Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

The effects of positive tectonic inversion structures on the formation of

thrust systems on the western Domeyko Cordillera, northern Chile:
Implications for the orogenic development of the outer Andean forearc
Cristopher López a, *, Renato Cisternas a, Sebastián Espinoza a, Rodrigo González a, c,
Fernando Martínez b, Rodrigo Riquelme a, Daniela Montenegro a, Jorge Morales a
a
Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Católica del Norte, Avenida Angamos, 0610 Antofagasta, Chile
b
Carrera de Geología, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Andres Bello, Campus República, República 220, Santiago, Chile
c
Millennium Institute on Volcanic Risk Research - Ckelar Volcanoes, Antofagasta, Chile

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This work aims to propose a novel structural setting for the outer Andean forearc. Specifically, we propose a new
Domeyko cordillera deformation mechanism related to thrusting belt systems induced by positive tectonic inversion processes in the
Thrust systems western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera in northern Chile. Thrust belt systems have been rarely understood for
Positive tectonic inversion structures
the outer Andean forearc; in fact, the mention of thrusting is scarce and structural interpretations are restricted
Tectonosequences
only to strike-slip faulting and positive tectonic inversion processes. In this study, we have constructed novel
Outer andean forearc
2-D seismic reflection line balanced cross-sections from new structural fieldwork and combined them with 2-D reflection seismic line re-
interpretations, thus offering new ideas about the evolution and development of the forearc of the Central
Andes. Based on this, we propose integrated kinematic models that describe the relationships between inherited
extensional structures, positive tectonic inversion structures, and the formation of thrust systems. The proposed
balanced cross-sections have been restored to a pre-shortening condition. In this way, two structural styles are
proposed for the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera. The first corresponds to west-directed positive tec­
tonic inversion structures, which expose and extrude the Middle Jurassic syn-rift deposit of the ancient Mesozoic
rift basin. The second consists of east-directed thin-skinned thrust systems, mainly affecting the Upper Cretaceous
to Eocene volcano-sedimentary synorogenic sequences. The interaction between inversion structures and thrust
system structural styles would generate a west-directed intracutaneous wedge. Finally, the minimum shortening
obtained from our balanced cross-section restorations is ca. 11% for the Río Loa and the San Salvador Canyons
segment and ca. 56% for the Quebrada Mala segment. The formation of thrusting structures is controlled by a
major detachment fault activated from a regional-scale angular unconformity, which we have named the Que­
brada Mala detachment fault. An important part of the shortening was taken up and accommodated by but­
tressing structures and their associated intraformational detachment-thrust levels.

1. Introduction
Orogenic chains induced by positive tectonic inversion show that
basement-involved structures are a first-order deformation mechanism
generating crustal shortening and thickening (e.g., Williams et al., 1989;
McClay and Buchanan, 1992; Hayward and Graham, 1996; Bailey et al.,
2002; among others). Different studies have shown that inverted normal
faults are able to uplift the infill of extensional rift-basin and
deep-crustal blocks (Bonini et al., 2012; Héja et al., 2022). Similarly,
pure thrusting may also induce further orogenic growth through a rapid
shortening-and-uplift, accumulating extensive synorogenic sequences
(Amilibia et al., 2008; Bonini et al., 2012; Martínez et al., 2020b; López
et al., 2022). Nevertheless, shortening-related deformational styles,
focused on synorogenic deposits, often obliterate much of the structures
that build orogens, thus hiding a large amount of tectonic shortening. In
this context, many structural styles (e.g., passive roof duplex, intracu­
taneous wedge, antiformal stack duplex, among others) also play a
fundamental role in the orogenic development of many mountain ranges

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cristopher.lopez@ucn.cl (C. López).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2023.104376
Received 28 February 2023; Received in revised form 24 April 2023; Accepted 25 April 2023
Available online 9 May 2023
0895-9811/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. López et al.
worldwide (Bonini, 2001; Couzens-Schultz et al., 2003; Brocher et al.,
2004; Scisciani et al., 2019). The interplay that a basement-involved
fault may have with a synorogenic sequence-involved thrust fault may
generate gaps in structural interpretation on the evolution of an
orogenic system. Specifically, the relationship between a partially
inverted normal fault, a buttressing structure (Butler, 1989; Scisciani,
2009; Calamita et al., 2018), and/or thrust systems make it difficult
when proposing new structural models to estimate the amount of
shortening (Fig. 1). Buttressing structures by themselves do not
accommodate or generate crustal shortening. In turn, normal inverted
faults do not often generate total inversion along their slip fault-planes.
However, the interaction that these two tectonic inversion-related
structures may have with the formation of newly-formed thrust faults
(pure thrust faulting or thin-skinned tectonics) may generate complex
structural styles mainly in a synorogenic sequence (Boyer and Elliott,
1982; Bonini, 2001; Calamita et al., 2001; Couzens-Schultz et al., 2003;
Mount et al., 2011; von Hagke and Malz, 2017; Tavarnelli et al., 2021;
Pace et al., 2022b).
The Central Andes is the second largest orogenic chain worldwide,
and a typical example of a subduction-related orogen where continuous
subduction of oceanic plates (e.g., the Farallon and Nazca plates) occurs
beneath the South American continental margin (e.g., Dewey and Bird,
1970; Isacks, 1988; Allmendinger et al., 1997). Its eastern flank is a large
morpho-tectonic province characterized by a hybrid fold-and-thrust belt
system (Baby et al., 1992; Rojas Vera et al., 2019). While, the western
flank of the Central Andes is composed by north-south oriented
morpho-tectonic features, which in turn, compose the Andean forearc of
northern Chile. From west to east, these are: the Coastal Cordillera, the
Central Depression, the Domeyko Cordillera, and the Preandean
Depression. The highest morpho-tectonic expression corresponds to the
Domeyko Cordillera, which has been interpreted as a tectonic block
controlled by a positive tectonic inversion. The most credited models
propose that the shortening has been induced by the partial or total
Fig. 1. Model of inversion structures and their relationships with thin-skinned thrust systems. The model illustrates positive tectonic inversion structures and how
they may influence the formation of thrust systems (Model integrated from Boyer and Elliott, 1982; Williams et al., 1989; McClay and Buchanan, 1992; Hayward and
Graham, 1996; Bailey et al., 2002).
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
reactivation of inverted normal faults. Recent studies have documented
the presence of pure thrust faulting mainly on the eastern slope of the
Domeyko Cordillera or its transitional limit with the Preandean basins
(e.g., the Salar de Atacama, the Punta Negra, and the Pedernales basins).
However, the areal extension and thickness of the late Cenozoic gravels
make it difficult to formulate reliable structural interpretations on the
western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera. The main structural evidence
on this side of the Domeyko Cordillera is mainly associated with
strike-slip faulting. In this study, we show evidence to indicate that the
deformation concentrated on the western flank of the Domeyko
Cordillera is related to a thin-skinned thrust system induced by large
basement-involved, partially reverse-reactivated normal faults. These
faults would transfer deformation towards the Upper Cretaceous and
early Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic synorogenic sequence through
thin-skinned thrust systems.
2. Regional geological framework
The outer forearc may be considered as the region that extends from
the Coastal Cordillera to the transitional limit between the Central
Depression and the Domeyko Cordillera (Fig. 2). This region is charac­
terized by a thick extensive cover of late Cenozoic gravels that hide a
large part of stratigraphic record and the distribution of deep structures.
The regional-scale structural systems have only been defined along the
eastern flank of the Coastal Cordillera and on the western flank of the
Domeyko Cordillera. In the Coastal Cordillera, the first-order structures
are part of the Atacama Fault System (Arabasz, 1971; Scheuber and
González, 1999), whereas in the Domeyko Cordillera the first-order
structures are part of the Domeyko Fault System (Maksaev and Zen­
tilli, 1999; Mpodozis et al., 1993). The kinematic activity of the Atacama
Fault System has been associated with a listric extensional system
developed during the early Jurassic (Grocott et al., 1994; Taylor et al.,
1998). Then, during the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous time interval, its
C. López et al.
Fig. 2. DEM image of the Andean forearc of the Central Andes. The figure shows the distribution of the major morpho-tectonic units recognized in northern Chile.
The black box corresponds to the study area in the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera.
kinematics would have changed to sinistral-slip-strike (Pardo-Casas and
Molnar, 1987; Hervé, 1987; Scheuber and Andriessen, 1990; Jaillard
et al., 1990). On the other hand, the Domeyko Fault System has mainly
been defined as a basement-involved strike-slip set (Mpodozis et al.,
1993; Amilibia et al., 2008; Mpodozis and Cornejo, 2012) active from
the middle Eocene-early Oligocene time interval onwards (Maksaev and
Zentilli, 1999; Nalpas et al., 2005; Arriagada et al., 2008).
Specifically on the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera, one of
the most notorious geological features corresponds to a NNE-oriented
lithological contact between two of the regional stratigraphic units.
This limit is exposed for more than 160 km between ca. 22◦ 20′ to 23◦ 50’
Lat. S., and may also be considered as the transitional morpho-tectonic
contact between the Central Depression and the Domeyko Cordillera
(Figs. 2 and 3). To the west, the first unit is represented by the Upper
Cretaceous volcanic and clastic deposits belonging to the Cerro Cortina,
the Quebrada San Cristobal, the Paradero del Desierto beds and the
Quebrada Mala Fm. (Montaño, 1976; Marinovic and García, 1999;
Medina et al., 2012), which overlies through a marked angular uncon­
formity the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous marine and continental deposits
composed by the Caracoles Gr., the Cerro Campamento, the Llanura
Colorada, and the Cerritos Bayos Fms. (García, 1967; Montaño, 1976;
Marinovic and García, 1999; Duhart et al., 2018). These rocks are
recognized along the westernmost part of the Domeyko Cordillera, and
their most prominent outcrops are exposed in the Río Loa and the San
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
Salvador Canyons and to the east of the Quebrada Mala and the Que­
brada Perdida creeks (Fig. 3). Complementary, along this stratigraphic
contact, a series of minor Cretaceous and Paleocene intrusives bodies are
distributed and emplaced throughout both units (Marinovic et al., 1996;
Basso, 2004; Duhart et al., 2018).
The Jurassic successions correspond to the syn-rift fill of ancient rift
basin systems associated with the Tarapacá back-arc extensional basin
(Vicente, 2006), which was created from the western Gondwana
break-up (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979; Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990,
2008; Aguirre-Urreta, 1993; Ardill, 1996; Ardill et al., 1998; Ramos,
2010; del Rey et al., 2016). These units consist of nearly 3000 m of
carbonate and siliciclastic marine sequences (Jensen et al., 1976;
Gröschke et al., 1988; Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Prinz et al., 1994;
Marinovic and García, 1999). Additionally, the basal successions mainly
consist of Sinemurian to Kimmeridgian fossiliferous limestones defined
as the Caracoles Group (García, 1967; Ramírez and Gardeweg, 1982;
Marinovic and Lahsen, 1984; Marinovic and García, 1999). This suc­
cession is unconformably covered by Upper Jurassic to Lower Creta­
ceous transitional marine-continental siliciclastic sediments assigned to
the Cerritos Bayos Formation which is composed of limestones, mud­
stones, sandstones, and shales (Biese, 1961; García, 1967; Baeza, 1979;
Montaño, 1976). This last stratified unit may be correlated with the
Llanura Colorada Formation (Muñoz, 1989). Frequently, these Jurassic
successions show important lateral thickness variations, and they are
C. López et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376

Fig. 3. Generalized regional-geological map of the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera. The red box corresponds to the Río Loa and San Salvador Canyons
segment. The yellow line represent location of the Z1020 seismic line, and the trace of the balanced cross-section drawn along this segment. The blue box corresponds
to Quebrada Mala segment. The green line represents the location of the balanced cross-section.

wedge shaped like those typical of syn rift-deposits with increasing dip
angles in the older strata at depth (Withjack et al., 2002).
The Upper Cretaceous successions consist of continental volcanic and
sedimentary rocks deposited under conditions of intensive volcanism
and continental sedimentation within synorogenic foreland basins
(Cornejo et al., 2003; Amilibia, 2002, 2008; Mpodozis et al., 2005).
These rocks include more than 2000 m of dacitic and rhyolitic tuff,
basaltic, andesitic, and dacitic lavas, sandstone, and conglomerate,
mostly exposed between the Central Depression and the Domeyko
Cordillera and unconformably overlying the Jurassic syn-rift succes­
sions. Furthermore, deposition of the Upper Cretaceous sediments has
been interpreted as resulting from a drastic change in tectonic

4
C. López et al.
environment during the late Cretaceous (Scheuber et al., 1994), from an
extensional regime (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979; Aguirre-Urreta, 1993;
Ramos, 2010; del Rey et al., 2016, 2019; Coloma et al., 2017; Martínez
et al., 2020a) to compressive regime (Cobbold et al., 2007; Amilibia
et al., 2008; Ramos, 2010) in the western margin of South America.
Along the Central Andes, these tectonic variations and geodynamic
changes are associated with the Peruvian tectonic phase (Steinmann,
1929; Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Mpodozis et al., 2005; Arriagada
et al., 2008; Bascuñán et al., 2015). This period was accompanied by
faulting and folding of the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous marine and tran­
sitional deposits, erosion of the continental border and
eastward-migration of the magmatic arc to its current position in the
Central Depression and the Domeyko Cordillera (Mpodozis et al., 2005;
Bascuñán et al., 2015).
The Upper Cretaceous stratigraphic units are followed by a section of
approximately 500 m of lavas, tuffs, and conglomerates assigned to the
Paleocene Cinchado Fm. (Montaño, 1976), and the Eocene Icanche Fm.
(Duhart et al., 2018). The Paleocene rocks yield K–Ar ages ranging be­
tween ca. 61-52 Ma (Marinovic and García, 1999), while the Eocene
rocks yield U–Pb ages ranging between ca. 53-50 Ma (Duhart et al.,
2018).
Finally, the late Cenozoic stratigraphic units consist of nearly ca. 300
m of continental gravel, sandstone, and lacustrine limestone that extend
almost completely over the Central Depression and also infill inter­
montane basins (e.g., Calama Basin), named the Atacama Gravels
(Mortimer, 1973), the Loa Group (May, 1997; May et al., 2005; Blanco,
2008), and the Batea Fm. (Naranjo and Paskoff, 1985). These conti­
nental deposits are derived from an important erosion process that
occurred following the Eocene-Oligocene uplift of the Domeyko
Cordillera (Mpodozis et al., 2005; Charrier et al., 2009; Sanchez et al.,
2017; Riquelme et al., 2017).
3. Methodology
3.1. Surface and subsurface structures interpretations
Two geological cross-sections located in two specific areas along the
western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera have been constructed. The
fieldwork structural data were collected in sectors that stand out for the
exposure of good outcrops of stratigraphic units and structures. These data
also consider the recognition of depositional geometries associated with
syn-rift, post-rift and synorogenic deposits (tectonosequences). The two
specific areas correspond to the San Salvador and the Río Loa Canyons and
the Quebrada Mala creek segments (Fig. 2). The structural data consists of
geological-structural maps compiled by satellite image, fieldwork data,
acquisition of drone photographs (DJI Mini 2 and DJI Air 2 S) which were
integrated with stratigraphic and structural data obtained from the
regional chartography (Marinovic and García, 1999; Tomlinson et al.,
2018; Duhart et al., 2018). Additionally, stratigraphical contacts,
strike-and-dip measurements, stratigraphic-thickness, the positions of
faults and folds represent the main structural dataset presented in this
work. This information was integrated and combined with a
time-migrated 2-D seismic profile re-interpretation (obtained and modi­
fied from López et al., 2019), across the San Salvador and the Río Loa
Canyons, showing a continuity between various regional-scale structures
exposed on the surface and subsurface structures hidden under the west­
ern flank of the Domeyko Cordillera.
3.2. Balanced cross-section and 2-D pre-shortening restoration
Two EW-trending balanced cross-sections were constructed inte­
grating a 2-D seismic profile re-interpretation and structural fieldwork
data on the analyzed cross-sections of the San Salvador and the Río Loa
Canyons and the Quebrada Mala areas. These cross-sections are
composed by robust structural information consistent with the main
exposed structures and its associated-stratigraphic deposit, as well as
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
bedding orientation measurements, fault kinematic indicators and fold
attitudes recognized along the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera,
and then projected in the geological cross-sections. Also, to validate our
balanced cross-sections and to determine the initial position of
contractional structures, as well as the syn-rift -and -post-rift deposits
involved within compressional structures, we have restored a 2-D
balanced cross-section to its pre-thrusting template. This restoration
consisted in establishing the position of syn-rift and post-rift strati­
graphic units before the shortening assuming the Upper Cretaceous as
the onset of contraction. The amount of the shortening was calculated
using the line-length conservation method (Dahlstrom, 1969; Wood­
ward et al., 1989). This allowed us to validate the geometry and slip
involved in the main faults and folds recognized on the surface and
interpreted in the subsurface.
4. Results
4.1. Surface and subsurface structures
4.1.1. The San Salvador and Río Loa Canyons segments
The first-order structures recognized at the Loa River and the San
Salvador Canyons segment (red box in Fig. 3) consist of preserved
extension-related depositional geometries, inherited normal faults, and
positive tectonic inversion structures (Fig. 4). The sequences form part
of a regional-scale, west-dipping Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous monoclinal
(Fig. 4a), that even towards the east, extend until the Permian-Triassic
deposits (López et al., 2022), recording a continuous accumulation
associated with the rift-basin fill. From east to west, this sequence is
composed of the Upper-Middle Jurassic calcareous-marine sequences
(Cerro Campamento and Moctezuma Fms., respectively), the Upper
Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous marine-continental transitional deposits
(Cerritos Bayos Fm.), and the Lower Cretaceous continental deposits
(San Salvador Fm.) (Figs. 4 and 6). The positive tectonic inversion
structures affect the Lower-Middle Jurassic deposits through
reverse-reactivation of inherited normal faults (Fig. 4). Specifically,
inversion structures are composed of inversion anticline-and-syncline,
and mainly east-verging overturned folds associated with partially
inverted syn-rift stratigraphic wedges, which usually show important
thickness-variations (Fig. 4b). Other minor inversion structures consist
of west-directed intraformational detachment-thrust faults decoupled
along evaporitic levels, putting in contact the different Jurassic units
that filled the Mesozoic rift basin (Fig. 4c). A prominent structure
recognized along the Río Loa Canyon corresponds to the Chintoraste
fault (Fig. 4d) (Duhart et al., 2018). The Chintoraste fault is a
NE-oriented and subvertical-dipping (80–85◦ W) inverted normal fault
that separates the Middle Jurassic marine deposits to the west (hang­
ing-wall; the Cerro Campamento Fm.), from the Lower Cretaceous
continental deposits to the east (footwall; San Salvador Fm.). A noto­
rious characteristic of this fault corresponds to its prominent damage
zone; hydrothermal-alteration related mineralization, disharmonic
folding, and minor faulting are well exposed recognized features along
the fault zone (Fig. 4d). Thus, this fault may separate two distinctive
structural styles. In its hanging-wall block, the beds show chaotic and
disharmonic anticline- and syncline-folds related to a ‘buttressing-type
inversion assemblage’. Associated with this same structure, a series of
fault-propagation folds and recumbent folds may be recognized on its
hanging-wall (Fig. 4d and e). In the footwall, a prominent thrust system
involves the Lower Jurassic-Upper Cretaceous sequences and the Eocene
deposits (Fig. 5). These structures consist of an east-directed thin-­
skinned thrust system, which is hidden below the Mio-Pliocene se­
quences. There are three main thrust structures recognized in this
segment: (1) a detachment fold, (2) an active-roof duplex, and (3) an
east-directed imbricate thrust system (Fig. 5). The (1) detachment fold
(Fig. 5a) is a prominent structure, which is well exposed in the Loa River
Canyon. Here, it is possible to observe evaporite basal-levels of the
Lower Cretaceous sequence, forming part of an east-directed
C. López et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376

Fig. 4. Inversion structures exposed in the San Salvador – Río Loa Canyons segments. (a) West-dipping Lower Jurassic monoclinal associated with the rift-basin fill.
(b) East-verging overturned fold showing a wedge-shape depositional geometry. (c) Folds associated with partially inverted syn-rift stratigraphic wedges and
intraformational detachment-thrust faults. (d) Buttressing structure associated with a partially inverted normal fault. (e) Fault-propagation fold.

detachment fault, generating an asymmetric anticline of ca. 40
m-amplitude. In turn, this structure generates a west-directed passive
roof thrust affecting the Eocene sequences through its basal-bedding
planes. Both structures may be described as an east-directed intracuta­
neous wedge or passive-roof duplex. The (2) active-roof duplex (Fig. 5b)
corresponds to a west-directed antiformal stack duplex system (sensu
Boyer and Elliott, 1982) affecting the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous
deposits and the Eocene sequences. The (3) trailing imbricate fan thrust
systems (sensu Boyer and Elliott, 1982) (Fig. 5c) is immediately recog­
nized to the east of the Chintoraste fault. In this way, these three
structural styles define a thin-skinned thrusts system, affecting the
Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous and Eocene sequences. Finally, a
series of synorogenic deposits with a growth strata geometry are
observed in the Eocene sequences. These sequences form a wedge sha­
ped, thin towards the west, and are linked to the uplift of the
hanging-wall block of the Chintoraste fault. On the surface, its trace is
covered by the Mio-Pliocene deposits (Fig. 5e). Both the east-directed
thrust system and the Eocene synorogenic strata show that the defor­
mation triggered during the first stage of positive tectonic inversion by
reverse-reactivation of the Chintoraste fault continued during the late
Cretaceous and early Cenozoic.
To describe the structures hidden below the western Domeyko
Cordillera, we have reinterpreted a segment of the Z1020 seismic profile
(Fig. 7) previously analyzed in López et al. (2019). This new analysis is
based on novel fieldwork data that integrates the recognition of new
structural styles and new published U–Pb ages for the units exposed
along the Río Loa and the San Salvador Canyons (Duhart et al., 2018).
The velocities of the different tectonosequences used to depth-covert the
TWT seismic profile are presented by López et al. (2019). The new
analyzed Z1020 seismic line reaches a length of 31.5 km and is located to
the westernmost part of the Calama Basin, between the previously
mentioned canyons (Fig. 3). The description of the tectonosequences
identified in this seismic profile is supported by their good outcrops
(Fig. 6), which allows us to extrapolate these to recognized

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C. López et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376

Fig. 5. Thrusting structures exposed in the Río Loa Canyon. (a) Detachment-thrust fault and passive roof thrust fault. (b) Intracutaneous wedge system. (c) Details of
Intracutaneous wedge system showing west-directed antiformal stack duplex. (d) Trailing imbricate fan thrust systems (e) Growth strata geometry affecting the
Eocene sequence. Note that the recognized tectono-sequences in the Río Loa Canyon have been subdivided for a better visualization of how they are affected.

tectonosequences to depth. The first tectonosequence that may be
interpreted corresponds to the Middle Jurassic syn-rift deposits (Cerro
Campamento Fm.). The most prominent structural feature of this tec­
tonosequence consists of anticline- and syncline-folded reflectors, which
are associate with a harpoon structure-type or inversion
anticline-and-syncline. To the west, these reflectors are truncated by a
‘partially inverted east-dipping normal fault’. From the lower segments
of this inverted fault, a short-cut fault affects continuous, parallel, and
medium-amplitude reflectors identified between ca. 0.0 and 1.0 s
(two-way travel-time), which are associated with the Lower Cretaceous
post-rift deposits (San Salvador Fm.). To the east of the seismic profile,
the Middle Jurassic reflectors appear chaotic and very diffused; how­
ever, the correlation of the units exposed on the surface allows us to state
that, between 0.0 and 1.0 s (two-way travel-time), all these reflectors
correspond to the Middle Jurassic marine deposits. Highly deformed
subvertical-dipping sequences exposed on surface allow us to recognize
a series of structures generated by intraformational detachments faults.
Finally, to the east, a structure that is recognized by putting in contact
different truncated reflectors is associated with the ‘Chintoraste fault’
previously recognized and described. To the eastern most part,
diffuse-and-semicontinuous reflectors may be recognized above the
Middle Jurassic tectonosequences. Good outcrops on the surface allow
for an association of these reflectors with the Eocene and Mio-Pliocene
deposits.
4.1.2. The Quebrada Mala segment
To show the main highlighted structural styles exposed along the
Quebrada Mala segment (blue box in Fig. 3), we have constructed the
EW-trending AA’ geological cross-section (Fig. 8), that extends for 13.4
km. This profile includes two structural domains. The eastern domain
consists of prevalently ‘west-verging positive tectonic inversion struc­
tures’ affecting the Middle and Upper Jurassic marine-calcareous (Car­
acoles Gr.) and the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous transitional
deposits (Llanura Colorada Fm). The western domain consists of a thin-
skinned east-directed thrust system deforming the Upper Cretaceous
volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Quebrada Mala Fm.). Along this cross-

7
C. López et al.
Fig. 6. Tectonosequences. Pictures of outcrops showing contact relationship between mainly tectonosequences recognized in the Z1020 seismic line and exposed
along the San Salvador and Río Loa Canyons. The location of each picture is indicated in Fig. 7.
section, a marked regional-scale NNE-oriented angular unconformity
represents the most prominent stratigraphic feature, reaching a length of
ca. 18 km, being widely recognized on the western flank of the Domeyko
Cordillera. This stratigraphic limit separates the underlying Middle-
Upper Jurassic sequences from the overlying Upper Cretaceous se­
quences (Figs. 3 and 8), and apparently, controlled the emplacement and
distribution of some Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene hypabyssal intrusive
rocks.
The ‘west-verging positive tectonic inversion structures domain’ is
represented by (1) short-cut faults, (2) reverse-reactivated normal faults,
(3) detachment faults, and (4) some minor inversion structures (Fig. 9).
The (1) short-cut faults correspond to NNE-trending, moderately dip­
ping, and west-directed thrust faults, that propagated near-parallel to
the bedding-planes, affecting only the Middle Jurassic sequences
(Fig. 9a). The (2) reverse-reactivated normal faults strongly controlled
the depositional geometries of the Middle Jurassic sediments. These
sequences show thickness-variations outlining syn-depositional, wedge-
shaped accumulations, thus allowing association with syn-rift deposits
(Fig. 8b and 9a). Also, as for (4) minor tectonic inversion-related
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
structures, by-pass faults, buttressing structures (Fig. 9d), and back-
thrust faults may be recognized as part of the hanging wall of the
inverted normal fault. The folds show a NNE-trending axis, by an east-
dipping axial surface, and by a close-interlimb angle (<10◦ ). The (3)
detachment faults are strongly controlled by the evaporitic level within
the syn-rift deposits. Generally, these levels correspond to gypsum beds,
which also, were able to generate a diapiric structure (Fig. 9b and c).
The ‘thin-skinned east-directed thrust system domain’ only affects
the Upper Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary sequences (the Que­
brada Mala Fm.) (Fig. 8). Its deformational style is strongly dependent
on the angular unconformity, which were reused as an “east-directed
detachment-thrust fault” (Fig. 9). We consider pertinent to define this
structure as ‘the Quebrada Mala detachment fault’, since there are
various rigorous data and arguments based on fieldwork observations to
support an important shortening-related shear zone which is localized
along the angular unconformity. In this way, four structural character­
istics associated with the Quebrada Mala detachment fault are described
(Fig. 10). First, the stratigraphic-discontinuity, as an angular uncon­
formity, presents a marked angular break associated with a flat-ramp-
C. López et al.
Fig. 7. Z1020 seismic line. (a) Uninterpreted grey-scale seismic line. (b) Interpreted grey-scale seismic line showing the tectonosequences and the main structures.
See Fig. 3 for location.
flat geometry. Nevertheless, the possible occurrence of inverted normal
faults, under the angular unconformity, could generate this kind of
geometric variation (or could lead to fault-propagation folding) (Figs. 8,
10a and 10d). Second, foliated and breached basal conglomerates level,
over the angular unconformity, may be recognized. These breached
rocks standout for having minor shear zone focused on the sandy matrix
of the basal conglomerate, since both the matrix and the clasts are ori­
ented parallel to the detachment plane (Fig. 10b). Third, S–C fabric
characterizes a shear zone with an E-W-trending shortening axis and C
9
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
surface parallel to the angular unconformity. Fourth, an intraforma­
tional detachment-thrust fault, generated from the overlying Upper
Cretaceous volcanic and siliciclastic sequences and located along the
angular unconformity, is recognized (Fig. 10d and e). On the other hand,
the structures that form part of the ‘thin-skinned east-directed thrust
system domain’ (Fig. 11) result from the superposition of two opposite-
directed antiformal stack duplexes (sensu Boyer and Elliott, 1982)
(Fig. 8). Firstly, immediately to the west of the Quebrada Mala
detachment fault, the Upper Cretaceous sequences consist of an
C. López et al.
Fig. 8. (a) Generalized structural map and (b) AA’ cross-section of the Quebrada Mala segment.
east-dipping beds. This imbricate system is associate with west-directed
antiformal stack duplexes, which work as a propagated thrusting system
from older basement rocks to younger cover sequences. The reactivation
of inverted normal fault or even, structures associated with short-cut
faults transferred shortening as a west-directed thrusting system.
Then, a second east-verging antiformal stack duplex is the most prom­
inent structural feature. The fact of proposing a system duplex is based
on two main structural characteristics. The first is that the sequence
behaves like an east-dipping monocline sequence with angles ranging
from 60◦ to 80◦ (Fig. 11a and b), in which there are some
intraformational-shear planes associated with detachment-thrust faults
(Fig. 11c). The second is that there are slight bedding-dip fluctuations on
each side of the shear plane. The greater angle-dips are associated with
the intraformational detachment level or floor thrusts. This character­
istic may be recognized from subvertical-reverse slip fault striations
(Fig. 11a).
4.2. Balanced cross-section and 2-D pre-shortening restoration
4.2.1. The Río Loa and the San Salvador Canyons balanced cross-section
The Río Loa and the San Salvador Canyons balanced cross-section
(Fig. 12a and b) was constrained at depth by the interpretation of the
Z1020 seismic line (see Fig. 7). This profile mainly shows a structural
style associated with first-order positive tectonic inversion structures.
Two opposite-dipping inverted normal faults controlled the deformation
10
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
and the extrusion of the Mesozoic syn-rift basin along the western flank
of the Domeyko Cordillera. In the westernmost part of this balanced
cross-section, a regional-scale east-dipping inverted normal fault
defined as the Guacate fault (Duhart et al., 2018) involves and exposes
large inversion anticline-and-syncline folds widely recognized in the
Z1020 seismic line (Fig. 7) and at the surface (Fig. 3) (i.g., the Cerritos
Bayos syncline). To the west and associated with the Guacate fault, a
west-directed short-cut fault generates the major positive
topographic-break on the western flank of the outer Andean forearc
(transitional boundary between the Central Depression and the
Domeyko Cordillera). Similarly, in the easternmost part of the balanced
cross-section, a regional-scale west-dipping inverted normal fault,
named the Chintoraste fault (Duhart et al., 2018) is interpreted, which is
characterized also to form a buttressing structure on its hanging-wall.
Both inverted normal faults controlled the accumulation of syn-rift de­
posits during the Mesozoic syn-extensional stage. This depositional ge­
ometry is characterized by the good exposure of westward-thickening
syn-tectonic wedges, which are recognized along the San Salvador River
and the Río Loa Canyons within the Middle Jurassic sequences (Cerro
Campamento Fm.) (Figs. 4 and 6). Overlying to the syn-rift deposits, we
have described and interpreted a post-rift sequence correlated with the
Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous stratigraphic units (the Cerritos
Bayos and the San Salvador Fms.). This interpretation is based on the
parallel reflectors observed in the Z1020 seismic line (Fig. 7) and in the
absence of thickness-variations in their deposits (Fig. 4b and 6b). The
C. López et al.
Fig. 9. Inversion structures recognized in the Eastern domain of the Quebrada Mala segment. (a) Inverted normal faults, short-cut fault and minor inversion
structures. (b) and (c) Evaporitic level as detachment-thrust fault and diapiric body. (d) Fault-propagation fold and back-thrust fault.
combined effects between these two opposite-dipping inverted normal
faults provoked the formation of opposite-directed thrust faults, such as
back-thrust faults, detachment faults, and pop-up structures, among
others, thus partly extruding the Middle Jurassic syn-rift deposits and
entirely affecting the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous post-rift se­
quences. Finally, to the east of this balanced cross-section, east-directed
thrusting- or inversion-faults are highlighted structures. This kind of
structural setting would be controlled by the west-dipping bedding of
Mesozoic syn-rift deposits and, mainly, by the evaporitic levels
composed by gypsum beds. These levels were able to generate different
east-directed detachment faults and related east-verging folds. In fact,
much of the shortening is accommodated by intraformational shear
planes near parallel to the beddings developed within the Middle
Jurassic sequences (Cerro Campamento Fm.).
The pre-shortening restoration (Fig. 12c) shows that most of the
shortening was accommodated by three types of contractional struc­
tures: (1) inversion anticline-and-syncline folds, (2) partially inverted
normal faults related to the Guacate and the Chintoraste faults, and (3)
11
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
east-directed thrusting- or inversion-faults and east-verging folds. The
amount of shortening by detachment-related faults and folds would be
conditioned by the positive reverse-reactivation of the Chintoraste fault,
thus concentrating part of shortening through east-directed thin-skinned
thrusting. Thus, considering the fieldwork data and the Z1F020 seismic
line interpretations, the structural interpretation proposed in this
balanced-cross section, suggest that both the Guacate and Chintoraste
faults correspond to a basement-involved inverted normal fault. A total
of ca. 11% of minimum shortening was estimated (or ca. 3200 m lateral
contraction). We cannot rule out that an important part of the short­
ening was taken up and accommodated by buttressing structures and
their associated intraformational detachment-thrust level. However, this
is often difficult to determine and quantify because of the complex ge­
ometry of buttressing structures, that only very rarely provide reliable
constraints for a correct restoration of balanced cross-sections to their
pre-thrusting templates (Yakovlev et al., 2023).
C. López et al.
4.2.2. The Quebrada Mala balanced cross-section
The Quebrada Mala balanced cross-section (Fig. 13a and b) shows
that the main deformational mechanisms correspond to west-verging
positive inversion structures and thin-skinned east-directed thrust sys­
tems. In addition, the depositional geometry of the involved tectono­
sequences have been generalized and interpreted.
First, as for positive tectonic inversion structures, an east-dipping
inverted normal fault defined as the Sierra del Buitre fault (Marinovic
and García, 1999) standouts. This fault corresponds to an ancient
east-dipping normal fault that controlled the accumulation of the
syn-rift deposits through half-graben rift basins. Then, this structure was
partially reactivated as a reverse fault causing the inversion of rift basins
and subsequent extrusion of the syn-rift fill. We interpreted that both the
Triassic and Jurassic syn-rift sequences were deformed as inversion
anticlines-and-synclines. Even if the Triassic syn-rift sequences are not
exposed in the Quebrada Mala segment, we have correlated and
extrapolated these units recognized to the east of our study area (e.g.,
Las Lomas Beds, Marinovic and García, 1999). As second-order struc­
tures, short-cut and by-pass faults accommodated an important part of
the positive inversion-related shortening. The by-pass fault (i.e., fault
defined as the Quebrada Perdida fault in Marinovic and García (1999))
put in contact with the syn-rift deposits in the hanging-wall over the
12
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
Fig. 10. The Quebrada Mala detachment-thrust fault.
(a) Transversal section showing the stratigraphic
contact through an angular unconformity between
the underlying Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Lla­
nura Colorada Fm. and the Upper Cretaceous Que­
brada Mala Fm. (b) Foliated and breached basal
conglomerate levels belonging to the Quebrada Mala
Fm. (c) S–C fabric shear zone parallel to the angular
unconformity. (d) and (e) Generalized view of
detachment-thrust fault showing angular variations
associated with minor thrust structures.
post-rift deposits in the footwall (see next section). A last inversion
structure corresponds to west-directed short-cut faults, which are asso­
ciated with the main east-dipping inverted normal fault. This fault could
explain the positive topography, and therefore, the westward-inclined
slope recognized on the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera.
These short-cut faults could correspond to the Culebrón and the Sar­
gento Aldea faults defined by Basso (2004) to the south of this study
area. Another description proposed in the balanced cross-sections
correspond to the depositional geometry of the Upper Jurassic-Lower
Cretaceous sequences, which has been interpreted as a post-rift depo­
sit. Similarly, to the Río Loa and the San Salvador Canyons balanced
cross-section, the Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous stratigraphic units
may be part of the sag-type deposits, and its accumulation would occur
after and concordantly to the Jurassic syn-rift deposition. Finally, an
important proposed structural feature consists of a thin-skinned, east-­
directed thrust system. In this balanced cross-section, the interpreted
thrusting is controlled by an east-directed detachment-thrust fault
developed along the angular unconformity that separates the underlying
Middle-Upper Jurassic syn-rift and post-rift sequences from the over­
lying Upper Cretaceous deposits. Specifically, formed imbricate faults
allow us to propose that this kind of thrust system may be defined as an
active roof duplex. The influence of mechanically weak gypsum layers,
C. López et al.
Fig. 11. The Quebrada Mala thrusting structures. (a) and (b) Some evidence recognized in east-dipping monocline sequences with angle ranging from 60◦ to 80◦ to
the west, which are part of an antiformal stack duplex system. (c) Intraformational-shear planes associated with detachment-thrust fault.
within the underlying post-rift sequence, controlled the formation of
overlying thrust systems.
Similarly, to the Río Loa and the San Salvador Canyons segment, the
pre-shortening restoration (Fig. 13c) shows that the highest shortening
is mainly controlled by west-directed short-cut and by-pass faults and, to
a lesser extent, by inversion anticlines-and-synclines folds. These faults
are associated with the partial inversion of the Sierra del Buitre fault.
The shortening generated from the east-directed thin-skinned thrust
system is accommodated by the Quebrada Mala detachment fault. The
amount of shortening accommodated by anticlinal stack and imbricate
fan duplexes is greater than the shortening taken up by an inversion
structure. However, the thrusting system is defined as a thin-skinned
shortening-system, thus only affecting the Upper Cretaceous cover
sequence. Instead, the inversion structures correspond to basement-
involved faults, and therefore may generate greater shortening and
uplift. The combined effect between west-directed short-cut and inver­
ted normal faults with the detachment-thrust fault would provoke a
west-verging wedge structure. In such structural setting, the Quebrada
Mala detachment fault is defined as an east-directed passive-roof thrust.
A total of ca. 56% of minimum shortening was estimated equivalent to
ca. 6000 m of lateral contraction. However, this calculated amount of
shortening may be an overestimated value if only the deformation for
the Upper Cretaceous sequences is considered, since when considering
only positive tectonic inversion structures, associated with the Mesozoic
rift basin, the minimum shortening is ca. 4,3% or ca. 450 m lateral
contraction. Moreover, we cannot rule out that an important part of the
shortening was taken up by the formation of a west-verging wedge
structure.
13
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
5. Discussion
5.1. Shortening distribution along inversion tectonic structures
The western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera (between 22◦ 00′ -
23◦ 50′ Lat. S) shows first-order tectonosequences related to transitional
events that occurred between the final phase of an extensional regime
and the initial phase of a compressional regime; these two events are
included in a positive inversion tectonic process. The result and inter­
action between kind-of-sequence (i.e., syn-rift, post-rift, or synorogenic
sequences) and deformation mechanisms triggered the formation of
thin-skinned thrust systems. Thus, several and complex shortening-
related structures controlled the relationship and distribution between
the Lower-Middle Jurassic syn-rift sequences, the Upper Jurassic-Lower
Cretaceous post-rift sequences, and the Upper Cretaceous-early Ceno­
zoic synorogenic sequences (Figs. 12 and 13). Equally, the emplacement
of the Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene hypabyssal intrusives may be linked
with this kind of structural setting. Thus, these are two structural styles
recognized on the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera, which are
directly related to the development of the tectonosequences. The first
structures correspond to inherited- and reverse-reactivated normal
faults, and their associated positive tectonic inversion structures, that
controlled the positive tectonic inversion of the Mesozoic rift basins and
the extrusion of the Upper-Middle Jurassic syn-rift deposits. The second
structures consist of east-directed thin-skinned thrust systems, affecting
mainly the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene sequences.
The east-dipping inverted normal faults accommodated a huge
shortening through inversion anticlines-and-syncline folds deforming
the Middle-Upper Jurassic syn-rift deposits. To a lesser extent, but­
tressing structures, short-cut faults, and by-pass faults accommodated a
minor part of this shortening. Generally, inversion structures have a
westward vergence; however, second-order structures such as back-
C. López et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376

Fig. 12. The Río Loa and San Salvador Canyons segment on the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera in northern Chile (see location in Fig. 3). (a) Three-
dimensional view of the structure of the Río Loa and San Salvador Canyons segment showing the correlation of the surface structures with those interpreted to
depth. (b) Balanced cross-section showing the structure interpreted for the Río Loa and San Salvador Canyons segment based on the integration of fieldwork data and
seismic line interpretations. (c) Pre-shortening restoration at the top of the Mesozoic rift-related deposits, indicating the initial position of the main half-graben
structures in the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera, which controlled the shortening distribution during the Andean forearc orogenic growth.

thrust faults, fault-propagation folds, and detachment-thrust faults
associated with buttressing structures occasionally show an eastward
vergence. Furthermore, the west-directed short-cut faults may be
interpreted as relief-controlled thrust faults since these faults mark the
main topographic break between the Central Depression and the
Domeyko Cordillera. West-verging tectonic inversion structures have
been recognized in other areas along the western flank of the Domeyko
Cordillera (Amilibia et al., 2008; Fuentes et al., 2018; López et al., 2019,
2022; Martinez et al., 2021a, 2022b), thus playing a fundamental role
during the Upper Cretaceous orogenic growth of the forearc of the
western Central Andes. On the other hand, the well-exposed outcrops
and balanced cross-section presented in this study, support that the
Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequences (the Cerritos Bayos and the
Llanura Colorada Fms., and the San Salvador Beds) correspond to a
post-rift sequence. For example, the reflectors recognized in the Z1020
seismic line (Fig. 7) do not show important variations in their thickness,
allowing us to propose that the transitional marine-continental strati­
graphic unit corresponds to a post-rift sequence, where there is no
relevant tectonic subsidence due to normal faulting. Complementary, in
the Quebrada Mala creek segment, the angular unconformity plane be­
tween the equivalent post-rift deposits (Llanura Colorada Fm.) and the
Upper Cretaceous cover sequences conditioned the nucleation of the
Quebrada Mala detachment-thrust fault. Similarly, in the Río Loa
Canyon, the thrust structures are also conditioned by detachment levels
that occur on these post-rift-deposits (San Salvador Fm). Many of these
sedimentary accumulations, in other Andean provinces (e.g., the Salta
rift system; the Neuquén Basin; the Aconcagua and Malargüe Fold and
Thrust Belt, among others) have been defined as sag-type deposits
(Ramos et al., 1996; Cristallini et al., 1997; Giambiagi et al., 2005, 2008;
among others). Deposition was followed by thermal subsidence-related
accumulation and occurred immediately after tectonic subsidence by
Mesozoic extensional faulting; hiding normal faults that control the
half-graben rift basins. Similar interpretations are proposed in other
basins and sequences worldwide, which have a tectonic control marked
on their deposits. For example, the Lower Cretaceous Abu Gabra For­
mation in the Fula Sub-basin Muglad Basin, in southern Sudan (Wu
et al., 2015), in the Sichuan Basin Southwest China (Liu et al., 2021), the
Santos and Campos Basins, both in offshore Brazil (de Paula Faria et al.,
2017; Strugale et al., 2021), the Lower Cretaceous Half Grabens of the
Southeastern Continental Margin of Brazil (López-Gamundi and Barra­
gan, 2012) in the Northern Apennines of Italy (Scisciani et al., 2019;
Tavarnelli et al., 2019), among others. Therefore, the post-rift deposits

14
C. López et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376

Fig. 13. The Quebrada Mala segment on the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera in northern Chile (see location in Fig. 3). (a) Three-dimensional view of the
structure of the Quebrada Mala segment showing the correlation of the surface structures with those interpreted to depth. (b) Balanced cross-section showing the
structure interpreted for The Quebrada Mala segment based on the integration of fieldwork data. (c) Pre-shortening restoration at the top of the Mesozoic rift-related
deposits, indicating the initial position of the main half-graben structures in the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera, which controlled the shortening distri­
bution during the Andean forearc orogenic growth.

exposed on the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera represent the
transition from an extensional to a compressional regime. The pure
thrusting structures are strongly controlled by the rheological conditions
of these sequences.
The occurrence of east-directed thrust systems was conditioned by
two stratigraphic- and structural-settings. The first illustrates that thrust
faults only affect the Upper Cretaceous-early Eocene synorogenic se­
quences, while the second shows much of these systems occur in a
footwall block of pre-existing Mesozoic half-graben basins, nucleating
from a footwall-position of those inherited normal faults. The first
setting is based on the good exposure of the Upper Cretaceous-Eocene
stratigraphic units outcropping mainly in the Quebrada Mala area and
around the Río Loa Canyon. In both sectors, these units are defined as
part of synorogenic sequences-involved thrust systems, where the main
structural styles correspond to overlapping antiformal stack duplexes
and imbricate fan systems (sensu Boyer and Elliott, 1982). The second
setting is proposed from our balanced cross-section. For example, in the
Quebrada Mala segment, we have shown that the formation of
thin-skinned thrust systems is controlled by a major detachment-thrust
fault that activated a regional-scale angular unconformity along which
the overlying Upper Cretaceous sequences were detached from the un­
derlying Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequences. This structure is
named “the Quebrada Mala detachment-thrust fault”. Similarly, in the
Río Loa Canyon, these structures are not only restricted to the Eocene
sequences, but also to several duplex systems, and detachment folds
affect the Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous sequences. In both
cross-sections, the thrust systems occur in a position above the footwall
of normal faults or half-graben basins. Moreover, the Eocene sequences
and their depositional geometries show a synorogenic accumulation
(growth strata) related to the uplift of inversion structures (i.g., the
Chintoraste fault), thus indicating a continuous deformation and syn­
orogenic accumulation from the Upper Cretaceous to the early Eocene
time interval. In both segments, the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous
post-rift sequences play a first-order role in the generation of
east-directed thin-skinned thrusting, a ‘passive roof thrust’, and the
subsequent formation of a possible ‘intracutaneous wedge’. However,
this interpretation represents a first approximation of the deep structure
under the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera and it needs to be

15
C. López et al.
tested incorporating new field and geophysical data. Previous studies
have shown the importance of rheologically weak horizon in the
deformation mechanisms of fold-thrust belts (e.g., Butler, 1982, 1989;
Bonini, 2001; Couzens-Schultz et al., 2003; Yan et al., 2016; among
others).
Deformation mechanisms associated with thrust systems and the
relationship that these have with positive tectonic inversion structures
represent highlighted structural features widely recognized in many
other subduction-related active orogens worldwide such as the Kirthar
and Sulaiman Mountain belts, Pakistan (Banks and Warburton, 1986),
the Interandean and Subandean Zones of the Central Andean fold and
thrust belt of Bolivia (Baby et al., 1992; Rojas Vera et al., 2019), the
Argentinian foreland basins (Giambiagi et al., 2003; Horton and Fol­
guera, 2022), in the Jura fold-and-thrust belt in the northeast French
Alps (Madritsch et al., 2008) in the external northern Alpine foreland of
Switzerland (Malz et al., 2016), in the Central-Northern Apennines of
Italy (Scisciani, 2014; Scisciani et al., 2019; Barchi and Tavarnelli, 2022;
Pace et al., 2022a, 2022b), among others. In the outer Andean forearc of
northern Chile, the interaction between these two contractional struc­
tural styles had rarely been tackled; nonetheless, the mention of thrust
systems is scarce (Fuentes et al., 2018; Martinez et al., 2021a; 2022b).
The thrust systems proposed in this work are conditioned by the tectonic
inversion structures that controlled the extrusion of the Mesozoic
syn-rift deposits. Inverted normal faults have two mechanisms to
generate thrust systems towards the cover deposits, either post-rift or
synorogenic sequences. The first is related to west-directed short-cut
faults, which may form hybrid fold-and-thrust belt systems. The second
corresponds to high-angle reverse-reactivated normal faults that control
the development of buttressing structures, which internally generates
intraformational detachments affecting the synorogenic sequences.
5.2. Insights for the orogenic growth of the andean forearc
The Z1020 seismic line re-interpretation (Fig. 7) and structures
recognized affecting the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene sequences
(Fig. 5e and 11) reveal that the western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera
is controlled by large west-directed reverse-reactivated normal faults,
short-cut faults, and east-directed thin-skinned thrust systems. The latter
are genetically related to the partial reverse-reactivation of pre-existing
normal faults and the inherited-structural position of the footwall of
half-graben basin (Figs. 12 and 13). The pre-shortening restorations of
the balanced cross-sections indicate that the region accumulated be­
tween 4% and 11% of crustal shortening (Fig. 12c and 13c), considering
only the restoration of inversion structure related to the Mesozoic rift
basin. These values are similar to those reported by Fuentes et al. (2018)
and Martinez et al., 2021a to the west of the Sierra de Moreno range,
immediately to the north of this study area. The shortening calculated
here represents a relatively modest amount of contraction if compared
to the shortening calculated in the Pre-Andean Basins (Amilibia et al.,
2008; Martínez et al., 2021b). This may be due to the fact that in these
basins much deformation is achieved by structures developed
throughout the entire Cenozoic stratigraphic sequences. On the con­
trary, when we consider a shortening for all the units involved, specif­
ically for the Quebrada Mala segment, the shortening is substantially
greater, reaching a ca. 56% of crustal shortening. In this case,
thin-skinned thrust systems explain the reason for the higher percent­
ages of shortening. These regions commonly lack good constraints on
deformation styles, and therefore, structural interpretations underesti­
mate the nature of orogenic processes.
Numerous studies have interpreted that the main morpho-tectonic
break along the forearc of the Central Andes in northern Chile corre­
sponds to the transitional zone between the Domeyko Cordillera and the
Pre-Andean Basins (i.g., Salar de Atacama, Punta Negra, Pedernales
Basins). Rigorous evidences obtained from the 2-D reflection seismic
interpretations (Arriagada et al., 2006; Bascuñán et al., 2015; 2019;
Martínez et al., 2020a; López et al., 2020, 2022), depositional
16
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
geometries associated with synorogenic sequences or growth strata
(Mpodozis et al., 2005; Arriagada et al., 2006; López et al., 2020), and
thermochronology ages (Henriquez et al., 2018; Martínez et al., 2022a)
support that the eastern border of the Domeyko Cordillera is the result of
a prominent uplift- and shortening-related structure activated since the
late Cretaceous Peruvian tectonic phase (Steinmann, 1929; Mpodozis
et al., 2005; Bascuñán et al., 2015). However, our descriptions and in­
terpretations would support that the western flank of the Domeyko
Cordillera also represent an important morpho-tectonic limit. Along
with this region, similar first-order structures are also recognized, thus
controlling the initial stages of orogenic growth of a segment of the
western Central Andes. These structures uplifted the ancient Mesozoic
graben or half-graben basin fill and trigged the deformational mecha­
nisms that affected the Upper Cretaceous and early Cenozoic sequences.
In addition, the most important proposed structures for the orogenic
growth for the Domeyko Cordillera, and generally, for the Andean
forearc have been proposed to result from positive tectonic inversion,
due to reverse-reactivations of pre-orogenic normal faults (Amilibia
et al., 2008; Fuentes et al., 2018; López et al., 2019, 2022; Martínez
et al., 2020a; Martínez et al., 2021b). In this study, we want to propose
that these orogenic processes, in turn, conditioned the generation of
thin-skinned thrust systems affecting mainly the Upper Jurassic-Lower
Cretaceous post-rift deposits and the Upper Cretaceous-early Cenozoic
synorogenic sequences. A large amount of shortening provoked by
basement-involved inversion structures was accommodated through the
thin-skinned thrust systems. These thrust systems are a consequence of
the propagation of thick-skinned structures towards shallower late
Cenozoic stratigraphic levels. The newly-formed low-angle thin-skinned
thrust structures would have attenuated the shortening-effect and many
of these structures were hidden under the late Cenozoic gravel se­
quences. Only some minor shortening-related deformation features
could indicate possible minor reactivations (López et al., 2019). Typi­
cally, thrust systems are associated with basement-involved thrust
faults, comparable to a ‘leading imbricate fan system’, and therefore are
typical in foreland basins. The formed thrusting structures will occur
internally in synorogenic deposits, resulting from uplift and erosion by
basement-block or older rocks. For example, in neighboring regions as
the thrust systems proposed for the Salar de Atacama Basin and the
Cordillera de la Sal. Thrust faults with ramp-flat-ramp geometry uplifted
the Permian-Triassic rocks, generating an accumulation of the Upper
Cretaceous-Cenozoic synorogenic sequences and the formation of
folding-and-thrusting systems as the Cordillera de la Sal (Mpodozis
et al., 2005; Arriagada et al., 2006; López et al., 2020). Similarly, in the
Potrerillos Fold and Thrust Belt, thrusting structures are formed by
basement-involved thrust faults associated with the shortening and ris­
ing of the Sierra Castillo Basement Block (Martínez et al., 2020a; López
et al., 2022). In the case of the east-directed thin-skinned thrust system
proposed in this work, there are no Paleozoic basement blocks that have
been exposed by shortening- and uplift-related structures and with the
same sense of vergence. In fact, basement-involved structures
mentioned here, correspond to west-directed positive tectonic inversion
structures, and are located to the east of the thrust system (e.g., the
Quebrada Mala segment) and they do not raise Paleozoic basement
blocks. Late Cenozoic gravels accumulation hide the deep structures that
may be occurring below the Central Depression, thus providing re­
striction in the knowledge on the distribution, kinematics and rela­
tionship with those systems exposed on the surface. Recently, López
et al. (2019) proposed structures under the Central Depression associ­
ated with a positive tectonic inversion process. Nevertheless, Paleozoic
basement rocks are exposed on the eastern border of the Coastal
Cordillera (e.g., Sierra del Tigre Fm., Niemeyer et al., 1977; Cortés et al.,
2000), which is also controlled by the Atacama Fault System. In this
work, the compelling evidence to support these assumptions is not
available; however, the structural control that the Atacama Fault System
exerted on the Paleozoic basement blocks recognized in the outer fore­
arc could have had a fundamental role on the development of a thrust
C. López et al.
system such as those proposed in this study. Undoubtedly, we believe
that it is necessary to open the debate about those structures related to
shortening that may be located towards the outer forearc. The effect of
inherited structures on the Andean development could have played a
significant role during positive inversion, i.e., in the first stages of
orogenic growth.
Similarly, strike-slip deformation has also been a structural mecha­
nism to explain regional-scale high-dipping faults exposed on the
western flank of the Domeyko Cordillera, and immediately to the east of
this study area. We cannot rule out an important role of strike-slip
faulting (Mpodozis and Cornejo, 2012; Niemeyer and Urrutia, 2009;
Reutter et al., 1991) during the Eocene-Oligocene reactivations, thus
allowing the emplacement of subvolcanic intrusives (Maksaev and
Zentilli, 1999; Mpodozis and Cornejo, 2012; Mpodozis et al., 1993).
However, strike-slip deformation could have a fundamental role in
transitional events that occurred during the positive tectonic inversion.
Strike-slip deformation would be a common kinematic behavior during
the change between an extensional regime to a contractional regime,
involving a phase of strike-slip faulting (Peacock et al., 2017).
Finally, we want to highlight that the sub-volcanic intrusive bodies
(e.g., the Sierra Gorda, Spence, and the Lomas Bayas mines, see Fig. 3),
associated with the Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene metallogenetic belt
(Sillitoe, 1992; Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005; Camus, 2003), were emplaced
in a structural position related to partly or entirely reverse-reactivated
normal faults and/or inversion structures such as short-cut faults or
inversion anticline-and-syncline folds (Fig. 13). The position and dis­
tribution of the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene magmatic and volcanic
arc had a strong structural control, and its development would be related
to positive tectonic inversion processes, and possibly to the continued
development of thin-skinned thrust systems during the early Cenozoic.
6. Concluding remarks
The descriptions and interpretations presented in this study propose
a new model of compressive deformation in the western flank of the
Domeyko Cordillera. These structures are different from the previously
formulated structural models that have only interpreted strike-slip
faulting and tectonic inversion processes along this portion of the
outer forearc in northern Chile. Our presented models and structural
mechanisms provide new concepts of tectonic evolution and develop­
ment of the western Central Andes. The most relevant innovations,
based on the results of our investigations on the structural geometry and
inferred deformation mechanisms that characterize the western flank of
the Domeyko Cordillera are summarized as follows:
1. Two structural styles are recognized on the western flank of the
Domeyko Cordillera. These structures differ both in kinematics and
because of involved stratigraphic sequences. The first correspond to
west-directed positive tectonic inversion structures, which expose
and extrude the Middle-Upper Jurassic syn-rift deposit of the ancient
Mesozoic rift basin; the second correspond to east-directed thrust
systems, affecting mainly the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene volcano-
sedimentary synorogenic sequences.
2. The inversion structures consist of reverse-reactivated normal faults,
inversion anticlines-and-synclines folds, buttressing structures, and
intraformational detachment-thrust faults.
3. The thrust systems mainly consist of antiformal stack duplexes. The
formation of these thrusting structures is controlled by a major
detachment fault developed along a regional-scale angular uncon­
formity; here indicated as the Quebrada Mala detachment fault.
4. The interaction between inversion structures and thrust systems
promoted the development of a west-directed intracutaneous tec­
tonic wedge.
5. Finally, the minimum shortening obtained from our balanced cross-
section restoration is ca. 11% for the Río Loa and the Sal Salvador
Canyons segment and ca. 56% for the Quebrada Mala segment. The
17
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 127 (2023) 104376
thrust systems explain the reason for the higher percentages of
shortening in this last segment. In addition, it is possible that an
important part of the shortening was taken up and accommodated by
buttressing structures and their associated intraformational
detachment-thrust levels.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Cristopher López: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
draft, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Concep­
tualization. Renato Cisternas: Software, Methodology, Investigation,
Conceptualization. Sebastián Espinoza: Software, Methodology,
Formal analysis. Rodrigo González: Writing – review & editing,
Investigation, Conceptualization. Fernando Martínez: Writing – review
& editing, Investigation, Conceptualization. Rodrigo Riquelme:
Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Conceptualization. Daniela
Montenegro: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Conceptuali­
zation. Jorge Morales: Writing – review & editing, Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Cortés, 2000, Niemeyer et al., 1997
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the FONDECYT-ANID, Chile project
grant N◦ 1220987, “Geomorphology on the geologic times scales: new
perspectives on the geomorphological significance of planation surfaces
as a marker of tectonic and climatic events”. The lead-author thanks the
support of the VRIDT-UCN2095 project grant 10201295. The authors
also thank Enap-Sipetrol for providing the seismic data used in this
study. Finally, the authors thank the constructive suggestions made by
Enrico Tavarnelli, Paolo Pace, and Vittorio Scisciani. Special thank is
given to Cecilia Avila for valuable tips and reviewing the English.
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