Applied Energy 174 (2016) 101–107

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Piezoelectric energy harvester for public roadway: On-site installation

and evaluation
Haocheng Xiong a,⇑, Linbing Wang b
a
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 105 Plantation Rd., Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
b
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 200 Patton Hall, 750 Drillfield Dr., Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

An energy harvester was developed to harvest the pavement deformation energy.

Six fabricated energy harvesters were successfully installed in real pavement.

Electric energy was generated from the loading applied by passing vehicles.

The relationship between energy generated and axle loading is identified.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the development of a novel piezoelectric energy harvester (PEH) to harness the great
Received 29 December 2015 amount of energy wasted by the vehicles on public roadways was described. The PEH is designed to
Received in revised form 23 March 2016 convert the deformation energy induced by moving vehicle from pavement into electrical energy. The
Accepted 9 April 2016
prototype harvester consists of PZT piezoceramic disks sealed in a protective package is developed. Six
Available online 26 April 2016
prototype PEHs were fabricated and installed in real pavement to evaluate the feasibility of this
application. The electric productivity of the installed harvesters was evaluated by measuring the output
Keywords:
voltage and current generated under real traffic. Instant and average power outputs are calculated from
Piezoelectricity
Energy harvesting
the measured waveforms of output voltage and current. The analysis of the testing results shows that the
Smart transportation infrastructure electrical productivity of the energy harvesters are highly relevant to the axle configuration and
Pavement magnitude of passing vehicles.
PZT Ó 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction In the report Key World Energy Statistics 2015 conducted by

Energy harvesting is known as a technology extracting energy
from ambient resources. The extracted energy is usually harnessed
and converted into usable electrical energy [1,2]. Many types of
energy resource have been harvested with different technologies,
as thermomechanical [3], photovoltaic [4,5], thermoelectric [6],
wind [7], etc. The productivity of the existing technologies domi-
nating the market rely mostly on the natural environment and
have many limitations. A research on wind energy shows that care-
less deployment of generators will bring impacts to the natural
environment and human community [8,9]. Solar energy harvesting
technology wasn’t widely deployed due to many factors as local
weather condition and government policy restrictions [10].
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hcxiong@vt.edu (H. Xiong).
International Energy Agency, the transportation shares 63.8% of
the world oil consumption by 2013 [11]. As the main facility of
transportation, pavement has been integrated with different
energy harvesting technologies in many applications [5,12]. The
deformation and vibration of roadway pavement induced by mov-
ing vehicles is rarely recognized as an eligible resource for energy
harvesting. According to the simulation done by Delorme et al.
[13], there is about 11–19% of the energy gained from burning
gasoline lost on tires/rolling resistance when a class 8 truck travel-
ing at a speed of 105 km/h with 10–100% of its maximum loading
[13]. When a car traveling on the pavement, part of its power sup-
plied by burning gasoline will be transformed into deformation
and vibration of the pavement. A portion of this energy will be lost
in the form of heat. According to the record in the Highway Statis-
tics 2012 prepared by Federal Highway Administration, there are
253,639,386 registered vehicle in the United States. The average
distance traveled by a single vehicle is 18,728 km and the average
fuel consumption per vehicle is about 2514 L [14]. The equivalent

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.04.031
0306-2619/Ó 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
102 H. Xiong, L. Wang / Applied Energy 174 (2016) 101–107
energy of one liter of regular petrol gasoline is 3.478  107 J.
Assuming the average energy loss of a vehicle on tires is 15%
[13], the total energy wasted annually by the motor vehicles in
the United States on tires is about:
3:478  107 J=L  2514 L  253; 639; 386  15%  2:218  1016 kJ
Developing a new energy technology to harvest this part of
energy will be greatly favorable to the current energy harvesting
ecosystem. If 1/1000 of this energy can be captured, it will be
enough to supply about 6 million houses in United States. It can
be achieved by widely deployment of PEHs on roadways. Piezo-
electric material is able to capture the deformation and vibration
caused by these vehicles and convert them into electrical energy.
The converted electrical energy could be a power source of many
application especially those related to transportation.
After fabricated from fine powder, the polar domains in the PZT
piezoceramic are randomly oriented. To have the desire capability
of generating electric charge from mechanical stress, strong, direct
electric field is applied to the fabricated PZT at temperature slightly
under the Curie point to force those domains most nearly aligned
with the electric field. This process is called polarization [15].
When a stress is applied to a polarized piezoelectric material along
its poling direction, the displacement of the inside electric dipoles
will create an electric potential on the two poles of the material.
When the two poles are connected to an electric loading, the elec-
tric potential energy stored in the material will be released. This
phenomenon is called direct piezoelectric effect. Applying an elec-
tric field on a polarized piezoelectric material will also result in
stress/strain. This reverse phenomenon is called reverse piezoelec-
tric effect.
Piezoelectric materials with different properties are used in dif-
ferent applications [16]. Piezoceramic lead zirconate titanate, or
known as PZT is widely used in many designs of energy harvesters
[17]. As a brittle material, PZT has low strain endurance and its
application is limited. Lee et al. have developed a Poly Vinylidene
Fluoride (PVDF) film in their work which is coated with poly(3,4-
ethylenedioxy-thiophene)/poly(4-styrenesulfonate) [PEDOT/PSS]
electrodes [18]. With great flexibility, PVDF is capable of enduring
large strains.
A number of energy harvesters utilizing piezoelectric technol-
ogy have been proposed with various mechanisms of energy con-
version. In the study by Roundy et al., the authors purposed a
PEH to harvest energy from vibration [19]. Afterward, Jeon et al.
have designed an energy harvester with piezoceramic thin films
mounted on a cantilever beam. 1 lW of average power has been
generated from this 170 lm  260 lm beam-shaped energy
harvester [20]. The cantilever beam transfers the vertical force to
the mounted thin films. The thin films are deformed transversely
and the electric potential is created. Such method of energy con-
version was named as 31-mode. In Another method the piezoce-
Fig. 1. The illustration of 33- (left) and 31- (right) coupling mode of piezoelectric energy harvesting.
ramic generates electrical energy from the force applied along its
direction of polarization. This method was introduced by duToit
et al. in their study and is named as 33-mode [21]. In Twiefel
et al.’s study, the authors find that the productivity of a 31-mode
energy harvester is maximized when the cantilever beam vibrates
with its resonant frequency. However, the output drops dramati-
cally when the vibrating frequency deviates from the resonant fre-
quency of the system [22].
2. Design of the piezoelectric energy harvester
2.1. Coupling modes
As introduced in the previous section, 31-mode and 33-mode
are the two widely-known coupling modes of piezoelectricity.
Under 31-mode, piezoelectric material generates electrical energy
mostly from transverse displacement. The productivity is maxi-
mized when the carrier vibrates with its resonant frequency. Under
33-mode, the energy productivity of a harvester increases linearly
with the stress applied along the material’s direction of polariza-
tion. The concepts of 31-mode and 33-mode introduced by Anton
and Sodano [23] are illustrated in Fig. 1. Baker et al. have compared
the productivity of energy harvesters under 31-mode and 33-mode
and have concluded that, piezoelectric material is more efficient
when it is converting lower-level loads/force/deformation into
electrical energy under 31-mode. When the material is under a
higher-level load, like the one induced by moving vehicles, the con-
version is more efficient under 33-mode [24]. When the harvester
collects energy under greater load, like from moving vehicles, the
one with 33-mode configuration is more efficient and durable.
From Inman’s work [25], the vibration amplitude of a cantilever-
beam excited by the passenger cars can be expressed as:
yðtÞ ¼ ð0:01Þsinxb t ð1Þ
where
    
km 1 hour 2p rad
xb ¼ v ¼ 0:2909v rad=s
hour 0:006 km 3600 s cycle
ð2Þ
In Eq. (1), v represents the vehicle’s velocity in km/h and y rep-
resents the excitation amplitude, which varies with excitation fre-
quency, xb, and time, t. Since it’s concluded that the productivity of
an energy harvester under 31-mode is proportional to the excita-
tion amplitude, the power output of the harvester is depending
on vehicle’s speed. Under random traffic, the power output will
change sinusoidally. To have a more stable power output and effi-
cient energy conversion, the PEH were developed based on 33-
mode.
 H. Xiong, L. Wang / Applied Energy 174 (2016) 101–107 103

2.2. Material selection
Most of the PEHs use crystalline materials, piezoceramic or
piezoelectric polymers. As a result of its high cost effectiveness,
lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) has been a competitive candidate in
many applications among the commercial products.
Material properties of the piezoelectric materials are important
factors of energy conversion in piezoelectricity. Many studies have
explained that the piezoelectric charge constant (effective piezo-
electric strain constant), d, and the piezoelectric voltage constant,
g, are governing the magnitude of the energy conversion process
[23,24]. They are expressed as d33 and g33 in 33-mode. According
to the testing results of Erturk’s work [26], under the same condi-
tion, the energy conversion of a piezoelectric material is more effi-
cient with higher piezoelectric coefficients (d and g). The author
has also concluded that, a smaller elastic compliance contributes
to a greater energy productivity under the same load. In Richards
et al.’s study, quality factor, Q, is proved as another important fac-

Fig. 2. The fabricated energy harvester without (a) and with cover (b).

Fig. 3. The location of the installation (Troutville weigh station).

104 H. Xiong, L. Wang / Applied Energy 174 (2016) 101–107

tor to the energy productivity [27]. The piezoelectric material with
greater quality factor endures less damping during the energy con-
version. Such damping causes the generation of heat during the
energy conversion process. As a conclusion, energy harvesters with
higher quality factor are more efficient on energy conversion.
Therefore, to build an efficient energy harvesting system, piezo-
electric material with higher piezoelectric coefficients, lower elas-
tic compliance and higher quality factor should be selected.
The 850 series PZT piezoceramic disks are selected based on the
criterions mentioned previously. The piezoelectric charge constant,
d33, of the 850 series piezoceramic is 400  1012 C/N, the piezo-
electric voltage constant, g33, is 24.8  103 Vm/N, and the Young’s
modulus along 33 direction is 5.4  1010 N/m2.
2.3. Fabrication of piezoelectric energy harvesters
To collect energy from the pavement deformation, the PEH has
to be installed in the pavement. To protect the piezoelectric
materials from the impact brought by vehicles and ambient
environment, they will be sealed in a protective package made
from insulating material. Engineering plastic, which is insulating
and able to resist the external impact from vehicles with a long

Fig. 4. The layout of the installation of energy harvesters.

Fig. 5. Installation of energy harvesting systems at I-81 Troutville weigh station ((a) fabricated energy harvesters; (b) square-shaped pits; (c) preparing the bottom; (d)
sealing with engineering epoxy).
 H. Xiong, L. Wang / Applied Energy 174 (2016) 101–107
lifespan, is selected to build the package. The protective package
has the capability to block fluid or any other chemical and contam-
inants from the hosting material. The piezoelectric material shall
not have contact to any fluid which may cause the short circuit
of positive and negative poles of the material. Another function
of the protective package is transferring the stress applied by vehi-
cles uniformly onto the piezoelectric material to extend the lifes-
pan of the material. Since a round-shaped contacting area will
have less stress concentration on its edge than any other shape,
the circular piezoceramic disks are selected to build the harvester.
All the positive and negative poles of the piezoceramic disks are
connected by several copper electrode bars integrated in the pro-
tective package. Fig. 2 shows a fabricated energy harvester without
(a) and with (b) a cover.
3. Installation and data acquisition
3.1. Installation of the piezoelectric energy harvesters
To evaluate the energy productivity under real traffic, six fabri-
cated energy harvesters were installed at the weigh station on
Fig. 6. The power output waveforms of six energy harvesting systems installed at I-81 Troutville weigh station.
105
Interstate 81 at Troutville. Over 4000 trailer trucks pass the weigh
station every day. The average speed of the traffic is about 40 km/h,
which is relatively safe for technicians conducting data measure-
ments and other investigations. Virginia Department of Motor
Vehicle provided the axel loading information of every passing
vehicle. It is used to investigate the relationship of vehicle axle
loading and energy productivity. The installed location on the
map is presented in Fig. 3.
The spacing of energy harvesters are determined from the tire
configuration of regular trailer trucks. The harvesters are installed
along the wheel paths of the vehicles to have the highest hitting
rate of vehicles on the energy harvesters. The layout of the instal-
lation is illustrated in Fig. 4.
At the weigh station, six square-shaped pits were cut on the
pavement for the PEHs (Fig. 5a and b). The bottoms of the pits
are leveled parallel to the surface of the pavement using cement
grout to have a uniform load distribution to the base of the har-
vester (Fig. 5c). As suggested by Virginia Department of Trans-
portation (VDOT), engineering epoxy is used to seal the gap
space of the pits and fix the energy harvesters in the pavement.
The top surface of the energy harvesters are precisely aligned to
106 H. Xiong, L. Wang / Applied Energy 174 (2016) 101–107

the surface of the lane to avoid any impacts from passing vehicles.
Power cables were sealed in the cut-open channels with engineer-
ing epoxy (Fig. 5d).
3.2. Data acquisition
After the installation the weigh station was open to traffic, the
electrical outputs are measured from installed energy harvesters.
A National Instrument PXI-4071 digital multimeter was used to
measure and record the waveform of output voltage and current.
This multimeter can measure the output voltage from the har-
vester up to ±1000 V. The multimeter was manipulated to record
both voltage and current waveform simultaneously when a vehicle
was driven over a harvester. 60 sets of electrical outputs data (volt-
age and current) of each energy harvester are measured weekly.
4. Data analysis
#1, and all voltage data are selected from the 5th peak of the wave-
forms, which represents the 5th axle of the vehicles. Power output
data with obvious deviation (the average power is 30% less than
the maximum) are excluded. The loading configuration and the
corresponding electrical output data are presented in Table 1.
The average power output is divided by the corresponding total
axle loading to obtain a power/total axel ratio as shown in Table 2.
The average power/axle ratio is 0.0082 mW/kN. To better under-
stand the relationship between the average power output and
the total axle loading, standard deviation and the coefficient of
variance of the power/axle ratios are also calculated. The standard
deviation is 0.0008 and the variance is 0.00006, which is very low.
It indicates that the average power output of an energy harvester is
highly related to the total axle loading of a vehicle under a constant
speed.
Since all the piezoceramic disks are parallelly connected, the
voltage on each disk is the same. The stress applied on each disk
by the 5th axle can be calculated as:

This section presents the analysis performed to the measured
electrical outputs data to obtain the energy productivity of the
installed energy harvesters and its relationship with the axle load-
ing of passing vehicles.
4.1. Power output
r ¼ V=ðg 33  tÞ ð3Þ
where g33 is the voltage constant and t is the thickness of the disks.
The g33 of the 850 PZT material applied by the harvester is
0.024 Vm/N and the thickness of the disks is 0.02 m. The total load-
ing actually taken from the 5th axle by all 9 disks in the harvesters
can be calculated as:

A National Instrument PXI-4071 digital multimeter was used to F d ¼ r  pr 2  9 ð4Þ

measure and record the waveform of output voltage and current.
This multimeter can measure the output voltage from the har-
vester up to ±1000 V. Fig. 6 shows one set of the waveforms of
power output of six installed energy harvesters. The maximum
instant power output from the testing results is about 0.116 W
from energy Harvester #3. The greatest average power output is
about 3.106 mW from Harvester #1.
where r is the radius of the disks which is 0.02 m. The back-
calculated loading actually taken by the disks and the correspond-
ing logged axel loading are listed in Table 3. From the results of
analysis, average of 14.43% of the axle loading are distributed onto
the disks. An axle/voltage ratio is calculated and the average value is
0.163 kN/V. The standard deviation of the axle/voltage ration is
0.012 and the coefficient of variation is 0.07 which indicates the

4.2. Output and axel loadings

Table 2
The calculated power/axle ratio of the 10 sets of data measured on Oct 25th 2012.
To understand the relationship of the load applied by the trucks
and the calculated power output of installed PEHs, the electrical Axle ID Total axle Power (mW) Power/axle (mW/kN)
output data measured from Harvester #1 on October 25th, 2012 1 303.4 2.313 0.0076
is analyzed with the corresponding traffic information provided 2 281.6 2.451 0.0087
by VDMV. The load actually taken by each PEH are back calculated 3 336.3 2.713 0.0081
4 260.7 2.381 0.0091
by the instant voltage output of each PEH and the piezoelectric 5 349.6 2.738 0.0078
coefficients. The axle loadings of each vehicle are compared with 6 282.5 2.154 0.0076
the back-calculated load data to find the relationship. 7 236.2 2.108 0.0089
10 sets of axle loading configurations of the vehicles that passed 8 329.6 2.921 0.0089
9 359.9 3.021 0.0084
Troutville weigh station on October 25th 2012 are selected from
10 342.5 2.232 0.0065
the traffic data acquired from DMV database. Every set of axle
loading configuration has one corresponding power output data.
For valid comparison, all power output data are from Harvester
Table 3
The correlation of the total loading on all disks back-calculated from the measured
Table 1 voltage and the actual loading applied by passing vehicles.
The selected axle loading configuration of the vehicles passed Troutville weigh station
Axle ID Axle Actual Transmission Voltage Axle/voltage
on Oct 25th 2012 (kN).
5 loading percentage (max, V) ratio (kN/V)
Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Total Voltage Power (kN) taken (kN)
ID 1 2 3 4 5 (Axle5, V) (mW) 1 45.8 7.0 15.32% 298.1 0.15
1 48.9 80.5 82.3 45.8 45.8 303.4 298.1 2.313 2 54.7 7.3 13.43% 312.1 0.18
2 47.6 80.5 56.0 42.7 54.7 281.6 312.1 2.451 3 69.8 10.7 15.31% 453.9 0.15
3 40.9 76.5 78.3 70.7 69.8 336.3 453.9 2.713 4 40.5 6.7 16.62% 285.7 0.14
4 50.7 60.5 61.8 47.2 40.5 260.7 285.7 2.381 5 75.6 10.8 14.30% 459.3 0.16
5 53.4 71.2 73.8 75.6 75.6 349.6 459.3 2.738 6 56.0 7.6 13.50% 321.2 0.17
6 47.2 68.1 66.3 44.9 56.0 282.5 321.2 2.154 7 36.9 4.8 12.95% 203.1 0.18
7 48.0 63.2 61.8 26.2 36.9 236.2 203.1 2.108 8 72.1 10.2 14.16% 433.4 0.17
8 50.3 68.9 63.6 74.7 72.1 329.6 433.4 2.921 9 77.4 11.4 14.78% 485.8 0.16
9 52.5 76.1 72.1 81.8 77.4 359.9 485.8 3.021 10 67.6 9.4 13.88% 398.4 0.17
10 48.5 77.4 79.6 69.4 67.6 342.5 398.4 2.232 Average – – 14.43% – 0.163
 H. Xiong, L. Wang / Applied Energy 174 (2016) 101–107
dependence of the instant voltage output on axle loading is very
high.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, a survey of several most popular energy harvest-
ing technologies is conducted. It shows the differences and advan-
tages of piezoelectric energy harvesting technology comparing to
conventional technologies. From the on-site evaluation, the devel-
oped piezoelectric energy harvester is able to harness the vehicle-
induced deformation energy of the pavement and generate electri-
cal energy continually. According to traffic information provided
by VDMV, the electrical energy generated from the PEHs is highly
relevant to single axle loading of vehicles and the average power
output is highly depending on the total axle loading. The average
power output of the installed PEH is 3.106 mW. The PEH can serve
as an energy supply for many small and micro electronics which
are embed in pavement or installed at other facilities close by
the pavement, as a wireless monitoring system [28–31]. The anal-
ysis of the measured testing results shows that only 14.43% of the
applied loading is transmitted to the piezoelectric materials. It
means that the design of the harvester can be improved in the
future for better electrical productivity. As a brand new technol-
ogy, the results from the investigation is quite encouraging. It
reveals a great space for further development of a more powerful
and efficient energy harvester. It also announces a bright future
of piezoelectric energy harvesting technology to harvest the great
amount energy from roadways.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to express their sincere appreciations for
funding provided by the Exploratory Advanced Research Program
of FHWA, and the very many helps by engineers at Troutville weigh
station and Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT). The
authors also gratefully acknowledge the support from Virginia
Department of Motor Vehicles (VDMV) for providing the traffic
data.
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