Diversion Headworks

Introduction

An irrigation canal takes its supplies from a river or a stream. In order to divert water from the
river into the canal, it is necessary to construct certain works or structures across the river and at
the head of the offtaking canal. These are known as canal headworks. THe canal headworks may
be classified into the following two types.
Storage headworks
Consists of a dam constructed across the river to create a reservoir in which water is stored
during the period of excess flow in the river.
Diversion headworks
It serves to raise the water level in the river and divert the required quantity into the canal.
Command area is increased.
Regulates the supply of water into the canal.
Controls the entry of silt into the canal.
Provides some storage of water for a short period.
Reduces the fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.
Types of diversion headworks

Temporary diversion headworks

Consists of a spur or bund constructed across a river to raise the water level in the river and
divert it into the canal.
Permanent diversion headworks
Consists of a permanent structure such as weir or barrage cosntructed across the river to
raise the water level in the river and divert it into the canal. Most of the diversion
headworks for important canal system are permanent diversion headworks.
Components

The various components of a diversion headworks are as follows:

Weir or barrage
Divide wall
Fish Ladder
Pocket or approach channel
Undersluices or scouring sluices
Silt excluder
Canal Head regulator
River training works such as Marginal bunds or Guide bunds
 Marginal Bund Guide Bund

River

Divide Wall

Head Regulator
Approach Channel
Canal

Weir
Scouring Sluices

Fish Ladder

Typical Layout of Diversion Headworks

Figure:
Undersluices

The undersluices are openings provided in the weir wall with their crest at a low level. They are
located on the same as offtaking canal.
Functions of undersluices
They preserve a clear and well-defined channel towards the head regulator.
They scour the silt deposited on the river bed in the pocket upstream of the canal head
regulator.
They pass low floods without the necessity of dropping the weir crest shutters
Divide Wall

A divide wall is a long masonry wall which is constructed at right angles to the axis of the weir to
seperate the undersluices from the rest of the weir. The top width of divide wall is about 1.5 to
2.5m.
Fish ladder

Large rivers have many types of fishes. They move from one part to another according to season.
In our country generally fish move from upstream to downstream in search of warmth and return
upstream before monsoon for clear water. Due to the construction of a weir across the river, such
migration will be obstructed and large scale destruction of fish life may take place in the river.
Thus to enable the fish to migrate, fish ladder is provided. Since most fish can travel upstream
only if the velocity of flow does not exceed 3 to 3.5 m/s, the design of the fish ladder should be
such that it constantly releases water at a velocity not exceeding this value.
Canal Head regulator

A canal head regulator is a structure constructed at the head of the canal taking
off from the upstream of a weir or barrage. It consists of a number of spans
supported by piers which support the gates provided for regulation of flow into
the canal.
Functions
It regulates the supply of water into the canal.
It controls te entry of silt into the canal.
It excludes the high flood from entering the canal.
Weir

A weir is a structure constructed across a river to raise its water level and divert the water into the
canal. On the crest of the weirs usually shutters are provided so that part of the raising up of
water (or ponding) is carried out by shutters. During floods, the shutters may be dropped down to
allow water to flow over the crest of the weir. Weirs are usually aligned at right angles to the
direction of flow of the river.
Weirs may be classified according to the material of construction and certain design features into
the following three types
Masonry weirs with vertical drop weir
Rockfill weirs
Concrete weirs
 Pond Level
Crest Shutter

U/S Pile Intermediate Pile

D/S Pile

Figure: Concrete Weir

 Crest Shutter
Pond Level

Weir Wall
Block Protection
Inverted Filter

U/S PILE Launching Apron

D/S PILE

Vertical Drop Weir

Figure:
Vertical drop weir

Impervious horizontal floor or apron and a masonry weir wall with with either both faces
inclined or both faces vertical or one face vertical and other face inclined
At the u/s and d/s ends, piles are provided
At the u/s end,a block protection and at the d/s end, a graded filter is provided
Launching aprons or pervious aprons are provided after the block protection or filter
Suitable for any type of foundation
Floor design based on Bligh’s theory
Barrage

The crest is kept at a low level and the raising up of water level is accomplished mainly by means
of gates. During floods, these gates can be raised clear off the high flood level and thus enable the
high flood to pass with mimimum of afflux. It provides a better control on the water level in the
river but is comparatively more costly.Design involves same procedure as a concrte weir.
 High Flood Level

Pond Level
GATE

Inverted Filter

Launching Apron

U/S PILE

D/S PILE
Figure:
Causes of failure if Weirs on permeable foundation and their remedies

The various causes of failure of weirs on permeable foundations may be classified broadly into two
categories:
Due to seepage flow
Due to surface flow
The seepage flow may cause the failure of a weir in two ways
By piping
If the water percolating through the foundation has sufficient force when it emerges at the
downstream end of the impervious floor it may lift up the soil particles at the end of the floor
With the removal of surface soil, there is further concentration of flow into the resulting
depression and more soil is removed.
This process of erosion progressively extends backwards towards the u/s side and results in
the removal of soil and developing pipe like formation beneath the floor.
The floor may subside in the hollows so formed and fail which is known as failure due to
piping.
The following measures may be taken to prevent the failure due to piping
Providing sufficient length of the impervious floor so that the path of percolation is increased
and exit gradient(hydraulic gradient) is reduced.
Providing piles at the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor.
Causes of failure if Weirs on permeable foundation and their remedies

By Uplift Pressure
The water percolating through the foundation exerts an upward pressure on the imprevious
floor. This pressure is known as uplift pressure. If the uplift pressure is not counterbalanced by
the weight of the floor, it may fail by rupture.
The following measure may be taken to prevent the failure of the floor by rupture due to excessive
uplift pressure.
Providing sufficient thickness of the impervious floor.
Providing pile at the u/s end of the impervious floor so that the uplift pressure is reduced in
the d/s side.
 Barrier
(H/L)2d1
(H/L)2d2
Subsoil hydraulic
gradient Line H

(H/L)2d3

d2
d1

d3

Bligh’s Path of Creep

Figure:
Bligh’s Creep Theory

Bligh assumed that the percolating water creeps along the base profile of the structure which is in
contact with the subsoil. The length of path thus traversed by the percolating water is called the
length of creep. He further assumed that the heas loss per unit length of creep which is called
hydraulic gradient is constant throughout the percolating passage which means loss of head is
proportional to the length of creep. He made no distinction between vertical and horizontal creep.
In the figure, a barrier impounding water of depth H is provided with a horizontal floor of length b
with three vertical cutoffs (sheet piles). The percolating water then follows the path indicated by
arrows and the creep length L will be given by

L = b + 2d1 + 2d2 + 2d3

The hydraulic gradient or the loss of head per unit length of creep is given by the following
expression
H H
= (1)
L b + 2d1 + 2d2 + 2d3
As hydraulic gradient is constant, if L1is the creep length upto any point, then head loss upto this
point will be (H/L)L1and the residual head at this point will be [H − (H/L)L1]. In the planes of the
vertical cutoffs, there will be losses of head equal to (H/L)2d1, (H/L)2d2and (H/L)2d3.
The reciprocal of hydraulic gradient i,e,(L/H) is known as Bligh’s coefficient of creep C. Thus
L = CH (2)
Bligh’s Creep Theory

To ensure the safety of the impervious floor against the two possible ways in which failure may be
caused by subsurface flow, following criteria are required to be satisfied.
Safety against piping
The length of creep should be sufficient to provide a safe hydraulic gradient according to the
type of soil. He has recommended certain values of C for different soils as given in Table.
According to Bligh, if the hydraulic gradient ≤ (1/C ), there will be no danger of piping.
The seepage head H is to be measured from the water level upstream to the corresponding
lowest water level downstream.
Type of soil Value of C Safe hydraulic gradient
Light sand and mud 18 1/18
Fine mica sand 15 1/15
Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
Sand mixed with boulder and gravel 5 to 9 1/9 to 1/5
Bligh’s Creep Theory

Safety against uplift pressure

The ordinate of the subsoil hydraulic gradient line above the bottom of the floor at any point represents the uplift
pressure at that point.
If at any point, h’ is the ordinate of the hydraulic gradient line above the bottom of the floor, then at this point, the
uplift pressure exerted by the percolating water is wh’, where w is the specific weight of water.
If floor thickness is t and the specific gravity of the material of the floor is G, the downward force per unit area due
to the weight of the floor is (wG)t.
For equilibrium, the uplift pressure must be counterbalanced by the weight of the floor. Thus equating two,’

wh0 = (wG )t

h0
t= (3)
G

h0 = tG

∴ h0 − t = tG − t = t(G − 1)

h0 − t
∴t=
G −1
h
or t = (4)
G −1
The floor thickness given by the above equation is usually incrased by considering a factor of safety of (4/3) and hence
4 h
t= (5)
3 G −1
Example

Subsoil hydraulic
5m gradient Line

A B C
5m 3m
5m
8m 10 m
10 m 8m

25 m

Figure:

The figure shows the section of a hydraulic structure on permeable foundation. Calculate the
average hydraulic gradient according to Bligh’s creep theory. Also find the uplift pressures at
points A,B and C as shown in the figure and the floor thickness required at these points.
Example

Solution
According to Bligh’s creep theory, the total creep length is given by

L = (2 × 5) + (2 × 3) + (2 × 10) + 25 = 61 m

5 1
∴Hydraulic gradient = 61 = 12.2
The structure would be safe on coarse grained sand.
Uplift pressure at point A
Length of creep upto point A = (2×5)+5 = 15
Residual seepage head at point A
15
h1 = 5(1 − ) = 3.77 m
61

∴Uplift pressure at point A = wh1= 9.81 × 3.77 = 36.984kN/m2

The required thickness of the floor at point A is

4 h 4 3.77
t1 = = = 4.05m
3 G − 1 3 2.24 − 1

Uplift pressure at point B

Length of creep upto point B = (2×5)+(2×3)+10 = 26 m
Residual seepage head at point B
26
h1 = 5(1 − ) = 2.87 m
61

∴Uplift pressure at point B = wh1= 9.81 × 2.87 = 28.155kN/m2

The required thickness of the floor at point B is

4 h 4 2.87
t1 = = = 3.09m
3 G − 1 3 2.24 − 1

Uplift pressure at point C

Length of creep upto point C = (2×5)+(2×3)+18= 34m
Residual seepage head at point C
34
h3 = 5(1 − ) = 2.21 m
61

∴Uplift pressure at point C = wh1= 9.81 × 2.21 = 21.68 kN/m2

The required thickness of the floor at point C is

4 h 4 2.21
t1 = = = 2.38m
3 G − 1 3 2.24 − 1
Khosla’s Theory

A number of important structures were designed on the basis of this theory, someof which
remained stable while others gave trouble or failed. Khosla carried out investigation and led to the
following conclusions.
The outer faces of the end sheet piles were much effective than the inner ones and horizontal
length of the floor.
The intermediate sheet piles, if smaller in length than the outer ones were ineffective except for
local redistrbution of pressures.
Undermining of floors started from the tail end. If the hydraulic gradient at the exit was more
than the critical gradient for the particular soil, the soil particles would move with the flow of
water thus causing progressive degradation of the subsoil, resulting in cavities and ultimate
failure.
It was absolutely essential to have a reasonably deep vertical cutoff at the d/s end of the floor
to prevent undermining.
Khosla’s method of independent Variables

W.S. W.S.

H H

E1 C1 E C
d
d
b b
D1
D
Pile at Upstream end Pile at Downstream end

W.S.

E C
b1
d

Intermediate Pile
Figure:
The above cases have been analysed by Khosla for determining the residual seepage head or the uplift pressure head at
the key points and the exit gradient. The key points are the junction points of pile and floor, the bottom point of pile
and the bottom corners of depressed floor. The results of this analysis are presented in the form of curves from which the
values of φi.e., the ratio of the residual seepage head and the total seepage head can be determined at the key points.
Pile at Upstream end

100 λ−2
φC1 = 100 − cos−1
π λ

100 λ−1
φD1 = 100 − cos−1
π λ

where
√
1+ 1 + α2
λ=
2

b
α=
d

Pile at Downstream end

100 λ−2
φE = cos−1
π λ

100 λ−1
φD = cos−1
π λ
Intermediate Pile

100 λ1 − 1
φE = cos−1
π λ

100 λ1
φD = cos−1
π λ

100 λ1 + 1
φC = cos−1
π λ

b
α1 =
d

b − b1
α2 =
d

q q 
λ1 = 1 + α12 − 1 + α22 /2

q q 
λ1 = 1 + α12 + 1 + α22 /2
Corrections

Figure:

Ec E c t2 t3 E c
t1

c1 E1 c1 E1
Flow Flow
d3
d1 d2
Flow

D D D

Intermediate Pile Pile At Downstream end

Pile At Upstream end

Correction for floor thickness

Correction for thickness of floor

In the standard forms with vertical cutoffs, the thickness of the floor is assumed to be negligible. So the pressures at
the junction points E and C pertain to the level at the top of the floor whereas the actual junction is with the bottom
of the floor. The pressures at the actual junction points E1and C1are interpolated by assuming a linear variation from
the hypothetical point E to D and also from D to C.

For pile at the upstream end

Correction for C1= φDd−φ
1
C
×t1 (additive)
∴Pressure at C1

φD − φC
φC1 = φC + × t1
d1

where t1 = Floor thickness

d1 = depth of pile

For intermediate pile

Correction for E1= φE d−φ
2
D
× t2 (subtractive)
∴Pressure at E1

φE − φD
φE1 = φE − × t2
d2

Correction for C1= φDd−φ

2
C
×t2 (additive)
∴Pressure at C1

φD − φC
φC1 = φC + × t2
d2
For pile at downstream end
Correction for E1= φE d−φ
3
D
× t3 (subtractive)
∴Pressure at E1

φE − φD
φE1 = φE − × t3
d3
Correction for mutual interferecence of piles

Correction is given by following expression

r  
D d +D
C = 19
b0 b

where C = correction to be applied as percentage of head

b’ = distance between piles
b = total length of floor
D = depth of pile whose effect is required to be determined on neighbouring pile of depth d
d = depth of pile on which the effect of pile of depth D is required to be determined.
The correction is additive for points in the backwater and subtractive for points forward in the
direction of flow. So the effect of interference of pile no. 2 on pile no. 1 is determined, the
correction will be additive since point C of pile no. 1 is in the rear with respect to the direction of
flow. Pile no. 2 causes a blocking effect on the subsoil flow which results in increase in pressure at
all points on the upstream side. The effect of interference of pile is to be determined only for that
face of the adjacent pile which is towards the interfering pile, e.g., pile no. 2 will interfere with the
d/s face of pile no.1 and u/s face of pile no. 3.
 Pond Level
Crest Shutter

EC

Pile 1 d EC
EC
bs
Pile 2
D D
b’
Pile 3
D
D
b

Figure: Correction for mutual interference of piles

Correction for slope of the floor

A suitable correction is to be applied for a sloping floor. The values of the correction in percent of
pressure are given in the following table.
Slope (Vertical to Horizontal) Correction % of pressure
1 in 1 11.2
1 in 2 6.5
1 in 3 4.5
1 in 4 3.3
1 in 5 2.8
1 in 6 2.5
1 in 7 2.3
1 in 8 2.0

The correction given by this table is to be multiplied by the horizontal length of the sloping floor
and divided by th distance between the two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located.
The correction is applicable only to those key points of the pile lines at the beginning or the end
of the sloping floor which are facing the sloping floor. So in the above figure, the correction for
slope is to be applied only to point E of pile no. 2 and the correction will be obtained multiplying
the appropriate value from the table by (bs /b’). The correction is additive for a downward sloping
floor and subtractive for an upward sloping floor in the direction of flow.
The uplift pressure distribution along the floor may be obtained by assuming a linear variation
between the key points after obtaining pressures at the key points.
Exit Gradient

Defined as the hydraulic or pressure gradient of subsoil flow at the downstream or the exit end
of the floor.
For a length of floor of length b with a vertical cutoff of depth d at its downstream end, Khosla
and his associates derived an expression for the exit gradient GE as follows:
H 1
GE = √
dπ λ
where H = total seepage head
√
1 + 1 + α2
λ=
2
and α = db
From the above equation, it can be seen that if no cutoff is provided at the downstream end of
the floor, i.e., d = 0, the exit gradient GE is infinite. But it is evident that if there is no cutoff at
the d/s end, a higher exit gradient will exist will exist which may lead to the failure of the floor
due to piping. It is essential to provide a vertical cutoff at the d/s end of the floor to reduce the
exit gradient. The exit gradient should always be less than critical hydraulic gradient which is
defined as the gradient at which the soil particles will be lifted up and lead to undermining. The
permissible exit gradients for different soils are given in the following table.

Type of soil Exit gradient

Fine soil 1/6 to 1/7
Coarse sand 1/5 to 1/6
Figure:
Example

Using Khosla’s method, obtain the uplift pressures for the weir profile shown in the figure. Also
calculate the exit gradient and find whether it is safe against piping if it is founded on fine sand
with permissible exit gradient 1/6.
Solution

Pile at Upstream end

100 λ−2
φC1 = 100 − cos−1 = 67.313%
π λ

100 λ−1
φD1 = 100 − cos−1 = 77.418%
π λ

where
√
1+ 1 + α2
λ= = 4.145
2

b 65
α= = = 7.222
d 100 − 91

Correction for floor thickness

φD1 − φC1 77.418 − 67.313
= × t1 = × 2 = 2.24%(additive)
d1 9

Correction for mutual interference of intermediate pile on u/s pile at C1

r  
D d +D
C = 19
b0 b

d = 98 − 91 = 7m
D = 98 − 89.5 = 8.5m

0
b = 16 + 32 = 48m
Solution(Contd.)

r  
8.5 7 + 8.5
C = 19 = 1.9%(additive)
48 65
∴Corrected value of φC1 = 67.313+2.24+1.9 = 71.453%
Pile at Downstream end
100 λ−2
φE3 = cos−1 = 27.976%
π λ

100 λ−1
φ D3 = cos−1 = 19.452%
π λ

where
√
1+ 1 + α2
λ= = 5.525
2

b 65
α= = = 10
d 6.5

Correction for floor thickness

φE3 − φD3 27.976 − 19.452
= × t3 = × 2 = 2.627%(subtractive)
d3 6.5
Solution(Contd.)

Correction for mutual interference of intermediate pile on d/s pile at E3

r  
D d +D
C = 19
b0 b

d = 94 − 89.5 = 4.5m

d = 94 − 89.5 = 4.5m

r  
4.5 4.5 + 4.5
C = 19 = 1.395%(subtractive)
16 65
∴Corrected value of φE3 = 27.976 − 2.627 − 1.395 = 23.954%
Solution(Contd.)

Intermediate pile
b1 48.5
α1 = = = 7.461
d 6.5

b − b1 65 − 48.5
α2 = = = 2.538
d 6.5

q q 
λ1 = 1+ α12 − 1+ α22 /2 = 2.401

q q 
2 2
λ= 1 + α1 + 1 + α2 /2 = 5.128

100 λ1 − 1
φE2 = cos−1 = 41.19%
π λ

100 λ1
φ D2 = cos−1 = 34.49%
π λ

100 λ1 + 1
φC2 = cos−1 = 26.91%
π λ
Solution(Contd.)

Correction for floor thickness

φE2 −φD2
Correction for E2 = d2
× t2 = 41.19−34.49
6.5
× 3 = 3.1%(−)
φD2 −φC2 34.49−26.91
Correction for C2 = d2 ×t2 = 6.5
3 = 3.5%(+)
×
Correction for interference of u/s pile at φE2
r   r  
D d +D 2 3.5 + 2
C = 19 = 19 = 0.3%(−)
b0 b 48 65

D = 93 − 91 = 2m

d = 93 − 89.5 = 3.5m
Correction for interference of d/s pile at φC2
r   r  
D d +D 3.5 3.5 + 3.5
C = 19 = 19 = 1%(+)
b0 b 16 65

d = 93 − 89.5 = 3.5m

D = 93 − 89.5 = 3.5m
Correction for slope
Slope = 97−93
32
=1 in 8
From the table, for a slope of 1 in 8, correction in % of pressure = 2%
32
∴Correction = 2× bbs0 =2× 48 = 1.3%(+)
∴Corrected value of φE2 = 41.19 − 3.1 − 0.3 + 1.3 = 39.1%
∴Corrected value of φC2 = 26.91 + 3.5 + 1 = 31.41%
Solution(Contd.)

Exit Gradient
H 1
GE = √
dπ λ
where H = total seepage head
H = 103 -96 = 7m
d = 96 - 89.5 = 6.5 m

b 65
α= = = 10
d 6.5

√
1+ 1 + α2
λ= = 5.525
2

7 1 1
∴ GE = × √ =
6.5 π 5.525 6.856

Permissible gradient = 16
Hence safe against piping.