Chapter Three

Human Thermal Comfort

Definition of Comfort: Pursuing an activity without experiencing environmental stress.

Lines of Defense: For Climate –versus –Comfort Challenge

DIRECTION
1. Adapting some thermal attributes of the natural environment to assist a person in
establishing comfort. For example, setting beneath a tree for shadow in hot day,
or warming yourself by sun radiation on a cold day.
2. Modifying the person’s state to reduce environmental stress. For example, putting
on a jacket on a cool day.
3. Provide a built enclosure.
4. Employ an active control device to change internal environment (like A.C. if hot,
or the radiator is cold).

Thermal Regulation in the Human Body

A human being is a homothermous creature: a creature that maintains a nearly constant temperature.
Attempt to match between heat productions in the body with the exchange of heat to the environment.

Heat Production

 Heat is a generated as a by–product of metabolism.

 Metabolism: sum total of all the chemical reactions that occur in all the cells that make up one’s body.
 Metabolic rate: the rate with which heat is produced within the body. Unit is Watt (J/s)
 Heat is produced when:

1. Decomposition of food and formation of ATP (Adenosine tri-phosphate)

2. Energy embodied in the ATP is exchanged to the surrounding tissues.
3. Performance of body functions and activities.

The energy derived from food goes to

20% of the food energy is employed for useful work.

80% exchanged to the surroundings as waste energy.

Human body is 20% efficient

How do we get rid of heat?

1. Conduction, Convection, and long-wave Radiation (sensible heat loss- function of temperature).
2. Respiration: both sensible heat and latent heat loss; air is both warm and contains vapor.
3. Perspiration: water diffuses through the skin and evaporates at the skin surface.

1
 The heat balance equation between a human being and
his/her surrounding is:

Heat gain from the environment +

Metabolic heat production
=
Useful work produced + Heat loss to
the environment

Figure: Mechanism of Heat Loss of the Human Body and the Relative Magnitudes
for a Resting Person

Summary

Human body ingest food

Process it.
Performs useful work.
Sheds heat to surroundings.
At the same time receives heat from the environment.
A heat production, work, and heat exchange occur, the human body tries to maintain a thermal balance
with the environment.

Definition of Thermal Comfort

Givoni: Absence of irritation and discomfort due to heat or cold or a state involving pleasantness.

Dagostino: Being able to carry on any desired activity without being either chilly or too hot.

Fanger: the condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the internal environment.

Conclusion: Thermal comfort is a subjective matter: means is it based on or influenced by personal

feelings, tastes, or opinions.

The most commonly used definition for THERMAL COMFORT according to

the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) is “That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction
with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation

As a result, you cannot satisfy all people in the space, but the designer should instead seek to create a
condition that will satisfy the largest number of occupants; 80% according to ASHRAE.

2
To shift thermal comfort from subjectivity to objectivity (based on facts), we rely on eight parameters.

Parameters Affecting Thermal Comfort

Figure: Major Environmental and Personal Factors that Influence Thermal Comfort

A. Environment Parameters
1. Dry-bulb temperature (Td):

The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer freely exposed to the
air, but shielded from radiation and moisture.

2. Mean radiant Temperature (Tmrt)

It is defined as the theoretical uniform surface temperature of an enclosure in which an occupant would
exchange the same amount of radiant heat as in the actual non-uniform enclosure. Because walls of
an enclosure have different areas, the mean temperature in its simplest form and least accurate can
be a weighted average value according to the following equation:

𝑇1 × 𝐴1+ 𝑇2 × 𝐴2 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑛 × 𝐴𝑛
𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡 =
∑𝑛1 𝐴𝑖
Where:

Tmrt = mean radiant temperature, oC

T = Temperature of the enclosure surface, oC
A = area of the surface, m2

3
 (a) MRT is a Weighted-average Value (b) MRT is Based on Shape Factor

Figure: The Mean Radiant Temperature of Surfaces in an Enclosure

This method of calculating the mean radiant temperature does not reflect the geometric position, posture
and facing orientation of the occupant nor ceiling height nor the thermal comfort influence of extraordinary
items such as radiant asymmetry. In practice the mean radiant temperature is ambiguous as the occupant
moves about the space and as a result of different room geometries and changes to internal and external
environmental conditions.

In a more advanced review of MRT, we can not only look at the individual surface temperatures and their
area but also the distance of those surfaces from the occupant and whether that person is seated or
standing. Why is this important? Well let us say you live in a hot climate and have a home office where your
back will be facing a large western-facing window. That large hot window will have much greater influence
on your perception of comfort more so than any other surface in that room regardless of the air
temperature. Why? Because the radiant transfer from window surface to your warm body will invoke a
heating sensation from your back which will be perceived by your brain as being uncomfortable. The angle
factor is a means to describe the geometric relationship an occupant has with each surface in the space.
When a person moves, the angle factors change. Consequently, the mean radiant temperature changes,
too.

When surfaces have a high emittance (ε), they can be assumed to be black and thus the following equation
for mean radiant temperature can be used:

4
𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡 = 𝑇14 × 𝐹𝑝−1 + 𝑇12
4
× 𝐹𝑝−2 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑛4 × 𝐹𝑝−𝑛

When relatively small temperature differences exist between the surfaces of the enclosure the mean
radiant temperature can be simplified to:

𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡 = 𝑇1 × 𝐹𝑝−1 + 𝑇2 × 𝐹𝑝−2 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑛 × 𝐹𝑝−𝑛

Where:

Tmrt = Mean radiant temperature, °C

Tn = Surface temperature of surface N, °C
Fp-n = Shape factor (angle) between a person and surface n

Angle between the body and the surface

𝐹𝑝−𝑛 =
360

4
Example One

The room below (5 m × 4 m × 3 m) has the following surface areas, temperatures, and angle factors as
listed in the table. Calculate the mean radiant temperature of the room using:

a. The weighted-average formula.

b. The shape factor formula.

Surface Area (m2) T (oC) A×T

Floor 20 27 540
Ceiling 20 18.3 366
Exterior 15-3-2= 6 60
Wall 10
Partition 15 32 480
Window 3 4 12
Radiator 2 54 108
Sides 12+12=24 22 528
Walls
Total = 94 2,094
Mean Radian Temperature (MRT) = 22.3oC

(a) Using Weighted-average Formula

Surface T (oC) Fp-n T × Fp-n

Floor 27 110 2,970
Ceiling 18.3 105 1,922
Exterior 10 20 200
Wall
Partition 32 100 3,200
Window 4 30 120
Radiator 54 20 1,080

Total = =9,292/360
Mean Radian Temperature (MRT) = 26.4oC

(b) Using Shape Factors Formula

Figure: Calculation of MRT

3. Humidity

Two properties are used to measure the amount of moisture in air; namely: the humidity ratio, and the
relative humidity.

a. Humidity Ratio (W)

mass of water vapor (mwv )

W= in 1 kg of moist − air
mass of dry − air (mda )

5
 Units: dimensionless, or
gwv/gda
gwv/kgda

b. Relative Humidity (φ)

mass of water vapor (mwv )

∅= × 100 at same T, and P
mass of water vapor at saturation (mwv,sat )

Units: percentage (%)

Why Relative humidity is used as an Indicator of Comfort in Weather

Forecast not Humidity Ratio?

To answer this question, we need to conduct this simple experiment.

Bring four different sizes of beakers. Fill in the second-size beaker with half its capacity with water and
assume that it is water vapor with a humidity ratio of 8 g wv/kgda. Start to heat the whole volume of air in
the beaker and watch the relative humidity values. Record both W and ∅ in the table below. Repeat the
same steps by cooling the air in the beaker and record the values of W and φ again. What do you
conclude from the experiment?

Humidity Ratio (W) 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda

100% (rest
Relative Humidity (∅) 100% 50% 30% 10%
is rain)
Increase
Heating
temperature
Decrease
Cooling
temperature

Conclusion:

Humidity ratio does not give an indication of thermal comfort. One single value of humidity ratio can make
air either very dry or very wet. Relative humidity does.

4. Air movement around the body (Vair).

Air has to move (either naturally or by force) in order for the body to transfer heat to air. If the air does
not move, the body cannot transfer heat by convection.

Question 1: Is the ceiling fan in your house a cooling device or a convector?

Answer: The ceiling fan moves the air around the body. The higher the velocity the higher the convection
heat transfer.

Question 2: What are the comfort ranges of each of these parameters?

Answer: The table below list the comfort ranges of the environmental parameters.

6
 Table: Comfort Ranges of the Environmental Parameters
Parameter Comfort Range
Dry-bulb Temperature (Td) 20oC ≤ Td ≤ 27oC
Mean radiant Temperature (Tmrt) Tmrt = Td
Relative humidity (φ) 35% ≤ φ ≤ 55%
Air Velocity (Vair) 0.25 m/s ≤ Vair ≤ 0.36 m/s

B. Personal Parameters
1. Activity Level (Metabolic Rate)

The ASHRAE 55-2010 Standard defines metabolic rate as the level of transformation of chemical energy into
heat and mechanical work by metabolic activities within an organism, usually expressed in terms of unit
area of the total body surface.

The metabolic rate is influenced by many factors – including age, gender, muscle-to-fat ratio, amount of
physical activity and hormone function. The metabolic rate is measured in METS, where:

W
1 MET = 58.1
m2

A typical adult doing typical indoor

activities acts like an incandescent
lamp generating 100 W

Figure: Metabolic Rate of A typical Adult

Table 4 in ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook list the metabolic heat generation for various indoor activities.
Equation 34 in ASHRAE also gives a mathematical expression for calculating the metabolic rate depending
on oxygen consumption and skin area.

21(0.23 × 𝑅𝑄 + 0.77)𝑄𝑂2
𝑀=
𝐴𝐷
Where:

M = Metabolic rate, W/m2

RQ = Respiratory quotient; molar ratio of QCO2 exhaled to QO2 inhaled, dimensionless
QO2 = volumetric rate of Oxygen consumption at conditions (STPD) of 0oC and 101.325 kPa, ml/s

Table 5 gives the oxygen consumption and different activity levels. The respiratory quotient (RQ) is
estimated to be 0.83 for light activity work (MET < 1.5) to 1.0 for extremely heavy work (MET =5.0)

7
8
The area of the skin can be calculated as:

𝐴𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 0.202 × 𝑚0.425 × 𝑙0.725

Where:
m = mass of person, kg
l = length of person, m

Example Two

Calculate the metabolic rate in W/m2 generated by a student taking notes in a classroom if his skin area is
1.6 m2. How many METS the student is producing?

Solution
21×(0.23×.83+0.77)×8 𝑊
The metabolic rate 𝑀 = 1.6
= 100.9 𝑚2

100.9
The number of 𝑀𝐸𝑇𝑆 = 58.1
= 1.74 𝑀𝐸𝑇𝑆

2. Insulation level (Resistance) of clothing.

Clothing:
a) Restrict the three modes of heat transfer.
b) Reduce the ability of the body to exchange heat by perspiration and sweating.
c) Clothing has resistance against heat flow OR we say “insulation level”

The clothing insulation level is measured in CLO.

(m2 . K)
1 clo = 0.155
W

 Clo = 0 - corresponds to a naked

person
 Clo = 1 - corresponds to the
insulating value of clothing needed
to maintain a person in comfort
sitting at rest in a room at 21oC with
air movement of 0.1 m/s and
humidity less than 50% - typically a
person wearing a business suit
Figure: The Clothing Insulation Level

The overall insulation or clo value can be calculated by simply taking the clo value for each individual
garment worn by a person and adding them together. Table 8 in ASHRAE Handbook list the clo value of
common garments.

9
 Insulation Values According to ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (Table 8)

3. Moisture permeability of the clothing ensemble (how moisture passes).

4. Compressibility of the clothing ensemble (clothing assembly).

Question: When clothing are compressed, they will be less insulative. Why?
Answer:

Both permeability and compressibility are

difficult to measure and they are not accounted
for. As a result, in thermal comfort, we use only
the first six parameters

Measuring the Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) in a Room

To describe the net radiant exchange heat rate, we use the mean radiant temperature (MRT) which can be
measured by a Globe thermometer. The globe thermometer consists of temperature sensing device placed
inside and at the center of 6 inch (150 mm) diameter hollow copper ball and painted flat black.

10
 0.6 0.25
4 1.1 × 108 × 𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡 = [(𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 + 273) + (𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 − 𝑇𝑑 )] − 273
𝜀 × 𝐷0.4
Where:
TMRT = Mean radiant temperature, oC
Tgloble = Globe temperature, oC
Vair = Air velocity, m/s
ε = Emissivity of the globe thermometer (if black= 0.95)
D = Globe diameter, m
Tair = Dry-bulb temperature, oC

Or, you can calculate the Tmrt by the below equation, where A is the surface area = 4 π r2 of the sphere of
the globe thermometer, and hconv is the convective heat transfer coefficient from table.

4 4
ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 × 𝐴 × (𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 − 𝑇𝑑 )
𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡 = 𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 +
𝜀×𝜎
Tmrt, Tg, and Td are in Kelvin.

Table 3.2: Correlation for calculating convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

Type of Activity Correlation of hconv Applicable Range of velocity
(W/m2.K) (m/s) or met
Seated Person 3.1 0≤V≤0.2
8.3×V0.6 0.2≤V≤4.0
Active Person 5.7×(M-0.85)0.39 1.1≤M≤3.0

Question: What is the value of Tmrt if Tgloble = Td?

Answer:

Example Three

If the dry-bulb temperature of air (Td) is 20oC, the Globe temperature (Tglobe) is 25oC, its emissivity (ε) is 0.95,
and air velocity (Vair) in the space is 0.25 m/s, what is the mean radiant temperature?

Applying the equation directly:

11
 0.6 0.25
4 1.1 × 108 × 𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡 = [(𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 + 273) + 0.4
(𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 − 𝑇𝑑 )] − 273
𝜀×𝐷

Answer: Tmrt = 30oC.

Combining Mean Radiant and dry-bulb temperatures

The heat produced by the body must be dissipated to the environment, otherwise the body would
overheat.

If the rate of heat transfer is higher than the rate of heat production, the body cools down and we feel
cold. If the rate is lower, we feel hot.

Complex problem: since it involves radiation, convection, evaporation, and many other variables.

Question: All heat produced by the body is dissipated. Why?

Answer: The temperature of the body is constant 36-37oC.

Figure: Thermal Network Model of Sensible heat flows from a Human Body

Total energy production rate by the body = production rate of heat (Q) + production rate of work (W).

Q + W = M * Askin

Where M = rate of energy production per surface area of skin, expressed in units of MET.
W is ignored because it is included in Q.

The value of met varies with the activity level. Refer to values of metabolic rates.

12
 Total Q = Qconv + Qrad + Qevap + Qresp,sensible + Qresp,latent

Skin Respiration
Calculation of the Sensible Heat Loss

1. Convection heat Transfer

Qconv = Acl hconv (Tcl – Td)

2
Acl = area of clothing, m
Tcl = temperature of clothing, K
Td = dry-bulb temperature, K
Hconv = convective heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2.K)

2. Radiative Heat Transfer

Definition: The mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) is the temperature of the environment with which a
human body would exchange the same radiation with the actual environment.

𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡= ∑𝑛 𝐹𝑐𝑙−𝑛 × 𝑇𝑛

Where:
Fcl-n =Area i/Total Area = radiation factor
Tn = surface temperature

Then, 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐴𝑐𝑙 ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝑐𝑙 − 𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡)

Combining Equations

Let us sum both the convective and the Radiative coefficients.

hc+r = hconv + hrad

and create a temperature called operative temperature (Top). The operative temperature is defined as the
uniform temperature of an enclosure in which an occupant would exchange the same amount of heat by
radiation plus convection as in the actual non uniform environment, where:

ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 × 𝑇𝑑 + ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡

𝑇𝑜𝑝 =
ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑

Usually hconv and hrad are close at indoor conditions (hconv = hrad). If this is the case, then the above
equation is simplified to:

13
 𝑇𝑑 + 𝑇𝑚𝑟𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑝 =
2
Hence, combining both equations lead to:
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐴𝑐𝑙 ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣+𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝑐𝑙 − 𝑇𝑜𝑝 )

The total thermal resistance Rth,total, as determined from the TRN below is:

−1

1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝑐𝑙 + [ + ] = 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝑐𝑙 +
1 1 ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣+𝑟𝑎𝑑
ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑

Then the sensible heat transfer (convection and radiation together) is:

𝐴 × ∆𝑇 𝐴𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 × (𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑝 )

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣+𝑟𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝑡𝑜𝑡 1
𝑅𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 + ℎ
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣+𝑟𝑎𝑑

Figure: The Thermal Network Model After Combining Tmrt and Td

Skin Temperature

The skin temperature varies with the metabolic rate, but a value of 34.1oC is typically assumed for seated
occupants doing office work. With increasing activity, the metabolic rate increases and the body lowers the
skin temperature in order to dissipate it if the environment temperature is kept constant. The following
relationship can be used to predict the skin temperature conductive to comfort:

𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 35.7 − 1.6 × (𝑀 − 𝑊) in oC

Calculation of the Latent Heat Loss

According to the thermal resistance network, the latent heat loss equation is:

14
 𝐴𝑐𝑙 × (𝑊𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑖 )
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

The network has two resistances, namely: the moisture resistance of clothing and the moisture resistance
of air in the room, So:

𝑣 𝑣
1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑐𝑙 +
ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝
Where:
Qlat = latent heat loss from the body, W
Acl = Area of clothing, m2
Rvtotal= total moisture resistance
Rv,cl = moisture resistance of clothing
hevap = evaporative coefficient of the air

Figure: Thermal Network Model of latent heat flows from a Human Body

For simplified calculation, the energy dissipated by sweating for an average person to maintain comfort
can be calculated from:
𝑄̇𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 24.3 × 𝐴𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 × (𝑀𝐸𝑇 − 𝑊 − 1)
Where;
Qlat = latent heat loss, W
MET= Metabolic rate
W = work produced, W (W= Equal to zero)

Another expression is:

15
 𝑄̇𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 × ℎ𝑓𝑔
Where:
mwv =The rate of evaporation from the body, kg/s (approximately =0.023 gwv/s)
hfg = The enthalpy of vaporization of water at the skin temperature (=2429.8 kJ/kg at 30oC).
(Saturated water-temperature tables gives hfg at different temperatures)

Table: Enthalpy of Vaporization at Different Skin Temperature

But the accurate value of mwv is calculated by:

∗
𝑚̇𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 × ℎ𝐸 × 𝑓𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 × (𝑊𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑎 )

Where
fwetted skin = the fraction of wetted skin to the total skin area (varies from 0.06 for normal skin
moisture loss to 0.5 for comfortable conditions)
∗
𝑊𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 = saturated humidity ratio of moist air at the skin temperature
Wa = the humidity ratio of surrounding air
hE = mass transfer coefficient of water vapor, which equals to:

ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
ℎ𝐸 =
𝐿𝑒 × 𝑐𝑝,𝑎
Where

hconv = convection coefficient from table 3.2

Le = the Lewis number (Le = 0.895 for most applications)
cp,a = specific heat of air

Example Four

Calculate the evaporative heat loss of a person assuming the following conditions:
Dry-bulb temperature = 21oC, dew-point =12oC
Area of skin = 1.8 m2

16
 Temperature of skin = 31.54oC
Le = 0.895
Metabolic rate = 2.6
Saturated humidity ratio at the skin temperature = 0.03 kgw/kgd

Solution

At Td = 21oC, and Tdew = 12oC

Wa = 0.008766, hevap =2425.6 kJ/kgd

3.1
ℎ𝐸 = = 3.44 × 10−3 𝑊. 𝑘𝑔𝑑 /(𝑚2. 𝑘𝐽)
0.895 × 1.006

𝑘𝑔𝑤
𝑚̇𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 1.8 × 3.44 × 10−3 × 0.2 × (0.03 − 0.008766) = 0.0263 × 10−3
𝑠

𝑊
𝑄̇𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 × ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 0.0263 × 10−3 × 2425.6 × 1000 = 63.8 𝑊
𝑘𝑊

If the moisture leaving an average resting person’s body in

one day were collected and condensed it would fill a 1-L
container. This value increases to 2 liters/day (0.0231 g/s) in
a normal environment, which is the basis of the
recommendation that a normal person should drink at least
2 liters/day

ASHRAE Comfort Chart

ASHRAE has developed an industry consensus standard to describe comfort requirements in buildings. The
standard is known as ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.
The purpose of this standard is to specify the combinations of indoor thermal environmental factors and
personal factors that will produce thermal environmental conditions acceptable to a majority of the
occupants within the space. One of the most recognizable features of Standard 55 is the ASHRAE Comfort
Zone as portrayed on a modified psychrometric chart given in Figure shown in the next page. The Standard
allows the comfort charts to be applied to spaces where the occupants have activity levels that result in
metabolic rates between 1.0 met and 1.3 met and where clothing is worn that provides between 0.5 clo
and 1.0 clo of thermal insulation. The comfort zone is based on the PMV values between -0.5 and +0.5.

17
 ASHRAE Standard 55
The purpose of the Standard is to specify the combinations of
indoor thermal environmental factors and personal factors that
will produce thermal environmental conditions acceptable to a
majority of the occupants within the space

If the conditions are different than what is stated in the comfort chart, ASHRAE Standard 55 recommends
that the comfort operative temperature is determined as:

𝑇𝑜𝑝,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = 27.2 − 5.9 × 𝑐𝑙𝑜 − 3.0 × (1 + 𝑐𝑙𝑜)(𝑀 − 1.2)

Where:
Rc = clothing insulation, clo
M = Metabolic rate, MET

18
Example Five

A room 3 m × 3 m × 3 m with five surfaces at Ts =20oC except one surface which is a window at 11oC. The
dry-bulb temperature is (Td) 21oC, and the relative humidity (ø) is 60%. Calculate the mean radiant
temperature (Tmrt) and the operative temperature (Top), and use ASHRAE comfort chart to specify whether
the conditions are comfortable or not.

Solution

Tmrt = (1/6)×11 + (5/6) × 20 = 18.5oC

Assume Hconv = hrad
Top = (21 + 18.5)/2 = 19.75 = 20oC
By referring to the ASHRAE comfort chart at Top = 20oC and ø = 60%
Conditions are comfortable.

Example Six

It is well established that a clothed or unclothed person feels comfortable when the skin temperature is
about 33oC. Consider an average man (mass = 64 kg, length = 1.68 m) wearing summer clothes whose
thermal resistance is 0.6 clo. The man feels very comfortable while standing in a room maintained at T d=
22oC. The air motion in the room is small and can be neglected, and the interior surface temperature of the
room (Tmrt) is about the same as the air temperature. If this man were to stand in that room unclothed,
determine the temperature at which the room must be maintained for him to feel thermally comfortable.
Assume that the latent heat transfer rate from the person remains constant.

Solution

Hconv = 4.0 W/(m2.K)

Hrad = 4.7 W/(m2.K)
Hconv+rad = 8.7 W/(m2.K)
Askin = 0.202 * 640.425 * 1.680.725 = 1.72 m2
Rclothing = 0.6 * 0.155 = 0.093 (m2.K)/W
Top = 22oC
Then;
Qsensible, clothed = 91 W

When the person is unclothed, Rclothing = 0

Then;

In the same equation, Qsensible is known but Td is unknown.

Td = 33- 91/(8.7*1.72) = 26.9oC.
The person will feel comfortable when nude at 26.9oC.

Example Seven

How much heat is lost by evaporation for a person performing an activity with 1.2 MET and skin area of 1.6
m 2?
Solution

𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 24.3 × 𝐴𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 × (𝑀𝐸𝑇 − 𝑊 − 1) = 24.3 × 1.6 × (2.1 − 0 − 1) = 42.8 𝑊

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Example Eight

Use the ASHRAE comfort chart to determine whether the conditions listed below are expected to be
comfortable for light office work (MET ≤ 1.1).

a. Summer: Td = Tmrt = 23oC, ø =60%, hconv=hrad

Td = Tmrt → Top = 23oC. So, by referring to the ASHRAE chart at Top = 23oC and ø =60%,
The point is located inside the summer zone.
Hence, the conditions are comfortable

b. Summer: Td = 22oC, Tmrt= 28oC, hconv=3.4 W/(m2.K) hrad= 4.5 W/(m2.K) , ø =30%

Top = (22 × 3.4 + 28 × 4.5)/(3.4 + 4.5) = 25.4oC, By referring to the ASHRAE chart at Top = 25.4oC and ø
=30%, the point is located inside the summer zone.
Hence, the conditions are comfortable. Note also comfortable in winter.

c. Winter: Td=21oC, Tmrt =20oC, hconv=3.4 W/(m2.K) hrad= 4.5 W/(m2.K), Tdew = 15oC

Top = (21 × 3.4 + 20 × 4.5)/(3.4 + 4.5) = 20.4oC. By referring to the ASHRAE chart at Top = 20.4oC and
Tdew = 15oC, the point is located inside the winter zone.
Hence, the conditions are comfortable.

d. Summer: Td = 22oC, Vair = 1 m/s, Tglobe =25oC, hrad= 4.5 W/(m2.K), hconv= 3.5 W/(m2.K), W = 11
gwv/kgda.

Calculate Tmrt for the equation

Tmrt = 31.8oC

3.5×22+4.5×31.8
𝑇𝑜𝑝 = = 27.5 oC
3.5+4.5

From the comfort chart at Top =27.5oC and W= 11gwv/kgda, the answer is NO.

Question: What do you do to bring thermal comfort conditions back to the room?

Referring to chart, the maximum Top to enter the comfort zone is = 27oC, then repeat the same
equation by substituting Top=27oC and find Td again.

3.5 × 𝑇𝑑 + 4.5 × 31.8

𝑇𝑜𝑝 = = 27℃
3.5 + 4.5

→ Td =20.8oC

Hence, the thermostat in the room must be adjusted to Td =21oC.

20
Fanger’s Thermal Comfort Model
The environmental parameters discussed earlier are the primary factors used to characterize human
comfort. Further, the modeling equations discussed do not explicitly consider the psychological aspect of
thermal comfort that is perceived differently by different humans.

An empirical approach relating comfort perceptions with environmental parameters that take into account
subjective differences between humans was developed by P.O. Fanger (from Denmark) in 1970. This
approach forms the basis of ASHRAE Standard 55 as well as ISO 7730.

A thermal sensation index called the predicted mean vote (PMV), has been proposed to represent occupant
acceptability of the indoor environment. This index can be calculated through a complex mathematical
correlation of the six parameters and related to the imbalance between the actual heat flow from the
human body in a given environment and that required for optimum comfort. The PMV index is used to
quantify the degree of discomfort and ranges from +3 (hot) to -3 (cold) with zero indicating neutral or
comfort conditions as shown in the figure below. This index is also called ASHRAE thermal sensation scale.

Figure: Fanger Scale- ASHARE Thermal Sensation Scale

Test chambers experiments with actual subjects are finally the most reliable approach, and these were
conducted by Fanger. Studies on 1,600 college-aged students revealed certain interesting trend between
comfort level, temperature, humidity, sex, length of exposure. An empirical (experimental or observed)
correlation has been subsequently developed:

𝑃𝑀𝑉 = 𝑎 × 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑏 × 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑐
Where:
PMV= predictive mean vote, a value between -3 and 3 according to the scale
Ta = dry-bulb temperature, oC
Pv = partial pressure of water vapor in the air, kPa
A, b, and c are coefficient given in the table

Table: Coefficients for Use in the PMV Equation

Exposure Length Sex a b c
1.0 hour Male 0.220 0.233 5.673
Female 0.272 0.248 7.245
Combined 0.245 0.248 6.475
3.0 hours Male 0.212 0.293 5.949
Female 0.275 0.255 8.622
Combined 0.243 0.278 6.802

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Since women prefer slightly higher temperatures than men, separate correlations are provided for both
sexes and also for a typical combined set of people.

Example Nine

A combined group of both sexes of students are attending a lecture in Building 14 (Sea level, Patm = 101.325
kPa) when the dry-bulb temperature (Td) is 21oC and the relative humidity (φ) is 50%. Use Fanger’s model
to predict the comfort mean vote of the students for (a) one-hour class, and (b) three- hour class?

Solution

Indoors, usually at Td = 21oC and φ= 50%, the partial pressure of water vapor is = 1.2438 kPa.

(a) For one-hour class:

𝑃𝑀𝑉 = 𝑎 × 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑏 × 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑐 = 0.245 × 21 + 0.248 × 1.2438 − 6.475 = −1.022

Which is slightly cool

(b) For three-hour class:

𝑃𝑀𝑉 = 𝑎 × 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑏 × 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑐 = 0.243 × 21 + 0.278 × 1.2438 − 6.802 = −1.353

Which is slightly cool to cool. The students will feel cooler as the exposure period is increased.

Although predicting the thermal sensation of a population is an important step in determining what
conditions are comfortable, it is more useful to consider whether or not people will be satisfied. Fanger
developed another equation to relate the PMV to the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD). This
relation was based on studies that surveyed subjects in a chamber where the indoor conditions could be
precisely controlled. It has been found PPD is empirically correlated to PMV. When PPD is plotted versus
PMD for a large group, one typically finds a distribution as shown in the figure below. This figure shows that
even under optimal conditions (i.e., PMV = 0), approximately 5% maybe dissatisfied with the thermal
environment. This correlation between PPD and PMV is:

𝑃𝑃𝐷 = 100 − 95 × 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−(0.03353 × 𝑃𝑀𝑉 4 + 0.1297 × 𝑃𝑀𝑉 2 )]

In view of the fuzziness of the of the test results, values ranging from PMV = ±0.5 and PPD < 10% are
considered acceptable. The PMV/PPD model is applied globally but does not directly take into account the
adaptation mechanisms and outdoor thermal conditions.

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 Figure: Percentage of People dissatisfied as a Function of Predicted Mean Vote

Example Ten

In example nine above, find the percent of people dissatisfied using the chart.

By using the chart, for one-hour exposure, PPD = 18%, and for three-hours exposure, PPD = 30%.

Example Eleven

A room 10 m  8 m  4.0 m at sea level (P= 101,325 kPa) is maintained at a dry temperature (Td) of 22oC.
The 20 persons occupying this room must perform a medium activity work and wear light clothing. If the
average velocity of the air in the room is 0.5 m/s, and the globe temperature as measured by a globe
thermometer is 22oC, answer the following questions:

1. Calculate the mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) in this room. The globe diameter is 150 mm, and its
emissivity is 0.95.

By substituting in the equation Tmrt =28.3oC

2. How much moisture is released into the air if latent heat generated by each person is 55 W and
enthalpy of water vapor is 2450 kJ/kgwv.

watch your units!!

55 𝐽
𝑠. 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑔𝑤𝑣 𝑘𝑔𝑤𝑣
𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = × 20 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 = 4.5 × 10−4 = 1.62
𝑠. 2450 × 1000 𝐽 𝑠 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔𝑤𝑣

23
Assessing the Thermal Comfort Conditions Outdoors

1. Heat Index

The Heat Index is a measure of how hot it really feels when relative humidity is factored in with the actual
air temperature. In other words, it is a function of temperature and relative humidity. The combination of
the two results in an apparent temperature which gives an idea of what it would feel like. As an example, if
the air temperature is 35.6°C and the relative humidity is 65%, the heat index- how hot it feels- is 49.4°C.
Since heat index values were devised for shady, light wind conditions, exposure to full sunshine can increase
heat index values by up to 8°C. Also, strong winds, particularly with very hot, dry air, can be extremely
hazardous.

The heat index value is determined from the equation:

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑇 + 𝑐3 ∅ + 𝑐4 𝑇∅ + 𝑐5 𝑇 2 + 𝑐6 ∅2 + 𝑐7 𝑇 2 ∅ + 𝑐8 𝑇∅2 + 𝑐9 𝑇 2 ∅2

Where:
T= dry-bulb temperature, oC
Φ= Relative humidity, %
c1 = -42.379
c2 = 2.04901523
c3 = 10.14333127
c4 = -0.22475541
c5 = -0.00683783
c6 = -0.05481717
c7 = 0.00122874
c8 = 0.00085282
c9 = -0.00000199

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 Table: Heat Index Values

2. Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)

WBGT uses temperature, humidity, wind, solar radiation, and other weather parameters. It is a particularly
effective indicator of heat stress for active populations such as outdoor workers and athletes. WBGT can be
used to inform activity modifications during exercise or outdoor work. For instance, The American College
of Sports Medicine bases its guidelines for the intensity of sport practices on WBGT, and it is therefore
utilized by athletic programs in many school districts.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recommends protective measures for outdoor
work:
 Acclimatize workers starting the first day working in the heat and after any extended absences
 Provide shade for outdoor work sites
 Schedule work earlier or later in the day
 Use work/rest schedules
 Limit strenuous work (for example, carrying heavy loads)
 Use relief workers when needed

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 Figure: Heat Index versus Wet-bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)

For outdoor conditions, the wet-bulb globe temperature is determined as:

𝑊𝐵𝐺𝑇 = (0.7 × 𝑇𝑤 ) + (0.2 × 𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 ) + (0.1 × 𝑇𝑑 )

Where:
Td = the dry-bulb temperature, oC
Tw = wet-bulb temperature, oC
Tglobe = globe thermometer temperature, oC

The WBGT thermometer can be used indoors. In this case the equation becomes:

𝑊𝐵𝐺𝑇 = (0.7 × 𝑇𝑤 ) + (0.3 × 𝑇𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒 )

The Wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) is nowadays

the most widely used index of heat stress. The WBGT
was invented and first used during the 1950s as one
element in a successful tool to control serious outbreaks
of heat illness in training camps of the United States
Army and Marine Corps. Control measures based on air
temperature and humidity, and applied to all trainees
alike, had proved effective but had entailed excessive
compliance costs in the form of lost training time. With
the introduction of the WBGT in 1956, further reduction
in heat illness and also lower lost training hours were
attained.

Figure: WBGT Thermometer

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CBE Thermal Comfort Tool
The CBE Thermal Comfort Tool is a free online tool for thermal comfort calculations and visualizations that
complies with the major international thermal comfort standards (ASHRAE 55–2017, ISO 7730:2005 and EN
16798–1:2019).

It incorporates the major thermal comfort models, including the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Standard
Effective Temperature (SET), adaptive models, local discomfort models, SolarCal, and dynamic predictive
clothing insulation. The tool also provides dynamic and interactive visualizations of the thermally
comfortable conditions depending on the models.

In addition, the CBE Thermal Comfort Tool allows users to upload time-series or large sets of input
parameters and it automatically calculates PMV, PPD, SET, and CE. This may allow users to perform
exceedance predictions (e.g. annual or seasonal) for simulated or real buildings.

The tool was developed by the Center for the Built Environment (CBE) with the collaboration of University
of California at Berkeley.

Figure: Screen Shot of the Online CBE Tool

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