LS-DYNA Theory Manual Material Models

Fracture occurs when the damage parameter

Δε p
D=¦ (19.15.4)
εf

reaches the value 1.

A choice of three spall models is offered to represent material splitting, cracking, and
failure under tensile loads. The pressure limit model limits the minimum hydrostatic pressure to
the specified value, p ≥ pmin . If pressures more tensile than this limit are calculated, the pressure
is reset to pmin . This option is not strictly a spall model since the deviatoric stresses are
unaffected by the pressure reaching the tensile cutoff and the pressure cutoff value pmin remains
unchanged throughout the analysis. The maximum principal stress spall model detects spall if
the maximum principal stress, σ max , exceeds the limiting value σ p . Once spall is detected with
this model, the deviatoric stresses are reset to zero and no hydrostatic tension is permitted. If
tensile pressures are calculated, they are reset to 0 in the spalled material. Thus, the spalled
material behaves as rubble. The hydrostatic tension spall model detects spall if the pressure
becomes more tensile than the specified limit, pmin . Once spall is detected, the deviatoric
stresses are set to zero and the pressure is required to be compressive. If hydrostatic tension is
calculated then the pressure is reset to 0 for that element.
In addition to the above failure criterion, this material model also supports a shell element
deletion criterion based on the maximum stable time step size for the element, Δtmax . Generally,
Δtmax goes down as the element becomes more distorted. To assure stability of time integration,
the global LS-DYNA time step is the minimum of the Δtmax values calculated for all elements in
the model. Using this option allows the selective deletion of elements whose time step Δtmax has
fallen below the specified minimum time step, Δtcrit . Elements which are severely distorted
often indicate that material has failed and supports little load, but these same elements may have
very small time steps and therefore control the cost of the analysis. This option allows these
highly distorted elements to be deleted from the calculation, and, therefore, the analysis can
proceed at a larger time step, and, thus, at a reduced cost. Deleted elements do not carry any
load, and are deleted from all applicable slide surface definitions. Clearly, this option must be
judiciously used to obtain accurate results at a minimum cost.
Material type 15 is applicable to the high rate deformation of many materials including
most metals. Unlike the Steinberg-Guinan model, the Johnson-Cook model remains valid down
to lower strain rates and even into the quasistatic regime. Typical applications include explosive
metal forming, ballistic penetration, and impact.

Material Model 16: Pseudo Tensor

This model can be used in two major modes - a simple tabular pressure-dependent yield
surface, and a potentially complex model featuring two yield versus pressure functions with the
means of migrating from one curve to the other. For both modes, load curve N1 is taken to be a
strain rate multiplier for the yield strength. Note that this model must be used with equation-of-
state type 8 or 9.

19.33
Material Models LS-DYNA Theory Manual

Response Mode I. Tabulated Yield Stress Versus Pressure

This model is well suited for implementing standard geologic models like the Mohr-
Coulomb yield surface with a Tresca limit, as shown in Figure 19.16.1. Examples of converting
conventional triaxial compression data to this type of model are found in (Desai and Siriwardane,
1984). Note that under conventional triaxial compression conditions, the LS-DYNA input
σ − σ3
corresponds to an ordinate of σ 1 − σ 3 rather than the more widely used 1 , where σ 1 is the
2
maximum principal stress and σ 3 is the minimum principal stress.
This material combined with equation-of-state type 9 (saturated) has been used very
successfully to model ground shocks and soil-structure interactions at pressures up to 100kbar.

Figure 19.16.1. Mohr-Coulomb surface with a Tresca limit.

To invoke Mode I of this model, set a0, a1, a2, b1, a0f, and a1f to zero. The tabulated
values of pressure should then be specified on cards 4 and 5, and the corresponding values of
yield stress should be specified on cards 6 and 7. The parameters relating to reinforcement
properties, initial yield stress, and tangent modulus are not used in this response mode, and
should be set to zero.

Simple tensile failure

Note that a1f is reset internally to 1/3 even though it is input as zero; this defines a
material failure curve of slope 3p, where p denotes pressure (positive in compression). In this
case the yield strength is taken from the tabulated yield vs. pressure curve until the maximum
principal stress (σ 1 ) in the element exceeds the tensile cut-off (σ cut ) . For every time step that

19.34
LS-DYNA Theory Manual Material Models

σ 1 > σ cut the yield strength is scaled back by a fraction of the distance between the two curves
until after 20 time steps the yield strength is defined by the failure curve. The only way to inhibit
this feature is to set σ cut arbitrarily large.

Response Mode II. Two-Curve Model with Damage and Failure

This approach uses two yield versus pressure curves of the form

p
σ y = a0 + (19.16.1)
a1 + a2 p

The upper curve is best described as the maximum yield strength curve and the lower curve is
the material failure curve. There are a variety of ways of moving between the two curves and
each is discussed below.

Figure 19.16.2. Two-curve concrete model with damage and failure.

MODE II.A: Simple tensile failure

Define a0, a1, a2, a0f and a1f, set b1 to zero, and leave cards 4 through 7 blank. In this
case the yield strength is taken from the maximum yield curve until the maximum principal
stress (σ 1 ) in the element exceeds the tensile cut-off (σ cut ) . For every time step that σ 1 > σ cut
the yield strength is scaled back by a fraction of the distance between the two curves until after
20 time steps the yield strength is defined by the failure curve.

19.35
Material Models LS-DYNA Theory Manual

Mode II.B: Tensile failure plus plastic strain scaling

Define a0, a1, a2, a0f and a1f, set b1 to zero, and user cards 4 through 7 to define a scale
factor, η, versus effective plastic strain. LS-DYNA evaluates η at the current effective plastic
strain and then calculated the yield stress as

σ yield = σ failed + η (σ max − σ failed )

(19.16.2)

where σ max and σ failed are found as shown in Figure 19.16.2. This yield strength is then subject
to scaling for tensile failure as described above. This type of model allows the description of a
strain hardening or softening material such as concrete.

Mode II.C: Tensile failure plus damage scaling

The change in yield stress as a function of plastic strain arises from the physical
mechanisms such as internal cracking, and the extent of this cracking is affected by the
hydrostatic pressure when the cracking occurs. This mechanism gives rise to the "confinement"
effect on concrete behavior. To account for this phenomenon, a "damage" function was defined
and incorporated. This damage function is given the form:

εp − b1
§ p ·
λ = ³ ¨1 + dε p (19.16.3)
0 ©
σ cut ¸¹

Define a0, a1, a2, a0f and a1f, and b1. Cards 4 though 7 now give Ș as a function of Ȝ and scale
the yield stress as

σ yield = σ failed + η (σ max − σ failed ) (19.16.4)

and then apply any tensile failure criteria.

Mode II Concrete Model Options

Material Type 16 Mode II provides the option of automatic internal generation of a
simple "generic" model for concrete. If a0 is negative, then σ cut is assumed to be the unconfined
concrete compressive strength, f c′ and -a0 is assumed to be a conversion factor from LS-DYNA
pressure units to psi. (For example, if the model stress units are MPa, a0 should be set to –145.)
In this case the parameter values generated internally are

19.36
LS-DYNA Theory Manual Material Models

1
§ f '2 · 3
σ cut = 1.7 ¨ c ¸
© − a0 ¹
f'
a0 = c
4
1
a1 = (19.16.5)
3
1
a2 =
3 f c'
a0 f = 0
a1 f = 0.385

Note that these a0f and a1f defaults will be overwritten by non-zero entries on Card 3. If plastic
strain or damage scaling is desired, Cards 5 through 8 and b1 should be specified in the input.
When a0 is input as a negative quantity, the equation-of-state can be given as 0 and a trilinear
EOS Type 8 model will be automatically generated from the unconfined compressive strength
and Poisson's ratio. The EOS 8 model is a simple pressure versus volumetric strain model with
no internal energy terms, and should give reasonable results for pressures up to 5kbar
(approximately 72,500 psi).

Mixture model
A reinforcement fraction, f r , can be defined along with properties of the reinforcing
material. The bulk modulus, shear modulus, and yield strength are then calculated from a simple
mixture rule, i.e., for the bulk modulus the rule gives:

K = (1 − f r ) K m + f r K r (19.16.6)

where K m and K r are the bulk moduli for the geologic material and the reinforcing material,
respectively. This feature should be used with caution. It gives an isotropic effect in the
material instead of the true anisotropic material behavior. A reasonable approach would be to
use the mixture elements only where reinforcing material exists and plain elements elsewhere.
When the mixture model is being used, the strain rate multiplier for the principal material is
taken from load curve N1 and the multiplier for the reinforcement is taken from load curve N2.

Material Model 17: Isotropic Elastic-Plastic With Oriented Cracks

This is an isotropic elastic-plastic material which includes a failure model with an
oriented crack. The von Mises yield condition is given by:

σ y2
φ = J2 − (19.17.1)
3

where the second stress invariant, J 2 , is defined in terms of the deviatoric stress components as

19.37