engineer can be related to all above mentioned points under civil engineering infrastructures and ensuring their safe service towards societal upliftment and human resource development. BMSCE- TSG Page 1Civil Engineering Disciplines Surveying: In simple terms, Surveying is the art and science of map making. On technical note, surveying refers to determining the relative position of points on, above and beneath the earth surface to mark its existence and features in terms of distance, direction and elevation. A civil engineering professional who is an expert in surveying is referred to as Surveyor! Survey Officer. Applications/Need for Surveying: Surveying is of basic need to start any development activities. ‘+ To fix boundaries of a property marked for construction, * To maintain level and alignment during building construction, ‘* For map generation of any given space and used for quick and precise location of available topographic resources within the mapped site, * For Geographical Information System and Global Positioning System- Navigation routes. © Roadways/ Highway alignment. ‘© Water supply projects- Dams, reservoirs, Irrigation Canal alignment, Piping systems ete. ‘© Mining activities and monitoring, Tools used in Surveying: Measuring tapes and Measuring chains (for distance); Telescopic target markers (for profile) Eg: Dumpy level, Leveling staff, Theodolite; Laser target markers (for distance and profile) Eg: Total station; Aerial survey assisted by Drones, Geographic Information and Remote sensing based Soft wares. Structural Engineering: This is an expert field of civil engineering stream which is concerned with designing of structural elements of a building or civil infrastructure in terms of reinforcement requirements, dimension or size of building components etc., in order to serve as a safe and stable infrastructure during its life period. Efficient Structural engineering requires a sound knowledge on materials of construction and their properties to design the entire infrastructure. Structural engineers and material scientists are both contributory in the field of Structural engineering Applications/Need for Structural Engineering: © Ensuring stability for all structural elements of a building and civil infrastructure, from foundation to completion. * Reinforcement detailing- Pattern and provision of steel in concrete, diameter of steel and number to be used in a structural element. To ensure a building/infrastructure is designed to satisfactorily performance during its service life. Tools used in Structural Engineering: Experience and knowledge of a civil/struetural engineer, Commercial Software tools such as etabs, Staad pro, Autocad ete, BMSCE- TSG Page 2Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnical engineering, also referred to as Soil Mechanics is, an expert field of civil engineering stream which is concerned with evaluation of soil properties that is of immediate concern to a building or civil infrastructure in terms of its safe bearing capacity against expected loads from the infrastructure project. Other related soil properties such as liquid limits, moisture content, compressibility ete., also falls under the expertise of Geotechnical engineering. Additionally, scope of improvement of existing soil conditions fo suit for upcoming civil infrastructure projects is an important activity for a Geotechnical engineer. Applications/Need for Geotechnical Engineering: ‘© To evaluate existing soil conditions’ properties and assist structural engineers and other related civil engineering disciplines in estimating the load bearing capacity of soil and ensure structural stability of civil infrastructure Tools used in Geotechnical Engineering: Experience and knowledge of « Geotechnical Engineer, Laboratory tests for soil property evaluation prior to any constriction and infrastructure activities Hydraulics & Water Resources: Hydraulics and Water resources engineering is a professional subject pertaining to study of Fluid mechanics. An expert of this area is a civil engineer concerned with construction and maintenance activities of water retaining and supply structures such as dams, reservoirs, canals and piping conduits. This stream of civil engineering ensures the safety at water storage structures during operation to store water and supply for the purpose of human necessities, Applications/Need for Hydraulics & Water Resources engineering: * Safe storage of water © Irrigational structures © Ensuring supply of fresh water Tools used in Hydraulics & Water Resources engineering: Laboratory based tests and analytical soft wares for understanding fluid mechanics and flow behavior and sealing it for actual construction, ‘Transportation Engineering: The aspects of roadways, railways, airports and harbors for different modes of transportation necessary for human movement are catered by the field of Transportation Engineering. Designing the suitable dimensions’ extent of service, materials to be used in construction of transportation system are the responsibilities of a Transportation engineer. Further, monitoring and ensuring a safe traffic movement of vehicles is also an expert area under the knowledge of a Transportation engineer. Transportation engineers require the assistance of Geotechnical engineers for well-designed transportation service. Applications/Need for Transportation Engineering: © For well-connected mode of global transportation. ‘+ For safe and easy traffic for efficient transportation system. © To ensure a long service life through materials used in making of road/railways, BMSCE- TSG Page 3© Proper planning for Airports and Harbours to accommodate domestic and international passenger and cargo movement. Tools used in Transportation Engineering: Laboratory based tests for quality assessment of soil, bitumen and conerete. Environmental Engineering: The social responsibility of civil engineering stream is extended with the area of Environmental Engineering. This is a special discipline of civil engineering which is concerned with the waste management and disposal for better living habitat and reduces the chances of environmental degradation due to human activities in and around a civil engineering infrastructure. Waste water management, Solid waste management, Hazardous waste management etc., falls under the scope of Enviroamental Engineering. Applications/Need for Environmental Engineering: * Collection of domestic, industrial and commercial wastes for societal benefit. © Handling and storage of wastes for treatment purposes. + Extraction of reusable components from waste as value addition. © Disposal of treated waste in a safe manner to ensure minimal to no pollution of environmental factors. ‘© Safeguarding the ecosystem against rise of new epidemics due to poor waste management Tools used in Environmental Engineering. Dedicated service mindset of an Environmental engineer, Laboratory based tests for quality assessment, surveying tools for locating waste management facilities and design/dimensioning of waste treatment plants and disposal points. Construction planning & Project management (CPM): The most challenging disciplines of civil engineering is the field of Construction planning and Project management. CPM is quite a task due to the involvement of many variables as they exist at actual construction site during the execution of civil infrastructure. A professional of CPM needs to ensure utilization of resources for timely completion of the project with due consideration to direct variables such as materials, money, man power, machineries, safety at site and indirect variables such as traflic conditions, weather conditions and law and order as well. It is the responsibility of CPM expert to make sure that the design given on paper by other civil engineering experts are realized on a real-time scale. Applications/Need for CPM Engineering: © Timely completion of infrastructure projects. ‘© Cost savings to company and client. * Efficient utilization of resources. ‘© Safe execution of assigned work and ensure stability of the infrastructure project. Tools used in CPM Engineering: Experience and knowledge of a civil/execution and planning engineer, Strong communication skills, Software tools to assist: Commercial Soft wares such as MS Excel, MS Projects, Primavera and Building Information Modeling (BIM) Software, BMSCE- TSG Page 4Basic Materials of Construction: BRICKS: These are basic building blocks used primarily and traditionally in wall construction and also for structural and nonstructural elements of a civil infrastructure. Popular commercial variants include Burnt Clay Bricks and Concrete Blocks (Hollow and Solid) Raw materials for Manufacturing: Clay bricks: Natural soil rich in Clay and Alluvial content Concrete blocks: Cement, Sand and coarse aggregates in presence of water Simple production method. Clay bricks: Soil extraction Soil preparation> Clay preparation with water Molding of clay paste for standard shape Drying in open air-> Burning in Kiln for hardening> Packaging and selling, Benefits: Low water absorption; less weight for unit for ease of Working; easy to modify shapes at site; Economical for small construction. Concrete Blocks: Mixing of required quantities of Cement with sand and coarse aggregates (generally less than 12.5 mm size) in addition of water-> Molding of wet concrete mix for required shape-> Curing for initial period (at least up to 7 days) to strength development> Packaging and usage. Benefits: Larger size and faster work completion, Applications: Bricks or blocks when joined! bonded together forms a unity and it finds application in the following areas as building blocks in masonry walls of a building - as structural load bearing elements for simple buildings (ground + two or three stories)- in arches- for floors- as non-structural elements such as compound walls, parapet walls ete. Tests for quality: Clay bricks: Field tests include; Check for dimensional stability, Check for warpage/ undulations on brick; Water absorption test an cracking tendency; Sound test by striking two bricks checking for a ringing sound. Further quality check can be done through laboratory tests for strength evaluation. Conerete blocks: Limited scope for field tests, Laboratory tests for strength evaluation. CEMENT: Cement is the basic binding material that through the process of water induced chemical hydration reaction bonds different components to create a stable shape. Raw materials for Manufacturing: Calcium and silica are key ingredients along with small amount of alumina and iron as raw materials. Calcareous materials- Materials rich in calcium (Limestone) Argillaceous materials- Materials rich in silica (Clay, Sand) Simple production method: Dry method- Mixing and inter-grinding of raw materials in dry state > Heating of raw materials in rotary kiln at high temperatures up to 1500°C to fuse the ingredients and form BMSCE- TSG Page 5clinkers>Grinding of clinkers in addition of small amount of gypsum to obtain fine powder cement. Benefits: Economical and Fast. Wet method- Mixing and inter-grinding of raw materials in wet state with controlled addition of water Pre heating of raw materials and additional heating of raw materials in rotary kiln at high temperatures up to 150°C to fuse the ingredients and form clinkers->Grinding of clinkers in addition of small amount of gypsum to obtain fine powder cement. Benefits: Better quality control over production of cement. Applications: For almost all construction activities in one form or the other as basic binding material. Commercial cement types: OPC, PPC, Quick setting cement, Rapid Hardening cement ete. Tests for quality: Field tests include manufacturing date check; check for lumps; Check for coolness; Float test; Colour and appearance. Other laboratory tests can be adopted for further quality check for physical and chemical property evaluation of cement. MORTARS: Combination or Mixture of Cement, Fine aggregates (Sand of particle size less than 4.75 mm) in presence of water to achieve a workable consistency in fresh state which sets and hardens after a certain timeframe, Raw materials for Manufacturing: Cement~ Fine aggregates+ Water Simple production method: Mortars are produced as per the work requirement in terms of proportion of cement to sand with suitable addition of water for a workable paste consistency: Rich grades of mortars used in structural applications as bed joint for bricks and blocks generally ranges from 1:2 to 1:4 of cement to sand respectively. Lean mortar mix proportions in range of I: 6 to 1:8 is also tsed in construction activities for non-structural applications Applications: As bonding agent between bricks and blocks; As plastering layer on unfinished wall and structural element; As protective layer against environmental factors. Benefits: Economical, availability of mortar ingredients; Ease of preparation at site; economical repair material for long term bonding. Tests for quality: Standard Laboratory tests for worksbility and strength, PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC): Combination or Mixture basic Concrete ingredients which includes Cement, Fine aggregates (Sand), Coarse Aggregates (patticle size greater than 4.75mm) in presence of water to achieve a workable consistency in fresh state which sets and hardens after a certain timeframe, PCC as a material is good to resist against compressive stresses but weak against tensile stress. Density of PCC is usually maintained to about 2400 kg/m’, Raw materials for Manufacturing: Cement~ Fine aggregate~ Coarse Agaregates + Water BMSCE- TSG Page 6Simple production method: PCC is mamufactured as per the work requirement by mix designing the proportion of cement, sand, coarse aggregates with addition of suitable quantity of water. Mix designing targets for a certain workable consistency and strength development. Commercially produced PCC are designed as grades of concrete referred to as Mix (M) followed by the cube compressive strength at 28 days of Curing. Eg: M25 refers to mix of concrete attaining minimum 25 MPa of compressive strength as on 28 days. Standard cube of 150 mm size is used to establish strength grades of PCC. PCC can be used in both structural and non-structural applications Applications. PCC of grades greater than M20 are used in structural elements in presence of reinforcement. PCC with or without reinforcement can be used in following applications: As base conerete to RCC foundation on soil surface; in gravity dams; Flooring works; Pavement of roads (White topping), for concrete block manufacturing Benefits: Long service life (man-made rock); Ease of preparation with minimum knowledge of materials, Economie availability of PCC ingredients, Tests for quality: Standard laboratory tests for strength and durability assessment REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC): The PCC produced for a certain workable consistency in fresh state when poured to a shape in the presence of reinforcement steel becomes or evolves into a composite termed as Reinforced Cement Conerete (RCC). Presence and suitable provision of steel to PCC makes it a material with sufficient resistance to bending and tensile stresses. Density of RCC is usually considered as nearly 2500 kg/m’. Raw materials for Manufacturing: Cement + Fine aggregate + Coarse Aggregates + Water + Reinforcing Steel Simple production method: PCC+ Suitable designed quantity of steel = RCC Placing pattern, number of steel, diameter ad length of steel varies based on the load and function of structural element under consideration. Applications: For all load-bearing structural elements of an infrastructure: Columns, Beams, Slabs, Earth Retaining walls, Overhead water tanks; Pavements of roadways/runways. Benefits: Ease of production at site; economical compared to other equivalent construction materials; Long service life with less maintenance, Tests for quality: Full scale laboratory tests, Durability tests due to risk of steel corrosion. PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE (PSC): This is a special type of conerete variant which is pre-compressed during the initial phases of production to make the resulting concrete more strong and stable against tensile stresses during service. Raw materials for Manufacturing: Manufactured in two modes: Pre tensioning and Post tensioning Process Simple_production_methods: PSC is broadly divided into two production modes: Pre tensioning and Post tensioning. BMSCE- TSG Page 7Pre tensioning: Stee! is first stretched between two end points (abutments) to achieve nearly 70 to 80 % of its tensile strength Concrete of desired grade is then poured along the tensioned line of steel in a segmented manner-> When concrete achieves sufficient strength after the required curing period, the tension in steel wires is released As the steel wire relaxes it transfers the stresses on to surrounding concrete to induce compressive stress as part of pre-stressed concrete mechanism. Benefits: Ofsite/ Plant production and better quality control, Ideal for production of identical concrete elements on large scale; Lower wastage of materials; High efficiency of materials; Greater durability. Post tensioning: Conerete is cast around profiled conduit/duets which houses steel wires> Once concrete hardens to satisfactory strength, the steel wires are stretched to desired limit to transfer compressive stresses to conerete to achieve pre stressed concrete’ before actual service loading the ducts are later grouted with cementing materials to finish the work. Benefits: Can be used as both offsite and onsite application, suitable for both identical and non-identical structural elements; suitable for very large concrete spans such as bridges, floor slabs; High efficiency of materials; Greater durability. Applications: PSC finds its prime application in the following construction activities: In High rise buildings; for long span bridges; storage silos; Large water storage tanks; Floor slabs and beams; Nuclear plant containers; Blast resistant structures. Tests for quality: Laboratory tests for strength and durability of concrete and steel wires; On site tests include measuring the loss of tension in stecl during pre-stressing. STRUCTURAL STEEL: Structural steel is a type of steel with a particular section and shape used in construction with marginally higher carbon content as compared to reinforcement steel. Raw materials for Manufacturing: Iron (up to 98%) and Carbon (up to 2.5%) Simple production methods: Structural steel is factory produced through industrial processes of to obtain required steel composition with iron and carbon, Commercial production of structural steel covers the following shapes: I section beams; L section angles, < shaped Channel sections, Hollow and solid Sections of Rectangular, Square and Circular shapes, T section beams, Flat plates Applications: Structural elements in High rise buildings; Bridges; Truss roofing; Steel pipelines; Airport hangers; Industrial warehouses; Stadium roofs; window and gate grills. Benefits: Faster work finish; Scrap value (resale); Safety at site; High quality finish; Cost savings in case of modifications; Long durability with proper maintenance Tests for quality: Standard laboratory tests for strength and durability. CONSTRUCTION CHEMICAL! Construction chemicals are group of additives with special chemical composition which are added to PCC in order to induce certain desired variations in concrete properties either during its fresh and or hardening stage. BMSCE- TSG Page 8Raw materials for Manufacturing: Chemicals and combination of chemicals. Simple production methods: Laboratory produced chemicals blended to create new system under controlled conditions and later packed to be used in site conditions. Popular commercially used Construction chemicals comprise of following on a major note: L. Water reducing admixtures or Super plasticizers: Used in order to reduce the free wwater demand by upto 30% depending on the efficiency of water reducing admixtures. Benefits of Water reducing admixtures includes production of self-compacting concrete, high workable- free flow concrete, Concrete pumping to greater heights and distance, Increased concrete strength by reducing free water. Eg: Sulphonated Melamine Formaldehyde (SME), Suplhonated Napthelene Formaldehyde (SNF), Polycarboxlic ether (PCE) ete. 2. Air entraining admixtures: Used with an intention to create uniformly distributed microscopic air bubbles with the concrete system as it hardens. Benefits: Effective against the freeze thaw cycle in cold elimate concrete due to presence of microscopic entrained air bubbles, improves initial workability of concrete. Eg: Surfactants, Foaming agents, Natural wood resins, Hydrogen peroxide, Aluminum powder ete 3. Accelerating admixtures: These chemicals increase the rate of hydration process to induce faster setting and strength development Benefits: Useful in concrete works in very cold environmental conditions. Eg: Calcium Chloride, Caleium Nitrate, Calcium Formate: 4, Set retarding admixtures: These chemicals reduce the rate of hydration process to induce delayed setting time and offer more workable time for concrete activities. Benefits: Useful in conerete works in very hot environmental conditions. Eg: Calcium Sulphate, Calcium Gluconate, Sugar syrup, Cellulose and Starch products. Appli¢ationis; Variety of applications as listed above for individual construction chemicals. Tests for quality: Laboratory tests for Compatibility or reactions with cement ‘Structural elements of a building: Structural elements of a building are those components whose role in ensuring stability and functionality of a building is of prime concern, Damage to structural elements will result in performance drop of building and in worst case may cause complete collapse. Sub structure: Elements below ground level: Foundation Super structure: Any element other than Foundation which remains visible above ground level (Note: make use of illustrative figures from classroom session to elaborate on the elements under consideration) BMSCE- TSG Page 9FOUNDATION: The most important structural element of a building which is the lowermost portion which transmits the load of the building on to the subsoil in a safe manner to ensure stability of the superstructure. Functions of Foundation: to distribute loads to a larger area and reduce load intensity at the building base; to anchor building to ground and provide stability; to protect against undermining of soil against animals, vegetation growth and water; to resist differential settlement of building under loading; to provide a level- hard surface for superstructure construction. Foundations are broadly divided into two types: Shallow and Deep foundation Shallow foundation is practiced to transfer building loads to earth at a nearest depth from the surface, It is suitable in building construction when the soil near surface is satisfactory to carry the structural loads. It is less expensive with less excavation works. However, shallow foundation cannot be practices in case of weak soil types and water tables very close to surface, Eg; Isolated footing, Combined footing, Mat footing ete. Deep foundation: This type of foundation is practiced in order to transfer building loads to a much greater depth to reach hard strata, Deep foundation is particularly useful in any state of soil and water table conditions. It is more expensive and complex compared to shallow foundation. Deep foundation offers greater stability to superstructure. Eg: Pile foundation, Caisson foundation, Well foundation ete. PLINTH: Plinth or Plinth beam is a level at ground which lies between column and ground as a separating link between substructure and superstructure elements. Plinth acts as a supporting element to columns and walls. Plinth is kept above ground level. Plinth connects all the column elements marking a boundary for building to be constructed. ‘Uses: As retaining element (boundary) for ground floor slab; ensuring balanced load transfer from wall to ground; avoiding and controlling settlement cracks; prevent water ingress; assisting columns to earry loads LINTEL: These are horizontal members located across the openings (windows and doors) to support for the load transfer mechanism in the wall system. Lintel is a small scale variant of beam. Lintel width is maintained equal to the wall width and the ends of lintels are projected into the wall for minimum requirements (usually 100 mm each end). Uses: Load transfer mechanism and crack mitigation, CHESJA: Chejjas are functional elements usually provided as extemal projections above window openings. Width of chejja is marginally greater than the window opening width Projection width usually extends up to 3 feet and shall have an outward sloping profile on top from the window-wall end, Chejjas when provided are connected to lintel beam and offers additional support to load transfer mechanism at wall openings. Sometimes internal chejjas are provided to use space as storage units within the building, BMSCE- TSG Page 10Uses: Primarily to restrict direct entry of sunlight and rainwater through windows, secondary support to load transfer at wall openings. MASONRY WALL: Masonry walls are vertical structural components of a building made asa single element through combination of building blocks arranged in a systematic manner and bonded together with cementing mortar. Uses: to support in load transfer mechanism between two floors; Space division and privacy; thermal insulation; weather protection; noise cancellation. COLUMNS: Columns are vertical structural elements in a building predominantly subjected to compressive stresses and assist in load transfer on to foundation, Columns are elements with its length at least 3 times the least cross section dimension, Uses: Resist axial forces BEAMS: Beams are horizontal structural elements that are subjected to flexural, tensile and shear stresses. Beams support the loads from floor slabs and wall elements. Beams transfer the oncoming loads to columns. Uses: Load resistance; Support to floor and wall elements; Load distribution to columns; Stability to structures against lateral forees (wind and earthquake) SLARS: Slabs are horizontal flat structural elements which offer living space for occupants in a building. Slab cast on ground (earth) surface is referred to as ground slab; slab acting as floor- Floor slab, slab acting as roof Roof slab. Uses: Slabs supportS for dead Load. (Material weights), live load (occupants), floor finish loads and other loads such as snow loads and earthquake loads. Slabs transfer the oncoming loads to beams. STAIRCASE: These are vertical elements of a building constructed to access different floor levels in a building. Stairs are simply the set of steps arranged in a systematic manner starting from one floor and ending in the next immediate floor. Room space reserved for stairs is referred to as staircase, Stairs are assemblage of multiple units of vertical (Riser) and horizontal (Treads) elements cast as a single element. The length of risers are usually in range of 10 to 15 cm and Tread length is kept greater than 25 cm, Angle of inclination for stairs is generally maintained between 30 to 45°, Staircases shall be centrally located for quick access; located near entrance. Uses: Movement between floors; Staircases are designed as elements to carry certain amount of loads similar to slabs. seeeees BMSCE- TSG Page 11