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Title: Questions diplomatiques

et coloniales: revue de
foreign policy / director Henri
Pensa

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Issue date: 1901-10-01

Contributor: Pensa, Henri
(1865-1946). Director of
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Contributor: Thomasson, Raoul
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Description: October 01, 1901

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QUESTIONS

DIPLOMATIC AND COLONIAL

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 1
Survey by Edmond Fazy.

OPINIONS BY MM. RENÉ

BASSET, EDMOND DOUTTÉ,
W.MARÇAIS,

From the Muslim point of view,

Egypt and the eastern coast of
Africa are linked, not to the
Maghreb and the Sudan, but to
Arabia and the Orient. The
answers we offer today
to our readers leave this region
aside to speak littleabout
barbarian states, the Sahara and
the Sudan.
In any case, the scope of our
African survey is already
quite extensive. It includes an
overview /s of the situation
of Islam, its relationship with the
powersthatbe
and in the Sudan with the pagan
populations, on
the attitude we have to adopt
towards it, and on the
the possibility of transforming
Muslim society, from the
under the authority and influenceof
the company.
French.

MR RENE BASSET
Alumnus of the École des
Langues Orientales and the École
des
Hautes Études, correspondent of
the Institut ( Académie des
Inscriptions), corresponding
associate of the Académie de;
Stanislas, honorary correspondent
of the Ministry of Education
Public, etc., Mr René Basset has
been in charge for twenty years
of
numerous missions in North
Africa and Tripolitania,
in Tunisia, the Sahara, Morocco,
Senegal and
1 See Questions Diplomatiques
et Coloniales, May 15, 1901, vol.
XI, p. 579, July 13 and August 1,
1901, t. XII, p. 73 and 147.
QUÉST. DIPL. ET COL. - T. XII
- N° 112. - OCTOBER1st
1901. 25

386 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
Rivières du Sud, which enabled
him to study Islam at closequarters
and in various circles. In 1893,
René Basset was awardedthe
Bordier, at the institute, for his
studies on Berberdialects.
His publications are mainly in
Arabic and Berber,
Ethiopian, religious history and
folklore. He hasgiven
autre", La Poésie Arabe (1890),
Notes de Lexicographie
Berbère (1883-88), Manuel
Kabyle (1887), Contes Arabes
(1884), Contes Berbères (1887-
97), Etude sur la Zenatia du
Mzab (1893), Etude sur la Zenatia
de l'Ouarsenis (1895), Les
Sanctuaries of Djebel Nejousa
(1899), Le Loqman Berbère
(1898), Etudes sur l'Histoire
d'Ethiopie (1882), ten volumes
d'Apo cryphes Ethiopiens (1893-
1900), etc. M. René Basset
is currently publishing the text
and translation of the history of
the
Muslim conquest of Ethiopia in
the 18th century Ce
are only the titles of a few of his
works.
work, the list of which would
occupy entire pages, if the
activity.
Director of the Ecole Supérieure
des Lettres in Algiers, where he
succeeds the eminent Africanist
and first-rateliterary scholar
that Masqueray was, Mr René
Basset, through his teaching
his writings, occupies a unique
position in French Africa.
and outstanding. In particular, he
must be regarded as the
the most eminent master, one
might even say the creator of the
Berber philology. His letter to us
is entitled
Islamism today.
The conquest of Algeria brought
France into contactwith
with a society governed by laws
and traditions
the obligation to re-establish
order and safety.
prosperity in a country that has
been plagued for centuries by
anarchy. It's a truism to say that
since 1830 Francehas been
has become a Muslim power: on
several occasions we have
asked about its rights and duties
towards its customers.
new topics. The response wasn't
clear-cut and we didn't followthrough.
plan, or rather we followed
several: this indecision
ignorance of the Islam to which
they hadbeensubjected.
business.
A first experiment took place in
Egypt at the end of the twentieth
century.
last century; but the conquest had
lasted too short for the
to benefit from his teachings.
Without doubt, everyone
knows that Islam is the religion of
Mohammed, that it does not
recognize
one God, admits several prophets,
the greatestof whom is
is the last envoy; that he
consecrates polygamy; that his
The main prescriptions concern
certain prayers,
abstinence from wine and swine
flesh, circumcision and the
pilgrimage; and that it admits of a
heaven and a hell. Beyond,
for the general public, it's all
uncertainty and confusion.
Muslim society and the spirit of
that society. In fact, it is
son of a good mother who,
having toured Algeria and been
received at the home of some rich
native, returns full of esteem
for those who welcomed him so
warmly, who knew, with an art
where
they are masters at, flattering their
guests and showering them with
respect.

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 387

Remembering the Last of the
Abencérages and the Orientales
helping the illusion, the tourist
sees in the Muslims en bloc the
victims of a brutal conquest,
forgetting that it is blood
that flowed into this conquest; he
imagines he willfind
in Islam of ideas that do not exist
there, that of a homeland
Arab, for example; and if he's an
artist, or just wantstobe
appearance, a sense of the
picturesque or, if you prefer,
of aesthetics, joins the
recognition of
stomach.
It is, as I said, the ignorance of
Islam, of its
conditions of existence, his past
and his tendencies, thathe
to be blamed for these errors in
good faith. Thereisno
Unfortunately, there is only one
work in France that canbe
recommend to anyone who wants
to know what it takes
about this religion. Although
limited to Arabs
of Algeria, he will render the
greatest services by providing the
essential knowledge for anyone
involvedin
without being a specialist 1 ,
because this religion has
the society that adopted it or to
which it was adopted.
to whom it has been imposed that
it cannot be disregarded in
the study of mind and
development - it's not yetpossible
to
of this society.
If we want to get a true picture of
today'sIslam,
let's try to imagine what the
companywould have been like
if the Reformation and
Revolution had failed. Visit
day when in Baghdad, in the
midst of the Khalifat, in the midst
of development
of a civilization superior to that
of Europe at the time,
the narrowest and therefore most
fanaticalorthodoxy
triumphed, not only over free-
thinking, but even overa
liberalism (motazelism), which
did not contest anyofthe
fundamental points of dogma, but
which made a
to the exercise of thought, that
day marked the beginning of the
Islam's fatal decline. A religious
revolution could
but this revolution is not the only
one.
probable: in the 19th century, the
failure of the Bâb project in
Persia. Everywhere else, the
movements that took place
(Mahdism, Senoussism, Pan-
Islamism) have been achieved in
the direction of Islam's current
march, not againstit.

What kind of attitude should

France adopt towards
this religion, wherever, in its
field, it has to deal with
her? From this point of view,
there's a distinction to be made
between the
North Africa and Sudan (including
Senegal).
In North Africa - Algeria, Tunisia
and Morocco - we're
a fait accompli. The entire population
native,
1 E. DOUTTE, L'Islam Algérien
en 1900 (published by order of
the
gouvernement général de
l'Algérie). Alger-Mustapha, 1900.

388 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
Arab and Berber, is Muslim and
cannot be relied upon
voluntary conversions: on the
other hand, the time to
inquisition and the dragonnades.
The missionaries
Catholics and Protestants
understood this and wisely
confined to charity and neutral
schools. This
it is not through a community of
opinion or faith thatwe
these Muslims, or at least that
they will be made to accept
our domination without ulterior
motive. But to be faithful and
devout, with a Pharisaic
devotion, and where the
outward signs have a greater part
to play than inner faith.
Muslim is no less a man and
accessible to everything that
can improve its situation. When
the material interests of
in North Africa will be linked to
the existence of
our domination, and when they
become aware of it, then itwil
will be more solidly based than if
it rested on a
community of religion, language
or race. This is what
in the cities, where the natives
are beginning to
feel that we have provided them
with security and prosperity, and
that they would have nothing to
lose by returning to the authority
of a
sultan, either of ancient race or
of recent origin, sheriff or
master of the hour, marabout or
big-tent leader. But he doesn't
we shouldn't be under any
illusions about how long it will
take to achieve this.
result. I'll mention just one fact,
and that is that Muslims
of Algiers, raised in the French
way, elected by the suffrage of their
the same religion, have spoken
out forcefully against
the rudimentary education we
wanted to give girls
Muslims. Elsewhere, in
Nedromah, for example, the
population
has been more liberal.
But by providing Muslims with
security and improved
their situation, you have to guard
against anything they might
as a tribute to their religion. The
spirit of
tolerance doesn't exist for them,
and in the thoughtfulness and
advances made to Islam, they see
nothing but a tributetothe
involuntarily rendered by infidels
to a religion whose
superiority. The current
organization of worship must
be maintained and improved, as
we see it as a meansto
of action that it would be
imprudent to relinquish. Webelieve
a way for official education to
penetrate theheartofthe
a class of native civil servants,
the elements of the
sciences, and to a certain extent,
the criticism and method
Europe. From this point of view,
medersas can be of great help.
services, provided that the
teaching is not
slavishly modelled on those of
otherArab universities
Muslimcountries.
On this occasion, it is not out of
place to say a word about the
religious brotherhoods.
Sometimes they were treated in
quantities
which we were wrong;
sometimes, on the contrary, we
were right.
exaggerated their influence, and
in so doing almost gave them a
importance they

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 389

are far from having. Inspired by

Duveyrier and his campaign
against the Senoussis, the latter's
hand was seen in every
disturbances and all
assassinations, even those
committed by
common highway robbers like
the Tuareg. He
we must not forget that at some
point in the future, such
fraction (not such and such an
order) can play a major role. In
1871, the
aristocratic party, represented by
Moqrani, had been unable to raise
against us than twenty-five
thousand insurgents: when the
brotherhood
a hundred thousand natives
armed themselves, and this was
the beginning of the
was against them that we had to
fight the fiercestbattles.
But thirty years have passed: the
circumstances that facilitated this
movement no longer exist. So,
without neglecting surveillance
of these brotherhoods, which are
secret only to us, should we
to avoid turning them into
monsters, and to avoid taking the
same
measures which, touching on
persecution, would run counter
to the
purpose. We must beware of
individualpropaganda.
which is exercised by
newspapers printed in Turkey
and which
preach pan-Islamism under the
authority of the Sultan, as wellas
to the contact established on the
Mekkepilgrimage.
In Sudan and Senegal, the
situation is no longer the same,
because alongside the Muslims
we still find pagans. The
are continually making progress,
as can be seen from the fact that
see by comparing the maps in M.
A.'s fine work.
Le Chatelier 1. For those who
know Islam, especially the Islam
of the
races, there is no doubt that every
converted pagan is
an auxiliary long removed from
civilization
Europe. It may serve it, but it will
neverbeable to
on him. Just look at thestory
to see that in Sudan, the Islam
practised by the negroes
left nothing but ruins behind him,
to buildupa new
ephemeral empires: those of
Othman in Fodio, of El Hadj
Omar, Mahmadou Lamine,
Samory and Rabah. He never
It is not, of course, a question of
persecuting Islam, but of
stopping its spread.
progress by promoting the work
of establishedChristian missions
in the country, and, of course,
those that comeunder
exclusively from France.
In short, in North Africa, we
need to focus on the mass
of believers through material
prosperity, and also to modify, by
time, the spirit of the upper
classes: it'shetime
that revolutions begin. But you
mustn't
that impatient spirits may want to
rush progress by
reforms, good in themselves
perhaps, but which would have
the
not to come at the right time, and
most of the time it is not
result would be to frighten off
those we want to make the
happiness in spite of themselves.
1 L'Islam dans l'Afrique
Occidentale, Paris, 1899,
Steinheil ed.

390 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
In Sudan, without declaring war
on Islam, which wouldbe
a fault, we must be careful not to
favour him and consider his
extension as progress over
barbarism. We can still
In half a century, it will be too late.
RENÉ BASSET.

MR EDMOND DOUTTÉ
Among the young Arabists at the
Algerian school, Mr. Edmond
Doutté was at the forefront. His
Étude sur les
marabouts, published in the
Revue d'histoire des religions, sa
Notice sur l'Islam algérien (Notice
on Algerian Islam).
can expect from him. A clear,
lucid mind with a broadcultural
background
and varied, Mr. Doutté is
interested in everything, from
language to customs,
history and geography, and he
would also have done well in
any of these areas. But it's the
questions
which attracted him. As he also
has a taste for action
in all its forms, he didn't want to
be a mere scholar, a mere
fgih, and has accepted
administrative positions where
he is
called upon to render the greatest
services.
It was during a remarkable
journey, which he had just
completed
in Morocco, that our request
reached him.
that his letter is dated. All the
while apologizing, as we shallsee,
the unfavourable conditions in
which he was placed to
Mr. Doutté was kind enough to
give us his opinion. The
letter we are about to read is
addressed to M. Augustin
Bernard, who has
known M. Doutté, student at the
Ecole Supérieure des Lettres
of Algiers, and who passed this
consultationon to me.
My dear Master, you do me the
honor, dangerous for
to ask my opinion on the Islamic
problem inEurope.
North Africa. I'll send you my
answer right away: but, to
To tell the truth, I'm afraid she's
a little influenced by
the distressing impression of a
darkly fanaticalenvironment
from where I'm writing to you.
What a sad and dreary city with its
labyrinth of narrow, dark streets
that even the bright, fiery
July sun doesn't manage to
brighten things up! El how hardit is,
for those who don't hate anyone,
to breathe this atmosphere
of hatred and contempt in which
the Christian here findshimself
enveloped on all sides! I've seen
Christian scorn everywhere
Morocco; nor is it absent from the
rest of Africa.
Minor; wild intolerance, I saw
some a few daysago
demonstrations in Zerhoun and
Méquinez, at the time of the
festival of the Aïssaoua, when I
walked under the insults; but the
fanaticism, refined, elegant,
polished and unyielding, I have
never seen
than in Fez. And that's why I'm a
little afraid to writetoyou
under such a distressingimpression.
Studying the Islamic question in
Africa Minor means
the origin and evolution of Islam
in this area.
country; it's

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 391

then determine its current
situation, its currentstatics;
but above all, I think, it means
asking what its future holds in
the changes that European
civilization has undergone
brings to the social state of
Muslims. In reality, it's hardly
other than what we in Algeria call
the "question".
and, in fact, all the Algerian
problems that have made
more or less boil down to this
one; for it
it's clear that if there were no
indigenouspeoplein North Africa
the problem of colonization
would notarise.

Mr. Hartmann has clearly shown

that from the Muslimpoint of view
the word Maghreb should include
not only Berberia,
but also northern Africa as far as
Alexandria and this
result is very much in line with
the ethnographic data and
linguistics; but it seems to us that
there is nevertheless reason to
make two divisions in this
religious field: one
including countries that are
developing under the influenceof
and these extend all the way to
Tunis, where the
this influence from the East is
marked by the presence of a party
"and the other including the
countries to the west and east.
whose religious evolution
continued under the influence
another religious home, the
Moroccan home. It is not
that, through its traditions, its
history, its allureandits
religious feelings, the whole of
Algeria belongs to the
second of these divisions, which
in any case have no limits
firm. The first of these two
centers of religiousinfluence,
the East, is characterized by the
formation of a party that
tries to accommodate Islam to the
progress of civilization
and by a kind of renovation of
literature and design.
Muslim sciences in which theaim
is to introduce
and methods of our science. The
home of Fez
is characterized by absolute
conservatism.
remain faithful to the old
traditions, and puttheirfaithinthe
to rigorously index anything
suspected of origin.
foreigners. Fez is printed (or at
least autographed)
for a number of years, but we
only print books by
pious genealogies, mysticism,
hadîts, the history of the
rhetoric, logic, and all the other
miserable baggage of
the narrowest Muslimorthodoxy.

And since I am in the midst of

the cherished, the pure, the true, I
ask your permission to leave out
of my presentation
response to everything related to
the Eastern influence. I
nor will I insist on the history of
Islam in Africa.
of the North: as you know better
than I, this is an arduous and
difficult subject.
still too poorly understood for it
to be worthwhile to take it out of
the public eye.
erudition. Comparing the present
state of
Morocco and Algeria can, it
seems, be enough to give us an idea
of
some idea of the state of Islam

392 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
in these two countries, with
Morocco accounting for asubstantial
an ancient state of Algeria and
that we have thus
two successive phases of the sameevent
simultaneously
process. I say: of the same,
because the evolution of Islam in
Morocco
is obviously set to continue in the
samevein
conditions than in Algeria, i.e. in
contact with a nation
Christian.
Islam, as it currently exists in
Morocco, is madeupof
since the 16th century: it emerged
from a violent reaction against
the Christians when, after
having expelled the Moors from
Andalusia, they were preparing to
invade Africa Minor.
and already occupied most of its
ports, both on the Atlantic
and the Mediterranean. It also
bears the mark of this
origin and its most salient
character is a narrow and
intolerant to understand Muslim
dogma. In addition
time, Moroccan Islam has
received an important legacy:
the ancient cult of ancestors and
saints, what we have called
elsewhere "maraboulism". But
here maraboulism has taken the
form of "sherifat". It is not
absolutely general, because there
are
marabouts who are not chérifs and
who enjoy
but also highly influential: the
Regrâga, for example,
but it's characteristic enough of
religion
Moroccan. An indigenous
element, namely the
preponderance of
the Cherifian element, and an
imported element, the narrow
dogma and
intolerant, that's what strikes even
the most casualobserver.
prepared.
Sherifat is the ancient Islamicized
cult of saints; being a sheriff,
i.e. descended from the Prophet
through his daughter, assures, in
Morocco,
all privileges, including that of
being worshipped after his death
and
even before. For it is a true
idolatrous cult
here to the saints, and I have no
hesitation in writing that here
Moulaye Idris
is revered not only as, but above
the prophet
Muhammad himself. As a result,
the Cherifim, or at least the
form an influential political party
whosemembersinclude
Moroccan statesmen are obliged
to take this into account.
As for the intolerance of dogma,
it often exceeds anything
we can imagine. I'm talking, of
course, about dogma as it stands.
understood by Moroccans. Even
today, the preacher of
the pulpit of El Qaraouiyîn
delivers a sermon on this text: "Those
who associate with Christians
share their fate entirely",
that is, go to hell like them. - This
is absolutely
contrary to Muslim orthodoxy
and the Koran, which contains
so many words of kindness for the
People of the Book, Christians
and Jews, but it's a fine example
of how dogmacan be altered.
inspired by fanaticism. -
Moreover, Islamism is not
more in the Koran than
Catholicism in the Gospel. The
texts have nothing to do with it:
it's a fact of life.
that hatred of the unbeliever is
characteristicofthe

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 393

of this country and fill a volume
with the thousand little
vexations that Europeans, despite
the fact that they circulate
now in perfect safety, are still
being subjected by the
Moroccan authorities who
carefully maintain these
feelings. I'll come back to this, if
you don't mind, my dear.
Master, because I would like to
show how Morocco responds to
goodwill towards him. As for us,
what
whatever self-serving flattery we
may receive
by certain Moroccans, wehave to
admit that weare
convince them that, for the time
being, we are what they thinkweare,
all of us Europeans, infidels,
people of whom we are repulsed.
to approach. To be sure, all it
takes is one
in cities like Salé or Fez; go to
the
Soûq el 'Attârîn, the main artery
of Fez, where the
mingles the cherifs, talebs,
merchants and commoners,
and read in their eyes the
unflattering sentiments
are the subject here. This
demonstration is worth all the
essays.

Am I painting too black a picture?

No doubt, on the coast you
find towns where people have
become accustomed to the
European, where they
frequent, where you do business
with him: but almost
always underneath the
obsequious attitude you'll discern
contempt
of the infidel. Even our protégés,
the natives we
Moroccan jurisdiction, who owe
us everything,
for which we do not hesitate to
enter into conflicts
serious, they have no other
feelings for us. Know-
how, in common parlance, they
call the trader
who protects them? they call it
their dog; they say: I bought
a guard dog, i.e. a dog that
defends them against
exactions of their caïd. It's still pure
Berber,
as in Algeria, that hatred of the
infidel is the least
developed. Among the Chleuh,
for example, there are afew
sympathies. Contact is difficult,
but these rough
mountain dwellers, when they
decide to serve you, you're
serve them well. Andif
independent tribes
Christians and even Jews, it is
rather the
hatred of the foreigner who guides
them than that of the miscreant.
Should we despair of Moroccan
fanaticism?
disarm? Of course not; we need
only remember that there are
a few centuries ago, we were in a
very similarstate of mind.
Even today, if we wanted to find
examples of
Christian fanatics with a hatred of
Muslims, we wouldn'thave
in Catholic Spain, and we'll be
sure to find them
would certainly find. But just
as intolerance
had to disarm, so fanaticismwill have
to disarm as well.
soften and give way to morepositve
feelings.
as happened in Algeria.
Religious brotherhoods are
generally accused ofmaintaining

394 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
intolerance, and we have to admit
that there's some truthtoit.
in this accusation. The purpose
of these companies is precisely
to
and exalt the faith, and it is only
natural that they should fall
in exaggerations. Particularly the
nascentbrotherhoods,
like that of the Kettâniyîn, to take
a concreteexample,
appeal to the fanaticism of the
masses. It's the eternal story of
all parties which, at their origin,
excite passions
to recruit followers, and which,
once established
and well seated, become ready for
all tolerances and al
compromise. This is why ancient
brotherhoods, suchas
the Tayyiebia, the Tîdjâniya...,
are less fanatical than the
others. Brotherhoods are
widespread in Morocco: some.,
like the Tîdjâniya, are recruited
mainly from the wealthy,
merchants, senior Makhzen
officials ;
others, to the practices of
convulsionaries, such as the
Aïssaoua, are mainly made up of
commoners,
the guîch, the army, the slaves,
the Bokharis. Neither
the others, but even less so the
seconds, have no influence
seriouspolicy.
The state of Algerian Islam in
1830 must have resembled
to that of current Moroccan
Islam. No doubt it
there were a few differences:
Maraboutism, althoughitwas
had not taken on the form of a
full-fledged
sheriffate; the religious
brotherhoods were perhaps a lite
less developed; but the spirit of
intolerance was surely
the same. As in Morocco, the
Berbers maintained
jealously guarded their
independence, but showed
also very lukewarm about
orthodoxy.
Muslims. So the Turks did not
intervene.
in religious matters; they
showered honors on those
marabouts while keeping them
out of politics. Let'ssee
so the changes brought about in
the condition of Islam
the arrival of the French: this will
give us an idea of the destinies
the future of Moroccan Islam,
because both peoples are
essentially comparable. It's a
wonderful thing that
to see how quickly the transplanted
native Algerians
in Morocco often revert to their
former spirit of intolerance and
I have some striking examples.
The Tlemcéniens colony in
Fez hates us more than the
people of this city do, and I've
even speaks of the Tlemcéniens
who, nowadays, come to live
Fez, and there are quite a few of
them. We don't hear
generalize this remark: for in
Moroccothere are
a few Algerians who have
remained our faithful servants, but
this does not invalidate our
observation.
Returning to Algeria, we must
first set aside the
Berber groups, such as Kabylia
and the Aurès: these groups
are characterized by an
extraordinary love of
independence;
also

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 395

they desperately resisted us. But,
like their brothers
Moroccans, they hated foreigners
rather than Moroccans.
Christian. For them, religion is
not an obstacle to
the establishment of relationships
between them and us. Experience
has
and these populations are now
among the world's largest.
our colonists' best helpers.
Moreover, they are
Islamized, but they are becoming
Islamized little by little: there is
no
It's in our interest to precipitate
this evolution, if it's to happen at
all.
But this is what has sometimes
happened. An excessive love of
uniform regulations pushed us, in
the Aurès, for example,
to assimilate them to entirely
Muslimpopulations.

Among the key figures who

shared influencewere
in Algeria, some of them came to
us more or less
others kept their distance; in the
end, they all ended up
to accept our authority, and there
is little propagandaof any kind.
against us. Most of the great
marabouts have seen their
influence disappear; we have
often been reproached for not
to have preserved them,
because, put to ouruse today
service, it would be very useful
to us: we forget that, in the
In the beginning, it could have
been even more damaging. But
it's
sure that it's time to stop down
this path and that there's
is appropriate, as is the case
elsewhere, to leave the smallest
marabouts all their prestige and
credit, as long as they don't
use it openly against us.
It's remarkable how welthe religious
brotherhoods seem to be doing,
in Algeria, have grown in
importance since the conquest
France. I'm well aware of the fear
that this might be a
illusion due to the fact that these
brotherhoods, for the past
twenty-five years
have attracted particular attention
and have been the focus of work
considerable. But it seems to us that
the increase in importance we are
reporting is real. This,
can be easily explained, and it
would be surprising
was not so. Fanaticism, banned
from officialpulpits,
must inevitably take refuge in
associations, and it is
that, if persecuted, they tend to
be more inclined to
take on the character of secret
societies. But, in our opinion,
they do not yet have this
character and do not constitute a
political danger: we are referring,
of course, to the brotherhoods
existing in Algeria. It is possible
that the Snoussiyia playedarole
an important role elsewhere; but
in Africa Minor, they have
have, so to speak, no followers,
and their influence is nil.
One of the most remarkable facts
in the evolution of Islam
is the rapid spread, through
contact with the European, ofa
relatively pure orthodoxy; many
of the populations that
did not regularly observe Muslim
prescriptions
became completely orthodoxunder
our domination.
This is due to

396 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

two reasons: firstly, because

communications are
now easier than in the past, and
that instruction
spread further; then, through a
process of
a very natural phenomenon that
can also be observed in
some Moroccan towns, Islamism
in the presence of the
Christianity becomes more
pronounced and exalted. The old
cults, the
old superstitions are gone; the
cult of the saints itself
and the many remnants of
paganism which the
avidly collected by folklorists
disappear withthe
fast. At the same time, some
educated Muslims
efforts to renovate their religion
using ideas borrowedfrom
to civilization, and we see the
emergence of a party analogous
to the "
young turk". Elements of this are
already discernible in Algiers,
through
forexample.
In short: lowering the influence
of the great marabouts;
maintaining and perhaps
increasing the importance of
brotherhoods, not very dangerous
in fact; easy access to our
civilization of non-IslamicBerber
populations
entirely; but on the other hand,
the rapid spread of an Islam
and symptoms of party-building
tendencies.
of Islamic renewal, this is the
march of AlgerianIslam
since the days when it resembled
that of Morocco. As for
intolerance, it has naturally
disappeared; but I wouldn't dare
to say
that there is no longer any
repugnance between the two
races. Itis
from the bottom, not from the
top, as Mr.
Le Châtelier, that the connection
is made. The Muslims
educated are those who are
furthest from us. At
on the contrary, it's the
indigenous workers who
fraternize with the
khammès, who become familiar
to our settlers,
small civil servants, day
labourers, domestic servants
accountants, local commercial
employees who take
little by little our habits and
profess only an Islam
and conciliatory. Irregular unions
between natives and
in the working classes, are much
higherthaninEurope.
than you might think. Examples
of faithful and
of dedication are innumerable.
These last remarks
will tell us what to do about Islam.
Several policies are possible in
this respect. We can adopt
a policy of severe repression of all
demonstrations
continue to reduce the number of
marabouts;
hindering the action of the
brotherhoods, while at the same
time
however, fair to Muslims. On the
contrary,
to encourage the emergence of a
new Islam more inclined towards
compromise and tolerance
towards Europe; encouraging
young ulama who are making
attempts in this direction;
multiplying
creation of mosques, mederças
and Muslimuniversities,
by entrusting posts to adherents of
these new theories.
Without going that far, we can still

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 397

the marabouts and confraternities
by means of a series of
favours and good treatment and to
make AlgerianIslam
a means of government.

The first policy is repugnant to

our temperament and to our
traditions of kindness towards the
natives of our colonies;
and then we know that
persecution has onlyever
its victims. Algerians who would
like to pushus
in this direction are certainly not
aware of the serious
that would await us if we gave in
to theirdemands.
solicitations. The last policy
contains a large proportion of
truth in the sense that we need to
keep in constanttouch
with marabouts and
brotherhoods, with the aim of
simply
control; but religion can no
longer be for us a
instrument of government: for
this reason, it does not present
fairly broad and solid base. The
second policy is the most
and most seductive; but there are
serious reservations to be made
about
do. Experience shows that these
renovationmovements
in the colonies only lead to the
death of the
formation of turbulent and
confused parties, dangerous for
the
metropolis. If an Islamic
renaissance movement is to
to take place, there's no need to
rush it. To get out of the way safely
from the semi-darkness in which
it currently finds itself, civilization
must proceed slowly and by
conquest
successively. Nothing is more
dangerous than the development
of an intelligence, if the
background of the character does
notevolve
not at the same time. By rushing
into an evolution of
of this kind, we run the risk of
seeing the emergence of a
generation of
rebellious Muslims, lost in the
chimeras of the
pan-Islamism or sterile dreams of
revenge.
national.

It's to more positive matters that

we must return
the attention of Muslims. They
are all too prone to
idle speculations: they must be
taught to cultivate their
garden. While leaving them
complete freedom to choose their
own
their religion, create interests that
absorb them. We
we saw that it was among the
workers that we counted
the most friendly Muslims: so it's
through work that we must
to us. This program, my dear
Master
I've heard you say it to yourself:
moderate and professional
education, enabling thenative
to become the useful auxiliary of
our industries and our
agriculture; development of
provident institutions for
of all kinds; development of the
taste for commerce, so widespread
in Morocco, for it is one of the
country's defining features that
the merchant's political
importance, and this is perhaps
the only
the armour of fanaticismcaneasily be
breached.
Moroccan.
It will be said that all this is not
Muslim policy: it's
true; when it comes to Muslim
matters, we can onlyconceive of
one
policy

398 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
which is the absolute respect of
any manifestation
when it's not a threat to us. Itis
obviously a lacklustre concept; at
least it's
careful, because religion is like a
two-edgedsword,
it's dangerous to use it and even
more dangerous
to wrap a religiouspolicy in a single
formula
for populations as diverse as
those who
in Africa Minor: it's better not to
think of these
matters than individual cases to
be solved separately. Little by
little
the Muslim will soon be
entwined in the network of
civilization and
its interests will merge with those
of the Europeans.
we are currently going through a
critical period caused by the
sudden juxtaposition of two
civilizations as different as
those of Islam and Christianity;
there have been victims, both
among Europeans and natives
alike. But the
the government's solicitude has
never wavered for a moment
for the natives and, on his own, he
sought remedies fothre
we were unwittingly causing.
You said it yourself
yourself: the solution to the
Algerian problem is organization
of collaboration between the
native and the settler in the work
of the
earth. This is the direction in
which all efforts must be
directed: this
day the Islamic problem will be
close to being solved, and if a
renovation of Muslim thought
has really taken shape, he
will be time to help it develop,
like the flowering
of an entire society of work and
peace, and notnly
like a forced flower, precocious,
boisterous and necessarily
sterile.

It seems that Morocco will be

responsible for the development
of this
policy, for it is from Fez that we
should be able to direct
the destiny of Algerian-Moroccan
Islam.
the Imâm, the Cherif, the one
who, in the eyes of the pure,
alone possesses the
conditions required to govern the
Believers. Theelaboration
of a Muslim policy in Fez would
involve the study of the
balance to be maintained between
the two major
rulers of Islam, the Mongol, that
of Stamboul, and theArab,
Merrakech and Fez. We know
that the latter
does not recognize the right of
another to be the Imâm of the
Believers.
The Imâm must in fact be an
Arab, and as a Sheriff, at least of
the Qoreïch tribe. But the Sultan
of Stamboul is only a Turk,
a Grand Turk, it's true, but a
Turk at last. No one in the
world can't be surprised that we
aspire to found this
policy and the work we are
pursuing in Algeria and France.
Tunisia gives us all the liters.
Paid worship and
protected, Muslim education
organized at great expense, the
provident institutions created
everywhere, the doors of all
the quarries open to the natives at
both ends, their
the smallest of demands, studied
and continually
before the country's
representatives, generations of
men from
head and heart used to good
administration

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 399

of Muslims, all this creates not
only rightsfor us,
but duties. I don't know if this
last satisfaction
to complete the work begun in
North Africa wilbe
but you probably think like me,
my dear.
Master, that our destiny in this
country suits us for
its greatest good.
EDMOND DOUTTÉ.
P.-S. - I'm re-reading the proofs
of this article when I get back
from
Morocco: my fears were well-
founded. The atmosphere in
in which I had been immersed for
months.
impressed me enough not to leave
me amomenpt'seace.
freedom of mind. This also
means that the future of
than the future of religion, and
that I'd like to see the people
didn't answer your question
precisely.
Your readers are sure to make the
adjustmentthemselves
and perhaps they won't begrudge
me the opportunity
for giving us a glimpse into the
state of mind of an Arabist on
tour in France.
Morocco (E. D.)

MR WILLIAM MARÇAIS

At the age of twenty-eight, Mr.

W. Marçais has already been
director of the Tlemcen medersa.
He studied at theÉcole
des Langues Orientales and
defended a remarkable thesis in
D. on inheritance in Muslim law.
He has published
articles in the Grande
Encyclopédie, in the Jewish
Encyclopedia, in the Bulletin
Archéologique de l'Afrique du
North. His work on the
Traditions of the Prophet is in
progress.
currently being published in the
Journal Asiatique. He is
especially law and Muslim
theology. His letter examines
what transformations Berbers and
theirdescendants will undergo
beliefs in the presence of the most
generous of nations
European.

The general public, if they are

still unaware of it, will quickly
learn to
the name of Mr. Marçais, as that
of a man of exceptional
of great merit and great future.
Sir, this answer is not entirely
consistent with the
question you did me the honor of
asking. You
I hope you'll forgive me if I don't
include here, inthecontext
the delicate problem of the future
of African Islam in the 20th century
the religious destinies of the
Sudan and itsNegropopulations.
In all honesty, I couldn't say. I
will limit myself, if
to indicate the few facts that
allow us to identify
believe in the religious evolution
of Africa Minor, from
the possible trends of this
transformation and
determine the social environment
in which it can occur. Right
of course, I would liketoexpress in
advance

400 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALQUESTIONS
the reservations that a wise
apprehension of the denials of the
future
must impose on modernprophets.

Over the past seventy years, a

new element has been introduced
in the economy of Maghribi
Islam. A powerhouse
representatives from the
European Union have set up
shop in his home.
Western civilization have lived
side by side with the sectarians
Berbers of the Prophet, mixed
their dailylives with their own,
have undertaken to direct their
instruction, sometimesto regulate
their institutions, have, to a
certain extent, assignedthem
a place in society or, better still,
the juxtaposition of societies
the human groups of North
Africa. It is not
that the fate of Maghribi Islam wilbe
decidedbythe
intimately linked to the destinies
of France. We wouldn't risk
to say that, to a large extent, it is
between the
of this power, and this is a well-
documented fact
to tempt advice-givers. Allow
me,
as much as I can, not to be one of
them. I don't
neither right nor envy; I will
content myself with considering
thestate
and assume its continuation. As a
result, I
I realize that it's still necessary to
limit the scope of my
answer. A significant part of
Africa Minor escapes
to any European influence:
Morocco isolated in itsown
independent barbarism,
systematically closed to penetration
western. This epithet is ill-suited
here, but I can't thinkofany
no other. Moreover, there is no
reason to doubt that the
the same phenomena would occur
there as in Algeria and Tunisia
the day when all pettiness of
international rivalry ceases,
the chancelleries and courts
would understand that
it is in everyone's best interest to
entrust the guardianship of this
empire to the country that your
collaborator M. de Caix called
the "inevitable heir" of the Cherif
family.

In the mass of Maghribi Muslims,

it is naturally
on the most polite, self-awaregroups.
that the spectacle of civilization,
the contact of ideas and the
of European mores will have to
exertthe most profound
influence. This elite is offered to
us by the population of
cities. It just so happens that, in
the cities, Muslims, in some
larger proportions than elsewhere,
and in a more intimate way, are
mingled with the daily life of the
conquerors; that on the other hand
this is undoubtedly where we'll
find the mostcomprehensive
and purest of Islam, sometimes
the true cultureofthe
Muslim. From this double fact, it
seems legitimate to conclude,
that the observation of urban
environments presents, for the
question
is of the utmost interest. If Islam
maghribin is undergoing some
kind of transformation, it is in
that the precursory tremors of the
crisis, the
revealing symptoms of the future
can best be glimpsed-
THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 401

çus. In principle, Islam, it must be

acknowledged, is hardly
for scientific research, such as
we have been
understand. "Allah does
everything, at all times and as he
sees fit.
please." This is his fundamental
axiom, which has profoundly
penetrated Maghribi brains; and
no conception
is more strongly opposed to
Malebranche's thought that
our Renan considers to be a
prerequisite for all science
human: "The world is not
governed by wills
" When you have suchafirst cause
the search for secondary causes
may seemabitcumbersome.
useless and even guilty. I'm well
aware of the historicalfacts,
the real Muslim culture of the
East and Andalusia in the
the Middle Ages, seem to speak
out strongly against this
theoretical observation. But I'm
not afraid to say that, at
Nowadays, this is exactly the
spirit of the good olddays.
the literati around me. Only the
practical applications of our
discoveries affect them to the
extent that they bring
some new convenience to the
satisfaction of their modest
needs. They do not disdain our
medicine because itis
cures cases where empiricalrecipes
fail
they appreciate the telegraph
because, when it's in theirhands
country the weather is foggy as
ramadhân approaches, the thread
mysterious can bring them the
news thatis
the crescent moon appeared,
marking the beginning of the
sacred fasting. The disinterested
search for effects and causes,
the effort of the human mind do
not enter for them in line of
account. The institution of
railroads, for example, does not
in their eyes are nothing more
than machines to be bought and
engineers, mechanics on the
payroll, all things that
Islam, once again independent
and wealthy, could borrow from
to Europe, just as the Almohads
once offeredthemselves
Christian mercenaries, just as
today's
Moroccan sultans offer instructorsfor
their army
French or English. But a new
generation is rising,
significantly different from its
predecessors. A frequent visitor to
our
schools, a young party was
formed to which the curiosity
is not entirely foreign. We took
pleasure in
find in the teaching of French
masters theexplanation
theory of facts with practical
applications
verified their accuracy through
the experience of everydaylife.
In addition, elements of widely
differing value can be found side
by side inthe
the party of "civilization and
progress". Many young
are really abusing these big words
without hearinganything.
For some, the love of civilization
is just a means to an end.
for others, the consequence of that
familiarnaive desire to
the vanquished, to get closer to
the victors. A
many of these progressive people,
it's enough to adapt more or less
their European costume and
drink QUEST. DIPL. AND
COL. - T. XII. 26

402 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

sometimes unscrupulous: "Don't

forget," I used to saytomyself.
one of them to whom I once
remarked, that the vices
are an important part of
civilization. I'mafraid
for many our vices are not even
our civilization al
whole. In this young party, the
elite is undoubtedly formed by
those who, to an exact knowledge
of our sciences, join
a good Muslim culture. This is
where, if any spirit
that we have to look for the seed.
We
of the harmony between the
Koran, traditionandthe
and dogma, with modern science.
We takeacloserlook
rationalist interpretation and also
towards a
a certain relativism, according to
which many of the
Islam would not have an absolute
value for all times and all
cultures.
for all places. In theology, we
affirm our esteem for
motazilites. The other day I
heard some young Muslims
to discuss the opportunity and
possibility of a return, to the
to the doctrines of this sect, and
the need for amorecomplete
rationalist exegesis of the Koran.
It may be that the twentieth century
saw the emergence of a new kindof
Islamism in North Africa.
analogous to the American and
Hindu Islamisms to which M.
Goldziher recently alluded to this
in his masterful
contribution to this survey, and
we can foresee that thingswill
would not stop there, for by
abandoning old positions
long defended, religions don't
usuallyprepare themselves
but new opportunities to retreat. It
would
interesting for France, and
perhaps even opportune, to
this movement. Having provoked
the apparitions, we
we could, it seems, without too
much unreason, worry about the
direction. Undoubtedly, there is
always some impertinence for
unbelievers to get involved in
questions of dogma and faith. A
great circumspection, an extreme
delicacy of touch
would be de rigueur in an
attempt of this nature. But don't
that our very religious
indifference would, ,be
infact a sign of
our
a guarantee of discretion?
Certainly, our
modern impiety better prepares
us to take, without too many
clumsiness, a position on the hot
ground of dogmatism
than the Christian fervor of some
of our neighbors.
For this work, we wouldn't have
to create asingle
new instrument. Schools ofhigher
education
in North Africa, that verydifferent
political concerns were
have had the French government
placed underFrench surveillance and
the direction of French people,
could be advantageously
used. Two parallel series of
studies are included in their
programs: physiology, geology,
modernphysics
with the old orthodox theology,
the old lawandthenew
the old Koranic exegesis. For the
time being, these
various acquaintances howl a
little to findthemselves
together; but perhaps

THE FUTURE OF ISLAM 403

that, conceived in a different way,
this discordantcoupling
in the future into a fruitful union.
He remains against
of this transformation in the
making, which our
Arabized Berber subjects do not
constitute, whatever one may say,
than a race with a poor capacity
for reflection, with a brain
rather heavy, with a rather crude
intelligence. Of course, I
honorable exceptions. But in a
way
the Maghreb is unaware of the
flexibility that countless
to the Orient. North Africa is a lite
the Boeotia of Islam. Our
immediate predecessors in the
the Turks, who offered the most
astonishing blend of
all the ethnic elements of the
Mediterraneanbasin,
could have made a significant
contribution to solving the
problem.
problem. We forced them to re-
embark after the
conquest of 1830; once again, we
must regretit.

What seems to be clear from the

facts is that this elite, to which I
can't be considered as a"new"produc.t
the natural and necessary
blooming of the layers
de Roberty told us about. She
under foreign and external
influence; there is no such thing
as a
not germination from within, but
penetration from without'.
To a certain extent, it must be
considered a product.
artificial, certainly not
spontaneous. In the masses
of the Maghribi population,
especiallyamong rural dwellers,
there's no reason to believe that
ideas and attitudes are changing
beliefs. Predisposed by nature to
immobility, or in any
to an extreme slowness to
change, they have undergonelittle
the influence of French
education. They come into contact
with the coarser elements of the
population
conquerors; sometimes, in the
case of nomads for example, they
have
contact. The Islam of this
primitive population is what
singular mix of fetishistic and
anthropolatricbeliefs
which Mr. Doutté has excellently
described in his book on
Marabouts: he is singularly
ignorant. A country boy in
I asked him one day what houris
were, and he told me this
response, worthy of a Kâfir
coraïchite contemporary of the
Prophet,
that he considered them to be the
daughters of Allah. The most
popular
suras of the Qur'an where it is
asserted that God did not give
birth and
was unknown to him. No doubt
the spectacle of
our material civilization, the
conviction of our superiority
will have to be modified in a
certain sense, and
to a certain extent, the mentality
of these thick brains.
This is a factor that it would be
illegitimate to ignore.
But who can predict the outcome
of these changes in the
coming year?
2000 ? They don't seem to be very
deep at the moment;
because, if we are to give
credence to certain statements in
recent
events at Margueritte, the
natives, who have been
worked for many years at

404 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

French farmers, were the first to

believe in
ridiculous promises of a low-
class impostor. Doesn't it seem
that the thesis of the "diffusion of
enlightenment through the
colonization" slightly lessened?
What's more, it's
that rural Europeans are adopting
the
superstitions of their native
environment. I know of several
cases of settlers, especially
Spaniards, who, under certain
circumstances
made vows to the marabouts and
the saints
or employed the science of
Moroccan talebs for the
discovery of imaginary treasures.
So why not
can we talk a little about the
future of AfricanChristianity?
in the 20th century?
However, it's not impossible that
in the future some
aspirations of the Maghribi elite
is not reflectedinthe
even in slow, obscure rural areas.
An action
of this elite over the masses must
be seen as allthemoreimportant
more likely that the former will
give the latter its heads,
administrators, Muslim
magistrates, members of the
clergy, etc.
: these civil servants, all more or
less representatives of Islam
will enjoy, over the mass of their
co-religionists, a
official authority, and sometimes
they will also add to it, because
of their
that consideration which the least
cultivated Muslim givesto
influence on men of science.
consented to. There can be little
doubt that our civilservants
maghribins believe they have the
right and duty to play this role.
Can
Perhaps we should prepare them
to do so with nobility. This
would be a concern that would
seem timely to some, but to al,
I'm sure, more worthy of a great
civilized country, than the
coquetry with the representatives
of crass ignorance, of the
fanaticism, imposture: the marabouts.
W.MARÇAIS.
The abundance of material
obliges us to refer to the next
number the last African answers
and the conclusion.
EDMOND FAZY.

ENGLAND'S ECONOMIC
DEPENDENCE

FROM A FOODPERSPECTIVE
A school of German economists
postulates that
governments must ensure the
independenceofeach state
economy. The normal nation,"
says List, "is one that is not
can not only provide for its
defense, but can also, thanks to
the
simultaneous development of
industry and agriculture,
to live off its own resources,
without needing to callon
the support of foreigners.

Needless to say, List speaks as a

theorist.
No country can be completely
self-sufficient. Vist
climate, the small size of its
territory, the density of its
population
its population are, depending on
the case, as many reasons
obliges him to enter into relations
with his neighbors and to
to ask for what he himself cannot
produce, at least in
sufficient quantity for its
consumption. But one fact standsout
attention immediately, when you
consider the old
nations of Europe is that they are
all tending, more and more,
to move away from the perfect
balance advocated by List; and to
switch to
what we might call a state of
industrialproduction
preponderant. They multiply their
factories; their
urban working-class populations
are increasing in large
proportions, while their rural
populations remain
stationary or even decreasing. It
is easy to predict
double consequence of this
phenomenon: on the one hand,
these nations
are obliged to look for ever new
outlets
for their manufactured products,
and, at the same time, they
need to make ever more frequent
use of foodstuffs.
food from new worlds:
France, Germany and England all
donate,
but to different degrees, examples
of this breakwiththepast.
balance. In France, the
phenomenon is still not very
apparent,
but it does exist. The 52% of our
population
fifty years ago, lived from the
cultivation of the soil (18,200,000
out of 36,000,000). Today

406 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

this same culture now employs

only 17,500,000, and,
as the total population increased,
the proportion went from
52 à 45 %. However, as yields
per hectare haveincreased
on the one hand, and, on the
other, the progress of machinery
allow us to use fewer hands in
some cases, weareableto
are no more indebted to
foreigners than they were in the
middle
century. In fact, the area sown to
this crop is very similarto that of the
previous century.
They are now more or less the
same as they were then: 7
million hectares.
In Germany, the exodus to the
cities is already much greater.
Between 1882 and 1895,
agriculture lost around
700,000 workers and the rural
population rose from 19,200,000
to
18.500.000. But the typical
country in this respect is
England!
Here, the break in equilibrium is
complete.
employed in the fields, six are
employed in the fields.
manufacturing; trade alone
occupies as many workers as
soil cultivation. From 1861 to
1891, the industry gained 1,200,000
workers, agriculture lost over
600,000. The progress
on the other hand, have not been
able to compensate for the lack
of manpower; the area sown has
increased considerably
and wheat sowing, which in 1861
occupiedthelargest
1,456,815 hectares had shrunk to
746,617 by 1900. Vist
wheat imports, on the other hand,
increased in the
following proportions :
1867 10 million quintals
1890 41.2 -
1891 44.7 -
1802 47.3 -

1893 46.9 -

1894 48.3 -
1895 53.6 -
1896 49.6 -
1897 44.3 -
1898 47.2 -
1899 49.2 -

1900 49.3 -
We propose to take a closer look
here at the questionof
the supply of England; we would
like to find out what
that Great Britain produces for
itself, and, above all, from
how much it owes to foreigners.
Unlike
in fact to what we see in most
other countries,
imports of foodstuffs are not on
the rise.
England a simple complement to
remedy
the inadequacy of indigenous
production, they form the fund
even the food necessary for the
subsistence of almostall
of the English nation. Bread,
butter

ENGLAND'S ECONOMIC
DEPENDENCE
407
meat eaten by our neighbors, as
well as tea, beer and wine
that they drink, are imported
from outside, so that the attic, the
kitchen
and the cellar would be empty, the
day when, for some reason,the
maritime communications wouldbe
interrupted.
Over the past few years, the
prospect of a blockade has become
a veritable obsession for our
neighbors across the Channel.
anxiously wondering what the
situation in their country would
be on
when a European or American
nation declares war on it.
war. The question of supplies was
not developed.
only by publicists and economists,
it has gonebeyond
of Parliament; on April 6, 1897,
the House of Commons
communes declared, following a
unanimous vote, "that the fact
that England was dependent on
the powersthatbe.
for the foodstuffsit needs
deserved to attract the full
attention of His Majesty's
government.
Majesty". Mr. Balfour replied that
the security of his
on the strength of the navy, and
that he accepted this withoutany
the responsibility for the
proposed amendment. The Navy
English," he said, "is large enough
not only to
to defend the coastline, but also
to protect convoys of
food from outside. Not everyone
shares
England this exaggeratedoptimism.
Insufficient production of
domestic wheat is a problem
relatively recent order. A century
ago, England
produced enough to meet the
needs of a population that was
than a third of that attributed to it
by recentstudies.
statistics; but the increase in the
number of inhabitants, fromone
on the one hand, the changes to
the customs system, from
the other, completely changed
the face of things. In 1800, the
census service gave England 15
million
subjects, today there are nearly
41 million and
continuous growth. In the past,
representatives of the great
the law in Parliament and put
cultureon the agenda.
from foreign competition; today,
it's the same thing.
are the Westminster
representatives of the industrial
towns that
predominate, and their efforts are
constantly aimed at facilitating
conditions of material life. In this
way, the struggle
will be easier, because we'll be
able to maintain wages
at a fairly low rate. Cobden
claimed, around 1842, that of the
21
million quarters of wheat
consumed by his compatriots, a
million was imported; this was
because, at that time, with
15 million fewer inhabitants, there
was a surfacearea
double the current level. Therepeal
of the sliding scale in 1846
enabled Americanwheat

408 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
to enter English ports freely. I
don't have to
discuss the good or bad that this
measure may have caused; a
one thing, at any rate, is certain:
the free entry of wheat
the result was that farmers were
forced to
abandon a crop that was
becoming ruinous. The agronomists
claim that, generally speaking, a
hectoliter of
wheat must not sell for less than
20 francs: below that,
they say, the producer doesn't
come back in his disbursements.
However, in
1894, a hectoliter of American
wheat was quoted in London at 13
francs.
(average price in 1900, 15 fr. 25
per hectoliter; maximum price,
17
fr. 50). This illustrates the loss
incurredby
farmers in the southeast, the only
part of the country where youcan
seeding. Thisdebasement of prices
to bring about a considerable
reduction in
planted areas. From 1899 to 1900,
wheat cultivation was again
lost 40,000 hectares (
Agricultural retum for 1900). All
the
In 1870, there were 7,407,340cereal
mills in France.
hectares of ploughed land, in
1900, 6,346,032.
On the other hand, the abolition
of the sliding scale had the
advantage of
keep the price of bread fairly
low; and while the
decrease in the value of silver led
to a generalincrease
prices, the price of bread, on the
other hand, hardly changed at all.
kilograms of better quality,
which sold in the middle of the
In the 19th century, it was 35
centimes, and by 1887 it had
fallen to 30 centimes.
centimes. A brief presented two
years ago to the Société de
the situationas follows
of England in terms of its wheat
production: "Our
production in 1897 amounted to
6,391,000 quarters; our imports
at 21,664,000 quarters ;
we deduce that every subject of
Her Majesty consumes 338
pounds of flour and that, of these
338 pounds, only 77 are
ofnationalorigin.
It is interesting to review the
various ways in which
were proposed to correct the
abnormality of sucha
situation. Three systems have
been advocated in newspapers
and magazines.
magazines; at present, none has
yet been adopted by the
Parliament. England has been led,
by the observation of its
interest, of course, in free trade.
The famous
laissez faire, laissez passer falls,
it is true, a little in
and the State seems to be
increasingly inclined to
with the help of taxes or zero-
rating, as the case may be, the
life of our customers.
of the country's economy in a
given direction; this tendency
be powerful enough even in
Cobden country to be able to
overturning the ideas of the
Manchester School? The events
that arouse hatred of foreigners
and make people consider
some jingoes as a lack of patriotism
to buy anything from nations that,
they say, don't want themto
veu-

ENGLAND'S ECONOMIC
DEPENDENCE
409

could well have this consequence

unexpected.
The first system would consist of
erecting barriers
against imports from outside. If
the surfacearea
its promoters claim, is that wev' e
been able to reduce the amount
became impossible, at one time,
to fight against the
foreign wheat. Here, labour is
expensive and the price of land
is very high; the producer's
remuneration must therefore be
itself under corresponding
conditions; the day when
protective rights will prevent the
debasement of the courts, you
you'll see the farmer return to a
crop he'd onlyleft behind
reluctantly 1.
Would the raising of customs
barriers ensure
independence of the British
Isles? It has been calculated that
the
yield per hectare was 26.5
hectolitres. Despite a
the same high average, total
domestic production will not
barely exceeds 21 million
hectolitres, while the
consumption claims 87: we
deduce that it would be necessary
to put
3 million new hectares of wheat,
i.e. converting
quarter of the total area to be
seeded. The land is
Would it lend itself to such an
upheaval? France, which
for a grain-growing country, only
13% of its land is planted with
cereals.
a protective duty of 5 francs per
hectare.
hectoliter creates a kind of
monopolyfor our farmers.
But supposing the proposed
method were possible, what
would be the consequences?
would be the consequences? The
price of bread would inevitablyrise
and even in a very large
proportion: the kilo wouldnot be
paidfor
not 35, but 50 centimes, maybe
more. Themanufacturer
which is already struggling to
compete with its rival
Germany, should in turn raise
wages. This new
factor would certainly not be
likely to facilitate
the sale of manufactured goods
on the European market.
just the fact that most British
industries do not manufacture
than for the foreigner gives this
question a seriousness
exceptional.

The second system is also

designed to protect
the native farmer; but he intends
to achieve this by means
different. He considers it more
advantageous not to
customs tariffs, as this could lead
to the creation of new
retaliation, and you can't
undermine a company's
reputation with impunity.
free trade without fear of
foreigners closingtheirdoors.
its doors.

The fear of customs reprisals led

to the admission of the
principle of a direct premium to
be paid to wheatproducers;
but no matter how wealthy a
country is, anyincrease or
The creation of a tax has given
rise to countlesscomplaints.
Theworker
1 At present, foreign wheat only
pays an entry fee of
60 centimes per importedhectoliter.

410 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
is flattered in its national pride
when we speak to him of
new conquests; the prospect of a
major war
He's not going to be unhappy
about it either; he mayeven
be less belligerent when he better
grasps the economicside of the
situation.
of the question, when he realizes
that Parliament,
precisely because of the
possibility of war, is obliged to
protect agriculture at the expense
of industry.
Finally, we have proposed a third
system inspired by others
motives. Its promoters are no
longer concerned with production
the possibility of famine,andthnedtofinasdtohluein
to make it impossible; they
thought they had found the way
in the creation of nationalgranaries.
The quantities of flour, which the
English government should
vary according to the length of
the product.
future wars; we do agree,
however, thatwith
the progress of modern
weaponry, a blockade would not
last long.
more than six months, and
concluded that some thirty million
hectoliters are expected to be
placed in reserve. The consequences
the creation of national granaries
are quitesignificant.
difficult to determine; but the
only news that the cabinet of
Saint-James is ready to take over
such wheat stocks
could well lead to a general rise
in prices, whose
English consumers would
certainly not be the only ones to
suffer.
On the one hand, the following
statistics give a cleareridea of
of insufficient domestic
production, on the other,
the countries that supply England
with whatineeds.
is lacking. Since 1896, the poor
harvests in India and
made England almostindebted to
Australia.
exclusively from countries with
which it has no ties.
policy.
Wheat imports (in francs). 1900
1899 1898
583.166.870 547.030.375
635.681.280

Flour imports (in francs) 1. 1900

1899 1898
252.562.450 267.524.S00
288.636.075

1 Flour imports are almost

entirely from the United States.
1900, the United States sent a
stock of flourto England.
representing a value of
209,156,400 francs.

ENGLAND'S ECONOMIC
DEPENDENCE
411

Provenance of wheat (in francs).

1900 1899 1898
United States 280,000,009
295,392,500 382,379,150

Rep. Argentina 152,000,000

75,000,000 44,000,000
Canada 55,000,000 45,000,000
48,000,000

Russia 37,000,000 21,000,000

62,000,000
Australia 32,000,000 31,000,000
9,199,050

India none 66,000,000 86,000,000

As we know, the Anglo-Saxon is
a big meat eater: it's
from which it draws its strength
and energy. It does not
nothing to exaggerate: if the rich
Englishman feeds on
rare roast beef, the harbor worker
and the Irishpeasant
know how to be satisfied with
pork, perhaps less
fortifying but definitely cheaper.
On average,
the Anglo-Saxon eats 132
pounds of meat annually, which
is
can be broken down as follows 1
:
Beef 63 pounds

—sheep 32 -
—pork 33 -
Of these 132 pounds of meat, 78
are of English origin and
54 of foreign origin; the
proportion of imports is
even stronger than it appears at
first glance, because a
part of the foodstuffs that beef
feeds on, as well as a part
materials used to fertilize
pastures, are purchased on the
the continent: so it's not 54
pounds that should be said,
but maybe 60.
Can England, to a certain extent,
reduce this
proportion? We don't think so.
Statistics tell us
learn that, over the last twenty
years, the extension of the
pastures has enabled the breeding
of much morelivestock.
than in the past (in 1866, the British
Isles
used to raise 8 and a half million
oxen; today they are
11; the number of sheep in 1866,
26 million, are now in excess of
30 million).
farmers' efforts did not prevent
the import of
to follow a gradual progression,
due to theincreasing
population. The Blue Books
open onto
interesting details. First of all,
we
of the large-scale traffic inlive
animals
the object: in 1898, theAngle1
Angle1 presented to the London
Statistical Society,
december 1899.

412 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
600,000 oxen from the United
States, from Canada
95,000, the Argentine Republic
35,000.

Meat imports, which in 1898

amounted to 869
million in 1900 to 982 million.
The trade in frozen meat, which in
recentyearshas been
years, to take a great
development, comes then with
figures no less significant. In
1895, Australia
shipped 1,701,735 pieces of
sheep, New Zealand 2,176,441
and the RepublicofKorea2,176,441.
Argentina1,615,562.
We often talk about the imperial
federation; the Zollverein
would it be possible for England
to
its colonies alone as a means of
making up for lost tim.e
food deficit? In studying the
question of wheat, the little grain
that the colonies supply to
their metropolis; India, Canada,
Australia are sellers
insignificant in the face of Russia
and, above all, the UnitedStates.
The same applies to meat.
Neither
neither Canada nor Australia can
currently supply
the BritishIsles.
Here is the table of meat imports
for the year 1900:
Meat imports - Year 1900.

Live beef. Total imports. Value:

255,113,325
francs.
United States 162,000,000 -

Canada 44,000,000 -
Live SHEEP. Total imports.
Value: 15,252,700
—

United States 5,609,000

Argentine Republic 5,700,000 -

FROZEN MEAT (beef). Import,

total. Value: 204.084.700 -
United States 151,494,000 -

Australia 29,200,000 -

FROZEN MEAT (mutton). Total

imp. Value: 143.037.450 -
Australia 84.506.025 -
Argentine Republic 42,226,950 -
PORK MEAT. Total imports.
Value: 293,349,225
—

United States 187,298,575

Denmark 76,469,550 -

Canada.
......26.886.125 -
After wheat and meat,milk, butter
and eggs are the most important
ingredients.
the main factors in the foodtrade.
Per capita consumption of milk
per year amounts to
or its

ENGLAND'S ECONOMIC
DEPENDENCE
413
to 65 gallons (295 liters), of
which only 36 are
ofEnglishorigin.
Imports of butter, condensed
milk and margarine were
reached 541 million francs in
1900. For the
butter purchases up sharply in
recent years
previous years; in fact, imports
rose from
383.175.000 (1898) à
436.260.000 (1900).
In 1898, butter importers
included
Denmark, creditor for 168
million francs; then the
Holland for 97 million francs;
and France for 58 million francs.
million francs. Despite their
efforts, Australia and Canada
shipped only small quantities of
stock.

Eggs, like milk, come largely

from
outside. In 1899, egg imports totaled
of 127 million francs: each
Englishman has, on average,
ate 44 foreign eggs. Remarkable
that egg imports have risen
sharply in recentyears
1897; at that time, the figure was
only 87 million.
of francs.
Here are the import tables for
butter in 1900 and eggs
in 1899 :
Butter imports - Year 1900.

Total imports in francs:

436,260,800 fr. Imports
total weight: 1,649,244 quintals.
PROVENANCES 1. - Denmark
206,740,550 t.
France 44,625,000
Hollande 35,350,000

Russia 24,519,000
Canada 16,190,000

Sweden 25,344,000

Egg imports - Year 1899.

Total imports. 127 million francs.

Russsie 29,575,000
Germany 24,166,000

France 21,675,000
Denmark 20,212,000
Belgium 18,975,000

The potatoes consumed in

England are, at the time
on the contrary, a product of
national culture.
english farmers satis1
satis1 Blue Books do not give the
value of imports of
butter from Australia, but they
indicate an import of
258,315 quintals of Australian
butter, i.e. 15% of sales
totalimports.

414 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

do in peacetime to almost all

requests, they do not
be able to increase the quantity
of their production in the event
that a
blockade, interrupting
communications with the mainland,
would prevent the arrival of
other foodstuffs. We even,
in 1897, an import of 197,000
tonnes of
potatoes, i.e. 12% of total
consumption.
The crates of tea that each year
the ships loaded with the
the Far East lines bring to the
docks at
London, are a considerable source
of freight for them. England
is not, strictly speaking, dependent
on the foreigner here; for
it sends three quarters of its orders
to a verylargecolony
closely linked to the metropolis,
to India, whose tea shipments
(1898) represent a value of 136
million francs, while
than China's 24. Since 1890 1
customs tax reduced to 0 fr. 40
per pound a
greatly increased tea traffic,
which rose from 81 million
kilograms (1884) to 134 million
kilograms (1896).
There's no need to talk about
beer imports, because the
English breweries produce
enough for the needs of the
national consumption; there is
even a surplus of 784,000
hectolitres, which must find buyers
on the continent.
that he can't find in England. But
the manufacture of
ale and stout is uniquely English;
the materials it uses
are German, at least for the most
part: first of all, barley
with foreign purchases (1900)
reaching 130 million
francs, and also hops, 20 million.
The wealthy Englishman is a
great lover of vineyardproduce
continental waters; not a day goes
by that some vessel
brings barrels of Port to London
from Portugal, or, from
France, cases of Champagne.
These are the alcoholicwines
and high quality products that are
in demand; a right to
80 centimes per liter is charged at
the point of entry, but the
consumer
has so far easily borne the tax
burden. Infact
wines imported into the UK
would be sold on the English
market.
continent 2 francs or 2 fr. 30. per
bottle and, in these
conditions, a fee of 0 fr. 80 is not
verymuchtoask.
price per liter.
France is our biggest market;
from time immemorial, we've
been able to
Bordeaux has always had close
ties with London. It has
for our south-western provinces,
too, a situationthatwas
a
1 Since March 1900, the fee has
been 0 fr. 60 per pound.

ENGLAND'S ECONOMIC
DEPENDENCE
413
particular. Whereas in
Normandy or Brittany, in the
In the 18th century, the fight
against England rallied all
In Bordeaux, on the other hand,
people demanded that the
of peace and the lowering of
customs barriers: wars,
are not a matter of sentiment, but
of interest. Vist
duties on our wines have often
varied. Before 1861, thehectolitre
paid 159 francs entrance fee; after
the tradetreaty,
a distinction was made according
to the number of degrees of
alcohol. More
the wines were divided into three
series:

a) less than 15° duty of 27 francs

6) more than 13° and less than
25° - 40 -

c) over 25° and under 40° - 55 -.

Bottled wines were classified in
the 3rd series. In the
Subsequently, the system was
redesigned to unify it and a taxwas
introduced.
of 1 fr. 25 per gallon, regardless
of alcohol content.
gallon is worth 4 1/2 liters. The
new policy inaugurated in
France in 1892 had its counterpart
in England. Since
At that time wine paid 0 fr. 70,
then 0 fr. 80 (1899) for
for every liter imported.
Purchases, however, did not
decline.
not be taken to mean that the
English market is a
an opening that cannot be closed
for any reason.

If moderately protective rights

have onlyhad alimited
insignificant repercussions, very
high fees could welbe,
on the other hand, reduce
consumption. There's a lot of talk
in
England to do, as in the United
States after 1867,
foreigners to bear the costs of war
expeditions.
Most recently, Parliament
followed suit and voted
a law under which every tonne of
coal exported
from the UK pays an exit tax of 1
shilling,
a very practical way for French
buyers to sell out,
or Italian coal from Lancashire
the costsofthe
caused by the TransvaalWar.
What's more, our winegrowers
face a danger of another kind,
that resulting from the adoption of
differential tariffs voted against
them. Up until the present day,
France, Portugal, Spain
only sold wines to England; but
today a
a new country, an English
country, becomes an importer in
its turn:
Australia. She is already calling
for preferential tariffs. It is, she
says,
the duty of the metropolis to
facilitate the development of its
possessions
and give them an advantageous
position in its market.
What's the point, say the
Australians, of being English if we're
are subject to the common law?
Simple reasoning, but
logic. Australia has therefore set
its sights on becoming the cellar
of
England. This hypothesis can only
be realized at a later date,
when new vineyards have been

416 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
planted. But there's no reason to
believe that Australia's
will remain a small wine producer
for a long time to come. Theexample
of the United States, which
suddenly became, in less than a
decade
fifty years, terrible rivals for
metallurgists
the rapid progress that is likelytobe
made
new worlds. This is also trueof
from an agricultural point of
view. For the time being,
however, wines
in the British market.
England bought 816,284 hectolitres
in 1898.
wine, including 287,481 from
France, 198,501 from
from Spain and 201,217 from
Portugal.

Here are the tables showing the

respectiveimportance of each country
wine imports in 1898 and 1900:
Wine imports 1898 1900
Total imports... 816,284 hect. Total
imports... ....................758.092
hect.
France 287,481 - France 243,351
- France
Spain 198.511 - Spain 206.329 -

Portugal 201.217 - Portugal

173.413 -
Growth in Australianwine imports.

1884 56,000 gallons

1886 148.000 -
1889 307.000 -

1893 554.000 -
1895 612.000 -

1897 713.000 -
1899 744.000 -
1900 823.000 —
The gallon is worth 4 h. 543 liters.

The England of today is not the

England of yesteryear.
time has passed when its
population could live
comfortably on the
resources of the national soil; it
is obliged to resort
abroad.

In times of peace, England is

forced to go where
suppliers want. Whether the
United States sees fit to
heavily taxed meat and fish when
they left the New World.
the ruin of the American wheat
industry.
inferiority as a result of the rise
in the price of English products.
wages as a result of the rising cost
of living.
In times of war, the prospect of
famine is otherwiseaveryrealthreat.
probable, or at least possible.
Without doubt, the English navy
is
strong and numerous, and no one
thinks of refusing the sailor
British qualities of courage and
endurance
universally recognized; but at last,

ENGLAND'S ECONOMIC
DEPENDENCE
417
in a sea war as in a land war, the
success depends on a host of
circumstances. Whether, as a
result of a
storm or defeat, the bulk of the
English squadron is putowork
unable to continue the fight, it is
the country itself that must
to surrender or to perish from
hunger, because everything
supply is therefore impossible.
And what to expect,
of a people who know that famine
threatens them? A rise
the price of grains can occur on
the simple
received false news. During the
Crimean War, when
however, England was not
threatened, we saw the price of
bread double; what about the day
when fastcruisers
would harass the convoys of
supplies forced to cross
the Atlantic before disposing of
their precious contents?

Lastly, we can assume that

England is in a battle with the
United States.
that supplies it with meat and
wheat, I'm talking about the
United States. Would other states
be able to replace
the American market? Neutralships
Would they dare risk a catch?
The owners of the
would they find insurers, and at
what rate?
These are all exceptionally
serious questions, which
disturb and irritate our neighbors.
Hence the fearfultone
and bellicose nature of some of
their newspapers; hence, too, the
interest
with which they follow the
progress of the marines.
Europe. They know that the day a
geniusinventor
would find a way to ensure
superiority for anothernavy.
than their own, their country's
greatness would be more than
compromise. The colossus with
feet of clay would have lived.
EDOUARD PICARD,
Doctor of Law.
QUEST. DIPL. ET COL. - T. XII.
27

THE STUDY OF INDIGENOUS

LANGUAGES
IN COLONIALTROOPS

The decree of December 28,

1900 organizing the colonial
army reads as follows
in article 3: "The starting lap
may be brought forward for
officers who have submitted
requests for assignment
to colonies for which they have
received a languagecertificate
native. Mention is made on the
tour of dutylist
colonial possession of the patent
against the names of the
in the order in which they appear
on thislist.
list. The Journal Officiel has
already published one such list,
others willfollow.
The first condition for
colonization is, in fact, to know
the language of the natives in
order to do without the
interpreters. This necessity is so
well recognized by our officers
colonial troops that two-thirds of
the works of
colonial linguistics are written by
officers. All
only recently, a colonial infantry
officer published a
Chinesedialect.
These studies should be
encouraged; the Minister of
Education
awards for this kind of work.
Unfortunately his religion is so
poorly enlightened that the authors
of technical works are still
waiting for the
for which their managers have
nominated them. This
is regrettable, and we want to
believe that the Hon.
Leygues will endeavor to reach
an agreement with the French
government by January 1.
Minister of War to put an end to
this state of affairs.

If we encourage those who write

works of
of colonial dialects, it would alsobe
necessary to take care of the
of the modest non-commissioned
officers who fill the circles
the free and arduous duties of
schoolteachers
for the natives. There's an
"Alliance Française" that could
the Minister on this issue.
But it's not just for the purpose of
claiming
palmes académiques for very
deserving people whom we
we write. What we really want is
for people to be kindenough
understand the importance of
teaching dialects
colonies.
The plague of the colonies is
"Monsieur l'Interprète". At
Tonkin, the interpreters take an
enormous amount of time to translate
and rarely tell the truth.
Elsewhere

THE STUDY OF INDIGENOUS

LANGUAGES 419

be the same thing. They come

across as not very selfless
and often put military leaders in a
difficult position to
to the natives.
This would mean learning
colonial dialects. Thing
strange, they are difficult to learn
in the colonies because theyare
has no time to work; most of the
time, you can only
retain general notions that are
perfected in France.

In the colonial regiments, officers

and non-commissioned officers
native language teachers offer
optional courses to thosewith
who are willing to follow them;
but they often lack
pedagogical skills, so that their
teaching isbasedon
feels. And yet, in Paris, France,
there is a School of Languages.
Orientales Vivantes, where the
teachers are excellent.
could we endow it with a few new
professorships for
to meet the needs of our colonies
in West and Central Africa.
central? We would then authorize
a specific number of officers
and non-commissioned officers to
take this course? It would be
enough to
give the allowance for residence
in Paris, which would not burden
the budget for colonial troops,
especially since the
Department of Colonies, as a
result of the incomplete
big savings to plug the holes in
the budget of the
civilexpenses.

Officers and non-commissioned

officers designated to take the
oriental languages would be
chosen from among those who
know
the idiom they want to perfect. In
these
conditions, they would make
rapid progress.
would be sent back to their
regiments.

After a period of one or two

years at the most, the
graduates of the École des
Langues Orientales Vivantes
would resume their service, and
they would be provided, in the
colonial garrisons, an Arabic
teaching chair,
annamite, malgache, chinese,
african languages, etc.,
which they would keep until
another, alsopatented,
replace them. Under these
conditions, in just a few years,
the teaching of colonial dialects
would be disseminated and wewould
in almost all our colonies we
could do without
interpreters.
This would be all the easier
because, as we said earlier
There are a considerable number
of officers and sub-officers
officers who only need to perfect
theirskills
knowledge of indigenouslanguages.
NED NOLL.

ENGLISH ADMINISTRATION
IN CYPRUS

We have received the following

letter from one of our correspondents
to whom we leave the freedom of
appreciation:
Everyone remembers the sleight
of hand with which Lord
Beaconsfield sold the island of
Cyprus to Turkey and had it ratified.
by the Congress of Berlin. Shortly
afterwards, the same Lord
Beaconsfield proclaimed, in the
House of Lords, that the only
purpose of this new humanitarian
acquisition by theEmpire
was to hand over to the soldiers
of
England to protect the Sultan's
Asian possessions,
threatened by the encroachment
of the Russianinvaders.
The English lost no time in
organizing their
conquest. They immediately
favored the island of Cyprus with
this
philanthropic administration that
generally all countries that have
had the good fortune to be protected
by Great Britain. The British
protectorate
Cypriots immediately regret Turkish
domination.
First of all, the Greek language,
their native, historiclanguage,
respected by the Ottoman master,
was persecuted; their religion
was
attacked. Orthodox worship was
openly opposed,
vilified in its beliefs and clergy.
Comingsoon
crushing taxes made peopleaware of
the problem for the first time.
the horrors of famine, all too
familiartotheunfortunate Cypriots.
Irish and Hindu. It is true that, in
the same
time, the island saw the arrival
of an entire colony of
British civil servants, the most
humble of whom received
treatment that Turkish pashas
would have envied. Theisland
and its new masters,
never satisfied, went so far as to
strip her of her treasures
bronzes, and statues, hastilypacked up
and taken away.
to the British Museum.
That if by chance any protests
were to be raised, the
the cruelest punishments soon
made it clear tohe
new subjects of England how
imprudentthey were
to regret the yoke of the Turks.
The Cypriots, in spite of
everything, tried to claim. The
Lords
High Commissioners, such as the
all-too-famous General Biddulf
the memory of which has
remained so terribly hated, sent
them
walk. They tried to petition. Their
petitions
were intercepted. They sent
delegates to London topray
very humbly the gou-

ENGLISH ADMINISTRATION
IN CYPRUS 421
the imperial and royal
governments to take pity on their
deplorable
condition. Their delegates were
not received; and yet the
misery continued to grow.
Today, despair has given way to
exasperation. Unionist sentiment
with FreeGreece,
among the people of Cyprus, is
becoming,
since English domination, more
irresistible every day. And
this feeling does not always
remain speculative: it produces
acts sometimes. During the
Greek-Turkish war, for example,
some
hundreds of Cypriots went to
enlist in Thessaly, where they
were
soldiers as brave as they were
disciplined. Newspapers,
British magazines reported the
fact and took pleasure in
to denounce the immorality and
ingratitude of Cypriots in this
occasion. But facts are facts and
the Cypriots have
shown
that they could fight and die for a
noble cause,
for Independence and Freedom.
All of this remained completely
unknown in Europe. How
could it have been otherwise?
The continental newspapers did
not
of correspondents on the island
of Cyprus, and it's certainly not
English press - whose
correspondents are everywhere -
which
would like to inform the European
public on this point. We know too
much
with what scrupulous
impartiality they write history!
One last fact, and a very recent
one at that. Only afew
weeks the British Lord High
Commissioner summoned the
representatives and notables, and
told them more or less the same
thing.
speeches :

422 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
"His Majesty's government was
pleased to see the profound
the Cypriots' souls at the news of
the death of the
death of Queen Victoria. Her
Majesty's government is
assured of loyalty and deep gratitude
Cypriots towards the British
government and towards the
Late Queen. He is therefore
convinced that the most ardent
desire
of the Cypriot people is to show
their gratitude and appreciation
loyalty by erecting, through
spontaneous donations, a
monument in
mausoleum in memory of Queen
Victoria, her gracious
Benefactor".

The Cypriots were quite surprised

to learn of this.
the extent of their recognition and
the purpose of theirwork.
desires. They promised to think
about it and make their
better. But the English taxman
didn't wait and already
the spontaneous expression of
Cypriot gratitude is
entered on the taxrolls.
P***

FORTNIGHTLYCHRONICLES
POLITICALINFORMATION
I. - EUROPE
France. - The Tsar's trip to
France. - In accordance with
program, which was published on
August 20 and forwhichthe
we spoke of at that time 1 , the
emperor and empress
from Russia arrived in Dunkirk on
September 18th and spent
four days among us. This visit by
the Russian sovereigns to the
France must have had, and still
has, a very specialcharacter.
military. The Czar has reviewed
our fleet at Dunkirk, and
our army in Reims, and he was
able to see for himself the
strength, power and greatness of
our country. After the
revue de Reims, on September
21, when the emperor and
the empress were about to leave
French soil, Nicholas II and the
President of the Republic
exchanged the following toasts
which
clarified the political significance
of the imperialjourney.
Here is the President's toast:

"Sire,
"Thanking on behalf of the
French Republic Your
Majesty and Her Majesty the
Empress for their kind attendance
the comforting sights of the past
few days, my thoughts turned to
the
refers to the great political act that
preceded themand
gives them their full meaning.
"Prepared and concluded by your
august father theEmperor
Alexandre III and by President
Carnot, solemnly
proclaimed on board the Pothuau
by Your Majesty and the
President Félix Faure, the
alliance between Russia and
France had
time to assert its character and
bear fruit.
"If no one can doubt the
essentially peaceful idea fromwhich
it has emerged, no one can fail to
recognize that it has
contributed significantly to
maintaining the balance between
euro1forces
euro1 Quest. Diplom. et Colon,
September 1, 1901, p. 298.

424 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
the necessary condition for a
peace which, to be fruitful,mustbe
could not remain precarious.
"It has developed over the years
and the questions that have
have found her vigilant, resolute,
reconciling her own
interests and the general interests
of the world, moderate because
strong, and committed to the
solutions inspired by justice and
humanity.
"The good she has done is the
pledge of the good she will do
again, and
it is with this full confidence that,
after having given a pious
to the noble founders of the
company, whose work this day
is the magnificent consecration, I
raise my glass:

"To the glory and happiness of

Your Majesty, His Majesty
the Empress and the whole family.
"To the greatness and prosperity
of Russia, friend and ally of
France.
The tsar then pronounced the
following toast:
"Mr. Chairman,
"As we leave France, where we
once again
such a warm and cordial
welcome, I would like to take
this opportunity to
to express our sincere gratitude
and deep emotion.
"The Empress and I will always
treasurethe precious
memory of those few days so full
of impressions
deeply engraved in our hearts,
and we will continue to
from far and near, to be involved
in everything that concerns the
France amie.
"The ties that unite our countries
have just become even stronger,
and receive a new sanction in the
testimonies of
mutual sympathy, which was so
evident in the
of eloquence here and found such
a warm echo in Russia.
"The intimate union of two great
powers driven by the same
values.
the most peaceful intentions, and
who, while knowing how to make
respect their rights, and do not
seek to undermine
of others, is an invaluable element
of appeasement for
the wholeofhumanity.

"I drink to the prosperity of

France, of the friendly nation
the brave Frencharmy and fleet.
"Let me thankyouonce again,
Mr. President, and raise my glass
in your honor."

The essentially peaceful nature

of these two toasts has
makes an excellent impression
everywhere, and the comments
of the European press marked the
most general
approval.
Germany. - The Danzig interview.
- September11th,
before going to France, the tsar
had a meeting with theemperor
a ceremonial interview in the
harbor of Danzig; but,
if the dispatches gave us plenty
of information about the
details and protocol

POLITICAL INFORMATION 425

of this meeting, they didn't tell us
anything about the words that
may have been exchanged
between the sovereigns.
However, in
the day after the interview, Kaiser
Wilhelm II, received
solemnly at the Danzig Town
Hall, pronounced the
here are some important words:
I have just had ametingwith my friend
the Emperor of Russia.
interview of the utmost
importance, which took place at
our
complete satisfaction to both of
us, and which furtherstrengthens
unwavering in our conviction that
peace
is assured for a long time to
come. This fact
helps fill my heart with joy as I
entertheroom.
within the walls of your ancient
and beautiful commercialcity.
The joyful assurance shownbythe
German emperor
with such eagerness, the force and
precision of these words
sent to the municipality of Danzig
to be proclaimed
all over Germany and Europe,
have been verysuccesful.
noticed. Unofficial newspapers
from Russia and Germany
to celebrate the consequences
happy with a policy of peace and
union. The Englishpress
was cooler, and focused on
showing that theenthusiasm
of German and Russian
newspapers was greatly
exaggerated. The Times,
in particular, has made a point of
stressing that we must not
to these theatrical events, and
we're sure that the
that deep down, Germany and
Russia did not see eye to eye
as much as we'd like you to think
about the most serious
foreign policy issues. In Austria -
and this is
the press was full of mistrust and
suspicion of the
reserve. It's just that, for the past
few months, in Vienna and
In Budapest, we are seriously
concerned, almost worried.
of Russia's actions in the
Balkans, of Russia's
of its agents, diplomatic and
consular conventions
by which it seems to want to
ensure, as of now, that the
present - as if anticipating a
coming and inevitable
conflict with the Austro-
Hungarian Empire - the very
the Slavic states and populations
of the peninsula.

In Budapest, as in Vienna, these

new allures seem
and it's thought, not without
reason, that thisisanominous
provocative activity of Russian
policy on the peninsula
Balkan region hardly fits in with
the commitments of
neutrality and reciprocal
abstention, based on the status quo,
the two empires had taken in
1897. For, it is stillsaid,
—still on the banks of the Danube,
- if theemperor
Germany, Austria-Hungary's staunch
ally,
had not succeeded in getting the
emperortohear and admit
that the continuation of its
current policy in the
Balkans could well end up
compromising this great cause
of European peace, which is so
rightlytheirs.
dear, what should we think of so
many beautiful and solemn
declarations?

426 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
In short, as we can see, the
Danzig meeting could, and
should have
importance, which it would be
imprudent to ignore.
Unfortunately, the details are too
poorlyunderstood.
to be discussed with any
certainty.
likelyconsequences.
Turkey. - The Franco-Turkish
incident. - One of our correspondents
writes from Constantinople on
September 20:

The political situation has not

changed. We are
still waiting, and the solution to
the conflict
only after the Tsar's visit to
France, because, rightly or
wrongly
and rightly so, people in
government circles believe thathe
Turkey will be discussed in the
talks given by Messrs Delcassé
and Lamsdorff, and we're waiting
to hear what Russia's attitude will
be
to infer that of France.
The general conviction of
Europeans here is that the Sultan,
as usual, won't give in until the
last moment and in
presence of an ultimatum. In this
way, he gives himself
Muslim populations, with the air
of surrendering only to force. He
had for a moment seemed
animated by other dispositions;
but he has
influenced by the intransigent part
of hisfamily.
entourage. Nevertheless, we are
convinced that in the end
the incident will end with no
consequence other than a lesson
and
a serious warning to Abdul-
Hamid.
The arrangement for the Tubini
claim can be consideredas
as definitive. The same is not yet
true of the one that
negotiations with the Lorandoheirs.

As to how the Turkish

government will find the
means of paying the sums
recognized by him, it's one of
those
countless financial problems to
which weare looking
solution. The Treasury has
literally run dry. We've just
replace Finance Minister Zuchdi
Pasha with Réchad
pacha, who failed to live uptothe
expectations of his position
of the situation. The Ministry of
the Civil List isalso
desperate. The shortage is such
that people are looking to
borrow
for a state, even to companies of
this size.
railways.
How can we suppose that, under
such conditions, a
government could persist in its
refusal to satisfy, which would
would have the most disastrous
consequences for him? Visit
Sultan cannot disguise the fact
that he has just attracted the
attention of
Europe, however busy it may be
elsewhere, on its own person and
on
the vices of his empire's
administration. He has everything
to fear
of a possible agreement between
the Powers to put an end to this
regime. This is undoubtedly why,
a few years ago, he was addressing
a few days, to the provincial
governors-general a
official circular, reminding them
that they must administer
with justice, and without
exception of persons, and to
threaten
severe repression of civil
servants who fail to do so.
duty. Unfortunately, we know
what such
statements. In 1876, on his
accession to the throne,
AbdulHamid made recommendations
to his grand-vizier,
of which I'll mention a few.
"If," he said, "the irregularities
that have been felt for some
time, our country's administration
and finances have
developed

POLITICAL INFORMATION 427

where they are; if public opinion
is distrustful of
the place of our credit; if the
courts are not yet
to guarantee the rights of
individuals; if it has not yet
to take advantage of the natural
resources that the whole world
has to offer.
to our country for industry, trade
and commerce.
these fertile sources of well-
being and prosperity.
general prosperity; if, finally, all
the measures that have been
adopted so far, both in the
interests of the country and with a
view
to ensure that all our subjects,
without exception, enjoy the
benefits of
individual freedom, have not been
able to take more consistency, al
this can only be attributed to one
cause, namely that the laws
have not been regularly and
consistently observed."

And further on, he added:

"To employ in the affairs of the
State persons who are capable
and
not tolerate any dismissal or
replacement
and to establish ministerial
responsibility, as well as the
gradual responsibility of civil
servants of all kinds,
that is the invariable rule thathehastofolow.
should be adopted.

History will tell you how Abdul-

Hamid held these
promises.
II. - ASIA
Indo-China. - Indo-China
budgets; voyage of the
Governor General. - Indo-China's
budgets for
1900 have been settled. They
yield ten and a half million
excess of income over
expenditure, including six million
francs
and a half for the general budget
and two million three hundred
thousand
francs for Tonkin's local budget.
The Governor General of Indo-
China has just completed a
trip to the Done Valley in Laos,
and the
particularly in the region where
the Khas revolted
recently. The Laotian authorities
and people
Mr Doumer with enthusiasm.
They showedthemselves
"flattered and reassured by his
visit," says the Havas dispatch
that
reports on this trip. Measures
have been taken to
to confine the rebellious Khas to
a restricted region and
intimidate or forcethem into
submission
as soon as the season permits.
Tonkin. - Disorders in Nam-Dinh.
- Quiteamess
have recently taken place in
Nam-Dinh, where the
responsibility seemed to go back
to the nativeskirmishers
installed in the city. The Journal
des Débats received froma
local correspondent the following
details on this case, including
was particularly hard hit by the
Société Cotonnière du Tonkin,
which is in
building a factory in Nam-Dinh.
The letter from
corresponding to the Débats is
dated July 31:
On Monday evening, says this
correspondent, Annamiteskirmishers
wanted to get into one of the
straw huts where they hadbeen
the ma-

428 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

equipment. Janitors, who are

always in these strawhuts,
the skirmishers to enter: a brawl
ensued, at the end of which the
with injuries on both sides. Two
shakos, bearing the numbers of
two riflemen, wereableto
fortunately be taken.
Two hours later, a non-
commissioned officer, entering the
building
the straw huts, to have the two
shakos that had been takenreturned.
When the guards refused to hand
over the shakos, he drewhisgun.
The next day, the director of the
Société cotonnière du Tonkin
lodged a complaint with the
gendarmerie and left for Hanoi at
five o'clock.
to do his mail.

Halfway along the route, at ten

o'clock in the evening, the letter
carrier at one of the portsofcall
brought him a telegram telling
him that a fire hadbrokenout.
in one of the straw huts. He was
able to find a rowboat
returning to Nam-Dinh, where he
arrived at 2am. He was
of what had happened. Opinion
general informed him. To avenge
the beating he'd received the day
before,
the skirmishers had stormed the
straw hut where
the guards and the Chinese
coolies; then, the Chinese coolies
didn'tgo out,
they had set fire to this straw hut.
In ten minutes, the store
was missing: it contained a
variety of goods, including bamboo,
Vulcan cement drums, etc., etc.
A complaint was lodged with the
gendarmerie. An investigation is
continuing:
it will unfortunately only be able
to prove one thing, and that is that
everyone here is convinced that
the fire was started by the
but it wasn't possible to pinch any
ofthem.
Such events are obviously highly
regrettable, and the Governor
will certainly take the necessary
steps to
ensure safety in a city like Nam-
Dinh, where
industry is currently expanding
rapidly, and where
all efforts would be discouraged
if facts such as these
could reproduce. If the native
riflemen makeup
an element of disorder, they must
be removed from all cities
where there is no other armed
force to maintainthem.

Laos. - The last exploration of

Prince Henri d'Orléans. -
We know that Prince Henri
d'Orléans contracted dysentery
of which he died during his
journey from Kratie, on the
Mekong, to the Annamite
province of Nha-Trang, through
the
Laotian province of Dar-Lac.
The Prince's travelling companion
was Mr. Bourgeois,
government commissioner in this
still relatively
known. Leaving Kratie on April
20th, the travellers crossedthe
the country of the Penang-Kroll,
then that of the Khas-Radais and
arrived at the Sé-Bang-Kan
valley, where Mr. Bourgeoisstopped,
the center of his administration.
Prince Henri
continued on its way, reaching
Nha-Trang on May 31st after 22
hours.
days of walking, during which he
covered 592 kilometers.
Here's what the Prince has to say
about

POLITICAL INFORMATION 429

the region's economic future, in a
correspondence
addressed to the Société de
Géographie de Paris :

Crossing into the new Laotian

province of Dar-Lac, we
has given us a glimpse of regions
with an indisputable future. Visit
the subsoil is still unexplored, but
there are a number of clues
suggest tin deposits. The soil
seems fertile; the
a few cultivation trials carried out
at BanMétoute are giving good
results.
results, and these are just
yesterday's attempts. The soil is very
and a thick layer of humus.
Forests contain
superb trees and numerous rubber
vines.

Whatever hopes we may have for

the future of the
results of farming or forestry
operations on the land.
Dar-Lac plateau, I don't think
that's where thefuturelies.
The future lies in breeding.
We've travelled some superb
and a series of bowlsthatare very
specific to this industry.
each often 7 to 8 kilometers long
by 2 to 3 kilometers wide.
wide, with year-round grass that
is excellent for grazing.
stretching for over 100
kilometers through the valley of
the
the upper Sé-Bang-Kan and in the
regions around Dar-Lac.
At 500 meters altitude, the
climate is already very bearable.
A
Ban-Métoute, we would wear
flannel during the day and a
blanket at night.

It's easy to imagine the French

coming here to try their hand at
breeding.
the American way and head off
in short trips, either along the
Mésao, Médrak, Ninh-Hoa, or via
Ban-Dôn, Srek-Poum,
Thudamnat, herds of oxen or
buffaloes, or cattle.
convoys of horses that they
would sell at good prices on the
coast or in
Cochinchine. They could find
help in the
the Kha population, either by
buying cattle from them (which,
not
number around a hundred
thousand in thisregion.
region), or by giving it a small
share in the profits,
or by using them as guardians.
Large companies
are formed in northern
Madagascar for the breeding of
the
livestock: apart from the
concession of thousands of
hectares of
pastures, they intend to take
advantage of the natural
indolence of
the native, to whom herd
supervision does not seem a
too tiring a job. The same
reasoning wouldapply
certainly to the Khas. With a
little time and patience
to trainthem.

III. - AFRICA
Morocco. - The Spanish-
Moroccan conflict. - September12
expired, the deadline set by the
Spanish government for the
rescue of two of its nationals
kidnapped last May by
from the Beni-Arouss tribe. The
victims of this kidnapping,
a young girl and her twelve-
year-old brother, were staying with
their fathers in the Arzila area,
and served as their own
pastoralists to a small herd of
pigs that supported the entire
family. Mr. Ojeda, Spain's
minister in Tangier, took it upon
himself to
the beginning of this affair, to
facilitate by his attitude the result
of the
unofficial steps taken by Makhzen
emissaries inorderto
to redeem the captives. But these
steps

430 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

failed, on August 12 the Spanish

government
sent a warning note to the
Makhzen, warning thatiwould
gave him a final one-month
deadline to deliver his
nationals. The result was the
same. So on September 12, the
the Spanish government handed
the Sultan of Morocco a
new note formally requesting him
to show
the effectiveness of its authority,
otherwise Spain would inflict its
own
even a punishment for the
kidnappers. This note had been
submitted in advance to the
members of the diplomaticcorps
residing in Tangier, who all
approvedit.
Mr Sagasta, President of the
Spanish Council, made the
following comment on this subject
the following statements to a
Heraldo editor:
It is impossible for any nation to
tolerate violations of the law.
which put the lives and
livelihoods of the rebel Kabyles
at risk.
foreigners' property. It is
regrettable that the authority of
the Sultan
is insufficient to punish such
abuses. Since the first
At the time, the government had
judged the issue to be very delicate.
as a result of the international
consequences that could ensue.
Above all, we had to convince the
Powers that we were goingto
simply demand reparation and
inflict punishment onthe
Kabyles. Spain made it known to
the Powers that its
request was inspired solely by
the desire to ensure respect for
the
status quo.

After consultations and

exchanges of notes, the answer is
arrival. The Powers recognize
our right, as well as the
absolute necessity of perfect
solidarity in these matters
for now and for the future. This
solidarity would
exclusively moral. Spain would
retain the mission
to inflict punishment, without
however giving rise to any
a complication that will soon
raise the question of
Morocco.
The solution would be
straightforward. We could even
occupy a stronghold until satisfied
without raising fears or
suspicions on the part of the
Power.
The Spanish government's
attitude puts the Makhzen in a
difficult
embarrassment. It is even said
that in the face of threats
of Spain, the Sultan would try to
secure theintervention
of the Powers by announcing an
immediatereform
a tax system that would put an
end to the exactions of governors
and would allow the constant
balancing of the state of finances.
But
this is hardly serious.

French West Africa. - M. Ballay's

resignation.
—The colonial newspapers
published an officialnote
announcing that, "yielding to the
solicitations to which he has been
subjected,
in the forefront of which are
those of Mr. Leclerc.
Chairman of the Board and
Representatives of the elected
bodies on the
Senegal, Governor General Ballay
is becoming increasingly
determined to stay at his post". If
this is the case, we cannot
once again, we can only
congratulate ourselves on this
decision by Mr...
Ballay. We note, however, and
with regret, that
in

POLITICAL INFORMATION 431

this note, the Minister of Colonies
is not mentioned amongthe
the people who asked Mr Ballay
to remain at the head of the
government of French West
Africa. If this
Mr Decrais' abstention was
correct, we could only agree with
her.
deplore.
Transvaal. - The war. - For the
third time we
we're witnessing the same
phenomenonover and over again.
During the winter, the Boers, for
whom overwintering is allthemore
harder than systematically
destroying their farms and
find it difficult to feed their
horses, and disperse. From
a few skirmishes, a few hand-to-handcombat
operations
only reveal their presence. We
believe them to be tamed, reduced
it's a time of great proclamations,
of great
declarations about the end of the
war, prisoner roundups that
escape at the first opportunity.
But now that spring has sprung
and the grass is growing
veld, that the Boers find it easy to
feed their horses
and can, aided by a clement sky,
carry out useful operations,
the commandos are back in
action, the attacksareunderway
that the defeats are also more
numerous.
are multiplying for the English.

This time we've suffered no less

than three majordefeats
to record. Two inparticular stand
out
serious.

September 17, south of Utrecht,

on the Natalborder,
three companies of mounted
infantry with three cannons
under the
commander Gough's orders were
surprised near Blood-
River Poort by a strong
detachment of Boers and were
forced to
surrender after a bloody battle.
Two English officers and
fourteen soldiers were killed; four
officers and twenty-five
seriously wounded; five officers
and one hundred and fifty
soldiers were taken prisoner. The
three cannons fell between
the hands of the Boers. As for
Major Gough, he succeeded in
escape under the cover of night.
On September 18, another
disaster. Two
Royal horse artillery, escorted by
a companyof
of mounted infantry, were
surrounded at Vlaakfontein, in
the heart of the
Transvaal, about thirty miles
from Johannesburg and
captured with their escort.
At last, at the same time,
dispatches from Lord Kitchener
heralded a third disaster. A
squadron of lancers
had been crushed at Elands-River
Poort, west of Tarkastad, in
in the Cape Colony, losing three
officers and twenty soldiers.
killed and its commander and
thirty soldiers wounded.

This deplorable news naturally

greatly moved the
English newspapers. The
Morning Post in particular wrote
subject :

On Tuesday, three companies

destroyed and three guns lost;
Wednesday or Thursday, a
company destroyed and two
cannons
lost. What is this

432 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
mean? Firstly, that the Boers
intend to fight..
to the end, then they won't be
reduced by a
proclamation, Botha began his
campaign of
and the Boers know the art of
fighting intheopenair.
South Africa better than some of
the troops dispatched
against them.

It would be nice to think that

these setbacks are awakening the
government, but after two years
of bad
administration, it's hard to hopefor.
As for the Times, it made the
following comments, which show
that
how concerned he is about the
seriousness of the situation:
The English people, we believe,
have long since, we usedtosay..
realized that we'd have to fight to
the bitter end, and
he would have made all the
efforts asked of him; but the
government onlyseems to be aware
of this fact.
intermittently...
The country has the right to
know where responsibility lies; it
has the right to know where
responsibility lies; it has the right
to know where responsibility
lies; it has the right to know
where responsibility lies.
right to request that they be made
known to him without fear or
favoritism.

IV.-AMERICA
United States. - The new
President Roosevelt. - The day
of President Mac-Kinley's tragic
death, the Vice
President Roosevelt, by the
natural operation of the constitution
the oath of office in the hands of
a simple judge.
Mr. Hazel, underlining the
simplicity of this
the transmission of powers, all
the imbecility of the act of the
murderer Czolgosz. What will
the twenty-sixth president of
the Union? It seems that Mr.
Roosevelt himself wantedto
answer this troubling question in
advance. The 2
September, in fact, four days
before the Buffalo bombing, he
pronounced, at the inauguration
of the annual State Exhibition of
Minnesota, in Minneapolis, an
important speech, which appears
today as the true program of his
views and his
politicaltendencies.
Here are the two main passages
from this speech. On the
trusts, Mr. Roosevelt put it this
way:
On the one hand, it's not
desirable to weaken theinitiative.
on the one hand, but on the
other, in many caseswe'll have to
which are constantly increasing,
freeing us from clever
speculations as in the past we
have broken the bonds of
force. We need to have legislation
that protects with
the interests of the workers and to
establish a
distinction in favor of the honest,
humaneboss.
The vast fortunes of individuals
and corporations, the great
capital combinations that have
marked the development of
our industrial system are creating
a new state of affairs and
require a change in the old
attitude of the state and of
the nation with regard to property.

It is becoming increasingly clear

that the state, and if necessary
the

QUEST. DIPL. ET COL. - T.

XII. 28
nation,
434 DIPLOMATIC AND
COLONIALISSUES

control over the large

corporations that pull in
their importance to their monopolistic
tendencies.
On the other hand, Mr. Roosevelt
put itthis way
sentiment on Monroë's doctrine:
But our country is also becoming
increasingly convinced that it has
duties to the world. Let's show
that we want to act with
justice, and in exchange we will
not tolerate injustice towards
us. Let's also show that we don't
use words we don't understand.
be prepared to back it up with
action and that, although our
are always moderate, we want to
and can make them
to follow up these acts.
This is the attitude we need to
adopt when it comes to
Monroë's doctrine. There's no
need to make abigdeaolit.
f
bravado. Still less should we use
it as a pretext for
us at the expense of some
American state. All we need
that it continues to be the focal
point of Americanpolicy
on this continent, and in their own
interests the Spanish-speaking
Americans should support him as
wedo.

In the Philippines, let's remember

that the spirit more than the
simple form of government is the
essential point. The Tagals
have a hundred times more
freedom with us than they would if
they
had abandoned the islands. We
don't pretend to
subjugate them, we want to
develop and educate them, and we
wantto
hope to ultimately make them an
autonomouspeople.
We can see that in this speech, in
which he addressed all the major
questions of work and expansion,
Mr. Roosevelt expressedhimself
so categorically that it will be
difficult for him, as president, to
deny what he was saying as vice-
president.

ECONOMICTEACHINGS
I. - GENERAL

The world's railroads. - From a

specialjournal
Archiv für Eisenbahnwesen, the
total length of the
at the end of 1899 was 772,000
kilometers or more than nineteen
times the diameter of the globe at
the equator and twice the
distance from the earth to the
moon. A
note, moreover, that this figure of
772,000 kilometers
expresses line length, not track
length. If we
these, it would be considerably
increased, from
a large number of lines in Europe
and America,especially since
double track.
Of the five parts of the world,
America has the most
network, more than half of the
total length, i.e.
393,000 kilometers, and
although, from the point of
view of the
Europe's surface area is only a
quarter of that of Europe.
America, it comes immediately
after it asthe
length of railroads: it owns 278,000
of them
kilometers, while Asia has only
58,000.
kilometers, Australia 24,000 and
Africa 20,000 kilometers.
If we break down the total
number of line kilometers by country,
with 304,576 kilometers;
followed by Germany (50,511),
Russia (45,998)
France, 42,211; Austria-Hungary,
36,275; the Indies
Britain, 36,188; Great Britain
and Ireland, 34,868 ;
Canada, 27,755. But in terms of
surfacearea
land area served, i.e. the density
of raillines,
Belgium leads all countries in the
world with 21
kilometers of rail per 100 square
kilometers. It is
closely followed by Saxony with
18.8 kilometers, but the other
countries are further away:
Baden, 12.7; Alsace-Lorraine,
12.4 ;
Great Britain and Ireland, 11;
German Empire, 9.3 ;
Switzerland, 9.1; Holland, 9;
France, 7.9; Denmark, 7.2. Among
European countries, Norway is at
the bottom of the league.
scale, with only 0.6 kilometers of
rail lines for
100 square kilometers; Russia's
share is only,
not much higher, at 0.9
kilometers. In the
In the United States, the average
is 3.9 kilometers per 100 kilometers.
square.

436 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
Finally, in terms of the
importance of railroads
Sweden is the most populous
country in the world.
better served: it offers 21.4
kilometers per 10,000
inhabitants. Switzerland follows
at 12.4 and Denmark at 12.3;
Bavaria, 11.4; Baden, 11.1;
Alsace-Lorraine, 11; France,
10.9, etc. Clearly, we're only
talking about countrieshere.
sufficiently populated, because in
Western Australia, where the
population is still very low, there
are 130.4 kilometers of
railroads per 10,000 inhabitants;
in Queensland, 91.1 ;
in South Australia, 83.4; in New
Zealand, 49.1. For
American states, the
corresponding figures are
following countries: Argentine
Republic, 57.2 kilometers;
Canada, 52.9kilometers
Newfoundland, 45.8; United
States, 41.1. In Africa, the
Orange has 46.1 kilometers per
10,000 inhabitants.
Between 1895 and 1899, the
length of the world's railroads increased
by
increased by 10.2%, but since
1890, this growth hasbeen
between 3.3% and 2%.
If we consider that in Europe the
cost per kilometer of
railway is 375,000 francs, we can
give the
European network a value of 104
billion francs, and if we
90 billion for the rail lines of the
networks locatedontheoutskirtsofParis.
outside Europe, the figure comes
to 194 billion francs.
as the establishment value of all
railroads
terrestrial.
The population of every country
in the world. - The chamber of
commerce d'Anvers recently
published a very interesting
statistics containing, among other
things, curious data on the
population of every country in the
world.

It tells us that in Europe,

Germany has 56
million 345,014 inhabitants;
Austria-Hungary, 44,288,587;
the
Belgium, 6,815,054; Bulgaria,
3,310,712; Denmark,
2,416,000; Spain, 18,218,000;
France, 38,517,975; the United
States, 2,416,000.
Great Britain, 40,613,047;
Greece, 2,430,807; Italy,
32,449,754; Norway, 5,153,000;
the Netherlands, 5,074,632 ;
Portugal, 4,745,124; Romania,
5,800,000; Russia,
129,211,090; Serbia, 2,312,000;
Sweden, 2,096,000; France,
2,096,000.
Switzerland, 3,312,551; Turkey,
6,642,000.
In Asia, China has 403,259,000
inhabitants; Korea..,
10,528,937; Hindustan,
294,266,000; Indo-China,
21,951,799; Japan, 44,733,379;
Persia, 9,000,000; France,
10,000,000.
Siam, 5,750,000; Siberia, 23,051,972.
In Africa, Algeria has 4,429,521
inhabitants; CapeTown,
2,210,000; the Congo
(Independent State), 30,000,000;
the Congo
French, 5,000,000; Egypt,
16,417,474; Gambia, 50,000 ;
Lagos, 85,607; Liberia,
1,500,000; Morocco, 6,152,179;
the
Natal, 902,365; Senegal, 170,000
;

BUSINESS INFORMATION 437

Sierra Leone, about 350,000; the
Transvaal, 1,096,000; the
Tripolitania, 1,010,000; Tunisia,
2,100,000.

In the Americas, Bolivia has a

population of 2,442,841; Brazil..,
18,000,000; Canada, 5,031,173;
Chile, 3,500,000; France,
1,000,000; Germany, 1,000,000;
Italy, 1,000,000.
Colombia, 4,403,532; Costa-Rica,
294,940; Ecuador,
1,271,861; the United States,
76,304,799; Guatemala,
4,535,632; English Guiana,
485,315; FrenchGuiana,
29,650; Dutch Guiana, 64,372;
Honduras, 431,917
Mexico, 13,570,545; Nicaragua,
420,000; Paraguay,
635,571; Peru, 3,980,000; Argentine
Republic,
1,531,000; El Salvador, 816,000;
Uruguay, 850,000; France,
850,000.
Venezuela,2,444,816.
Finally, in Oceania, Australia has
a population of 3,556,192.
Hawaiian Islands, 154,001;
Dutch India, 34,000,000; French
India, 34,000,000.
New Zealand, 810,536; the
Philippines, 7,670,000; and the
United States, 7,670,000.
Tasmania,177,340.

II. - EUROPE

Austria-Hungary's economic
situation in 1900 1.
economic situation in Austria-
Hungary in 1900 was
satisfactory: this is due to a good
harvest and to
increase in exportedproducts.
General trade increased from 3
billion 584,641,000
crowns (the crown is worth 1 fr.
05) in 1899 to 3 billion
749,804,000 crowns in 1900, an
increase of
165,163,000 crowns.

1899 1900

Imports 1,651,984,000 1,741,255,000

Exports 1,932,657,000 2,008,549,000
Total 3,584,641,000 3,749,804,000
The reaction in the iron industry,
following the great
prosperity and the enormous
progress made in this sector, has
caused a less favorablesituation in
1900
in business in general, and
various industries have
suffered from this turnaround, to
which the rise in prices
contributed.
coal, unrest in China and the South
African war.

Austria's trade with major European

countries
The breakdown is as follows:
1 Moniteur Officiel du commerce.
438 DIPLOMATIC AND
COLONIALISSUES
for import :
Germany 635.0 million crowns

Great Britain 148.9 -

Italy 114.3 -
Russia 89.1 -
Belgium 86.1 -
Switzerland 56.3 -
France 53.9 -
for export :
Germany 941.7 million crowns

Great Britain 201.2 -

Italy 147 -
Russia 71.7 -
Switzerland 68.6 -

France 68.5 -
Belgium 14.9 -
The trade situation between
Austria and Hungary remains
still very tense, and Hungary is
increasingly willing to
emancipation from Austria, to
create with great sacrifices of
new industries and factories, and
to buy only when there is a realneed.
products made in Austria.
Likewise
Slavs of the Monarchy are
reluctant to address the
trade in the capital.

During the first six months of

1901, the situation has not been
as good. The sales figures for this
period wereasfollows
with assets of 51.3 million
crowns, compared with 65.1 million
crowns
of crowns the previousyear.
Belgium's trade in 1900 1.
of Belgium has just published the
general table of the
trade with foreign countries in 1900.

General import trade - trade for

the
consumption and transit
combined - amounted in 1900 to
3,594,400,000 francs, compared
with 3,654,300,000 francs in 1899,
This represents a decrease of
59,900,000 francs or 2% for
1900.
However, it should be borne in
mind that 3 millionof this reduction
1/2 are due to the revision of
official values, i.e. to
lower statisticalproduct prices
customs.
On the export side, general trade
amounted to 3,297,500,000euros.
fr. against 3,351,600,000 fr. in
1899, a decrease of
54,100,000 francs or 2% .

Special import trade - goods put

up for sale
consumption in the country -
amounted to 2,215,800,000
francs against
1 Gazette Coloniale.
BUSINESS INFORMATION 439

2,260,200,000 fr. in 1899, a

decrease of 44,400,000
francs or 2%.
On the export side, special trade -
Belgian products - was
amounted to 1 billion 922 million
900,000 francs, compared with 1
billion
949 million 300,000 francs in
1899, a decrease of 26
million 400,000 francs or 1%.
Ten-year averages were :

1891-1900 1900
General trade: francs francs

Imports 3,106,701,138 3,594,425,067

Export 2,839,554,293 3,297,509,775
Special trade :

Imports 1,833,683,087 2,215,752,965

Exports 1,568,704,379 1,922,884,181

Belgium still tradeswith France

the most important, but 1900
turned the tables;
whereas previously Belgium
imported from France
much more than it exported: in
1900, it shipped in
France for FRF 426,100,000 in
revenue (vs.
345,300,000 francs in 1899) and
received 375,300,000
francs (versus 389,400,000
francs in 1899). These
formidable shipments of railway
machinery and equipment
(41 million increase) and coal,
coke and briquettes (an increase
of 32 million) than
Belgium owes most of its
advantage to France. France's big
loss
is explained by the shift in the
wool market, which has
36 million decrease in exports.
in Belgium. French wine imports
into
Belgium increased by almost 2
million.

German imports to Belgium up

38
million 500,000 francs
(323,900,000 francs in 1900 vs.
285,800,000 in 1899), while
Belgian exports in
Germany decreased by
58,900,000 francs, (426,600,000
485,500,000 in 1899).

Whileimports from England to

Belgium
fell by 11 million (300 million in
1900 compared with 311milon2000.)
million in 1899), Belgium's
exports to England
decreased by only 1 1/2 million
(359 million in 1900)
compared with 357,500,000
francs in 1899).
For the first six months of 1901,
imports were down
decrease of 36,568,000 francs
compared with 1900, and
exports were also down by
26,150,000 francs.

440 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
German trade in Turkey 1. - The
trade
Germany's import business with
Turkey has been
some years of excellent trends.
Years of strong
imports are those in which
Germany has sold Turkey
railroad equipment and weapons.
The best result is
in 1893, 41 million marks (51
million euros).
francs), but this figure includes
the sale of weapons and
munitions amounting to 13
million marks. Here is the
table for the last few years of the
specialtrade
import - German products - :
Thousands Years of marks
1880 6.423

1885 7.808

1890 34.079
1891 37.027
1892 39.726
1893 40.961

1894 34.384
1895 39.028

1896 28.021

1897 30.921
1898 37.075
1899 32.600
For the year 1899, the figures
give, reduced to francs:

Imports from Germany to Turkey

40,750,000
Exports from Turkey to Germany
36,125,000

Total76,875,000
During the same year, France's
trade with the
Turkey were as follows:

Imports from France to Turkey

60,854,000 fr.
Exports from Turkey to France
102,745,000

Total163,599,000
The Deutsche Levant. Linie
which directlyconnect
the Turkish ports in Hamburg
were inaugurated in 1890-1891,
and
while Hamburg's imports into
Turkey are only
641,000 marks in 1889, they are
10,405,000
marks in 1898. For the same
years
Turkish exports to Hamburg
were 633,000 marks and
13,264,000 marks. This is the
most significant and
the most irrefutable proof of the
beneficial effect of communications
on trade between the two countries.
l Bulletin of the French Chamber
of Commerce in
Constantinople, August31

BUSINESS INFORMATION 441

III. - ASIA
Trade between Russia and China
in 1900 1. the fact
is that Russian imports into
China increased in
1900, while political events
meant that the one in
all the other powers. Russia
provided the
China for 4,373,463 taëls in
1900, instead of 3,522,404 in the
previous year.
1899 (Great Britain: 159,926,788
taëls against 195,296,150
taëls; Japan: 25,752,694 taëls vs.
35,896,745 taëls). But the
Russian traffic progressed
entirely on the border of
land; the marine trade, on the
other hand, is in decline, and this
is due to the fact that Russia has
had to use part of its
merchant fleet for the transport
department: instead of 484
Russian ships representing
361,501 tonnes shipped in 1899,
it
only 449entered Chinese ports in
1900
representing 292,278 tonnes.
This decline is not specific to
Russia: the number of English
boats also fell from
25,350 to 22,818 with 23,052,459
tonnes instead of 23,338,230tonnes
tons. On the other hand, the
movement of Germanshipping,
Japanese, and even American and
French, has increased.

In the final analysis, while China's

import
decreased from 273,756,065
taëls in 1899 to 222,129,473
taëls in 1999.
In 1900, the number of ships rose
to 34,409 and
29,913,083 tons in 1899 to 35,101
boats and 32,943,025
tons in 1900.
What has decreased considerably
is Chineseexports
in Russia; it lost 6,182,877 taëls
between 1899 and 1900, which
brings it down to a figure of
12,374,115 taëls. The main reason
for this decrease
comes from tea exports
(2,661,195 pouds in 1900 at
instead of 3,264,821 pouds in
1899).
1 Bulletin du comité de l'Asie
française, September.

OFFICIALAPPOINTMENTS

MINISTRY OF WAR
Army.
INFANTRY

China. - The following have been

promoted or appointed to the
Legion of Honour
for the Chinaexpedition.
Officer's rank :
Lieutenant-Colonel Drude, 86th
Reg.
Battalion Chiefs Guillaumat, 76th
Regiment; Balandier,
of the 1st Zouaves. Knight's rank
:
Captains de Bouillane de Lacoste,
22nd Regiment; Jarret
de la Mairie, 3rd Zouaves.
Lieutenants Jordan, of the 58th
regiment; Guillabert, 1st Zouaves.
The military medal was awarded
to Messrs Leroux and Varvarande,
Santucci, Goulard and Durantet,
soldiers in the infantry regiment
of
marching; Schminke and Priant,
sergeants, Moynier, Nodot, Paris
and
Imbert, soldiers in the Zouaves
marching regiment.
Sahara. - The following have
been made knights of the Legion
of Honour:

Mr. Lieutenant. Guess, from the

Saharanrifle battalion.
Messrs. second lieutenants
Hallou el Kada-el-Guelia, of the
bat. of
tiraill. sahariens.
Madagascar. - The military medal
was awarded to Mesr.
Parcellier, sergeant in the
Madagascan foreign battalion;
Bichet, sergeant
to the foreign bat. of DiégoSuarez.

CAVALERIE
China. - Named knight of the
Legion of Honor for
of the China expedition:
Captain Durand, 30th Dragoon
Regiment.
Senegal. - The military medal
was awarded to M.
Thévenon, maréchal des logis
with the 1st spahis (squadron of
the
Senegal).
ARTILLERIE

China. - Named knight of the

Legion of Honor for
from China: Captain de Verchère,
hors cadres,
detached from the shipmentbody.
ENGINEERING

China. - The following are

named Chevaliers de la Légion
d'Honneur
title of shipment from China :
Captains Tissier and Lévêque,
hors cadres, ét.-maj.
of the body shipped.
Messrs. admin. offic. 1st cl.
Wibratte, of the engineering
department;
Muller, from the subsistence
department.

The military medal was awarded

to Messrs Garnier, Sergeant, and
Deshayes, sapper with the 6th
engineeringregiment.

Cochinchine. - Dismissed, at the

discretion of the Ministry of
Defence
col. to be employed in the
service of military construction. :
Colonel Petitbon, direct engineer,
Toulon.
Captains Briançon, part of the
Military Staff; Reynier, of the 5th
Regiment.
reg.
Messrs. admin. offic. 2° cl.
Camoin and Charpin.
Trainee NCOs Gillon and Clamer.

OFFICIAL APPOINTMENTS 443

Madagascar. - Captain Defrance,

3rd Regiment, is diced.
for the service of construct. milit.
West Africa. -
The following are designated for
the military construction
department Mr. Chief
de bataillon Cornille, de l'ét.-maj.
gén.
Captains Mégard, of the
Etablissement-Maj. partic. and
Degouy, of the Etablissement-
Maj.
1st reg. and Simon. Messrs.
admin. officers 2nd cl. Carlot
and
Gente. M. offic. d'admin. de 3e
cl. Raynal. M. le sous-offic.
trainee Boulay.
Martinique. - The following are
designated for the construct
department.
milit. Mr. Captain Magny, 4th
Regt. Mr. Admin. offic. from
2nd cl. Lambert. M. sous-offic.
stagiaire Lefranc.
Guadeloupe. - The following are
designated for the construct
department.
milit. Mr. Captain Rey, of the
Particp. Mr. sous-offic.
Frachettrainee.

New Caledonia. - The following

are designated for the
construct. milit. Mr. Captain
Peiguier, of the 1st regiment, Mr.
Offic.
d'admin. de 2e cl. Fonvieille.
ColonialArmy.
INFANTRY

China. - Appointed to the Legion

of Honor for
Chinashipment.
To the dignity of grand-croix :

M. le général de division Voyron,

command. le corps expédit.
Officer's rank :

Colonel Lalubin, commander of

the 17th reg.
Mr. Lieutenant-Colonel Valette,
of the Particp.
To the rank of knight :
Captains Marty, serving in
Cochinchine; Cahen,
from the 2nd Infantry
Regiment; Jagniatkowski, from
the 9th Regiment; Bourda and
Eymard de Laverrerie de Vivans,
17th Regiment; Noguès, 18th
Regiment
reg.
Lieutenants Garrig, on duty in
Tonkin; Lacoste, of the
1st regiment; Fabre, 4th regiment;
Rousseau, 6th regiment.

M. le médecin aide-major de 1re

cl. Marmey, on duty in
Cochinchine.
The military medal was awarded
to Messrs Lagardette and
Pailhoux, sergeant in the 2nd
regiment; Bontoux, adjutant in
the 3rd regiment;
Baude sergeant, Rouleau, Noël
and Bruyère soldiers in the 4th
regiment;
Magnat, sergeant with the 7th
Regiment; Paquet, Soubié and
Jacquemin,
soldiers in the 8th regiment;
Fichter adjutant, Cassieu
sergeant-major,
Semedeï and Saugey soldiers in
the 11th regiment; Costafrolaz
and Damotte
sergeants, Ruffmango, Duval and
Egloff corporals, Denewand,
Martin and Vuilliod, soldiers in
the 16th regiment; Lécureux,
adjutant, and
Monot, sergeant in the 17th reg.
Indo-China. - Designated to
serve in Tonkin :
Colonel Septans, of the 21st
Regiment, appointed Chief of
Staff oftheFrenchArmy.
tr.fromIndoChina.
Lieutenant-Colonel Mondon, 3rd
Reg.
Lieutenant Gicquel, of the 5th reg.

Madagascar. - Appointed Officer

of the Legion of Honor:
Battalion Chief Marciani, 13th Reg.

Promoted to the rank of medical

officer, 1st class:
M. médecin aide-major de 1re cl.
auxil. Robert, on duty at
Madag.

Meeting. - Battalion chief Gillet,

2nd regiment, is diced.
to command the troops on Reunion
Island.

Senegal. - Captain Hutin, of the

21st regiment, is appointed
major in the sen.rifle bat.
The military medal was awarded
to Messrs Pouget, warrant officer
in the 1st Regiment.
and Noumoutié-Sangaré, sergeant
in the 3rd sen.tiraill.

ARTILLERIE
China. - Appointed to the Legion
of Honor for
from China. Officer's rank:

444 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

M. le chef d'escadron Baudin, de

la direct. du Tonkin.
To the rank of knight :

Captain Lefèvre, of the expedition

corps.

M. l'adjudant Vaudeville, of the

1er rég. d'artill. col.
The military medal was awarded
to Messrs Breinig, sous-chef
artificier au corps expédit. et
Darvit, adjudant au 1er rég.
Madagascar. - Captain Robert, of
the 2nd regiment, is appointed to
the
disp. from M. le gén. comm. en
chef le corps d'occ. de Madag.
to exercise political and administrative
functions in the colony.

Guyana. - Knight of the Lég.

d'honneur:
M. le chef d'escadron Goujon,
chef du service de l'artill. à la
FrenchGuiana.
MINISTRY OF THE NAVY

Far East. - Elevated to the dignity

of Grand Cross in
l'ordre de la Légion d'honneur :
Vice-Admiral Pottier, Wing
Commander-in-Chief
from the Far East.

Indo-China. - The following have

been appointed to a mission
hydrography in Indo-China :
Messrs. Jourdan de la Passardière,
Bouquet, Nicolas and Castex.
Mr. Midshipman 1st cl. Colse.

Indian Ocean. - Designated to

embark:
On the Infernel: Mr.
Commissioner 2nd cl. Julien
Labruyère.

Senegal. - Designated to embark:

On the aviso Le Lézard, in the

local Senegalese station: M.
Ensign Bunge.
MINISTRY OF COLONIES
Afrique Occidentale. - M. le
commissaire de 1re cl. Boucard,
to serve in WestAfrica.

Martinique. - Appointed :
Clerk, 2nd cl. Mr Larade, customs
supernumerary.

Customs supernumerary M.
Coudroy de Lauréol.
Guadeloupe. - Mr. Honoré, 1st cl.
clerk of the secret. gén.
of Guadeloupe, is appointed Senior
Clerk.

New Caledonia. - Appointed :

Assistant auditor, 1st cl. Mr.
Chauve, assistant auditor, 2nd cl.
M. Audrain, commis de 1re cl.
MINISTRY OF FOREIGN
AFFAIRS
The exequatur was granted to Mr.
Vason, consul of the UnitedStates.
of America in Grenoble.
BIBLIOGRAPHY - BOOKS
AND MAGAZINES
MALLETERRE (G.) and
LEGENDRE (P.) : Atlas-Book of
French Colonies. I. Colonies of
the Indian Ocean. II. Colonies
d'ExtrêmeOrient." Paris, Charles
Delagrave, s. d., 2 in-4, 40 +pages.
40 and 28 + 8 p., maps and
engravings.

One of the points on which everyone

currently agrees is that
who are concerned with the
education of thcehirildren.
of our colonies, is the need to
draw up, ifnotpublish
for every one of our overseas
possessions, at least for
each group of our possessions,

BIBLIOGRAPHY - BOOKS
AND MAGAZINES 445
books where the sons and
daughters of our subjects can find,
adapted to the civilization in
which they live and to their
the notions that we hold dear to our
hearts.
inculcate. A literature of this kind,
which exists in England, has
for a very long time; but good,
intelligentpeople
patriots, who have finally realized
this, are now working with
success in providingforus.

In the forefront of these patriots,

we must place M. le
General Niox, under whose
leadership Messrs.
Malleterre and . PLegendre,
author of Notre Epopée Coloniale,
have undertaken the publication
of a very interesting "Livre-Atlas
des Colonies Françaises à l'usage
de l'enseignement des
Colonies". The complete work is
to consist of seven parts,
of which the first, which is
general, overlooks the world,
Europe
and France the elementary notions
that all our subjects without
exception must possess. All, in
fact, must know the
France, its place and its role in the
world.
a set of concepts that must be
common to all our
subjects, from the black
schoolboy in Senegal to the
Annamite and the
the yellow Tonkinese than the
dark-skinned Malagasy or the
of our French islands. Messrs
Malleterre and Legendre have
had the talent, while reducing
these notions as much as
possible, to
lucidly and makethem accessibletoall.
understandable to al.
Clear-sightedness and precision
are also qualities that we
in the first two of the six parts.
special issues of the LivreAtlas
des Colonies Françaises. Each of
these
these six parts (the first four of
which have already been published),
accompanied by good maps and
pretty engravings, corresponds
to a particular group of colonies;
those we have just described
the examination are related, one
to the colonies of theOcean
(Madagascar, Reunion Island,
Indian settlements), the
second to the Far East colonies
(Indo-China and
concessions in China). Our two
authors have taken care to
all the useful notions for the
children of the country.
at the same time for those of our
children who would like to study
carefully, in the metropolis itself,
what our
Indian Ocean and Far East
possessions. It'snot
these two bookletsaren't just for
children, either.
how many things their reading
could teach
many of us! No doubt there are a
few
dates and facts (in the history of
Madagascar, for example) and
unfortunate slips of the tongue
(see the limits of Cambodia, p. 2),
and
false indications here and there
on the maps (the lengths
kilometers given on p. 19 are in
contradiction with
the scale of the Reunion Island
map); but these are just specks
light, easy to rectify in a future
print run, and it's appropriate,
to thank Messrs Malleterre and
Legendrefortheirsupport.
for having undertaken an
eminently patriotic and useful
project.

HENRI FROIDEVAUX.
NIOX: Indo-China. Paris, Ch.
Delagrave, s. d., 1 leaf.
Not content with encouraging
and directing those who work at
to make the French better
acquainted with their colonial
empire, the
General Niox is working on it
personally in every way possible.
To his books and atlases, he has
added a collection of
small wall cards measuring 1
metre by 1 m. 25, with the
specimen sent to us, - the map of
IndoChina, - the map of France.
is of real interest.
It's very clear indeed, this map
drawn to a scale of 1 :
2.000.000e

446 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES
on tear-proof Japanese paper.
The mountains are in
and the water in blue, while the
letter is in black.
flat shades differentiate the parts
of our colonialempire
Indo-Chinese, on which some
information placed in
cartridges explain and comment
on the indications
on the map itself. Information
abounds (even
economic information), and make
this little card
perfectly legible, a valuable working
tool,
designed to be of the greatest
service everywhere. May Mr.
General Niox is in a hurry to
publish similar maps do
Algeria-Tunisia, French West
Africa, the Congo
and Madagascar; this will be a
great boon for us and for
a new way of earning the colonies!
H. . F

L'Équilibre adriatique, Italy and

the question of the East, by
Charles LOISEAU. - Paris,
Perrin, in-8°, 267 pp.
This book deserves to be read
and studied carefully by all those
interested in the political,
economic and social future of the
Latin races, as well as the ever-
increasing struggle between them
and races of Central Europe. The
author hasfollowed
care of all the events that have
taken place over the past fewyears
years in Italy and Austria, and he
noted with sorrow that the
day by day, the former was losing
its preponderance inthe
the Adriatic, that this inland sea
was graduallybecoming
an Austro-Hungarian lake, that
the thrust of the confederation
to the East was irresistible, and
supported by moreandmore
by German policy. According to
Mr. Loiseau, Italy played the
role of dupe in the Triplice, Genoa's
maritime trade
and Venice have been supplanted
by those of Trieste and Hamburg
the Italian government has lost
sight of its traditional role in the
world.
the Peninsula into the
Mediterranean, but it's beginning
to
to realize his error, and to see that
a comparison with the
France would be advantageous.
An agreement on the
of the Simplon railway, customs
modifications could be the
basis of an agreement.
In short, this book deserves to be
placed, by the depth of its
the richness of its
documentation, alongside the
most important
most esteemed on the question of
the Orient: it highlights, through
analysis of the facts, the plan
pursued by the Germanrace
since the BerlinTreaty.
J. FRANCONIE.

Atlas of the French colonies,

drawn up by order of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
colonies, by Paul PELET. Paris,
Armand Colin. Each
delivery, including text, 3 francs.

The seventh issue, which has just

gone on sale, contains the
maps : Madagascar and
dependencies [Nord] (n° 13) ;
Madagascar [Centre] (no. 16);
Madagascar [Sud] (no. 17) at
1/2.000.000.
Works deposited at the Revue
office.
France outside : The French
Catholic Missions in
XIXe siècle, publié sous la
direction du Père J.-P. PIOLET, S.
J., with the collaboration of all the
MissionSocieties.
Illustrated from original
documents, one vol. in-8°.
Volume III. China and Japan. The
35th and 36th issues havejustbeen
published.
to appear. Paris, 1901, librairie A.
Colin.

Socialism without doctrines, the

agrarian question and the
in Australia and New Zealand,
by A. Métin. A
vol. cart. in-8° with 281 pages.
Paris, 1901, Alcan bookshop, 6
fr.

BIBLIOGRAPHY - BOOKS
AND MAGAZINES 447
THE REVIEWS
I. - FRENCHMAGAZINES.
Annales des Sciences politiques
(Sept. 15) . FMAURY: Antwerp
formerly
and today; the past. - PAUL
LEFÉBURE: A la conquête
of an isthmus; the

United States and Europe - RENÉ

DOLLOT: A condominium
in Central Europe;
Moresnet.
Army and Navy (Sept. 22).
Captain N. T: Coast guns and
of the
earth. Bulletin du Comité de
l'Asie française (Sept.). HENRI
DE
PEYERIMHOFF: The Franco-
Turkish incident. - PIERRE
DASSIER: English settlements in
Malacca. - PIERRE
PADARAN: The economic
possibilities of Indo-China
(continued). Bulletin
économique de l'Indo-Chine
(August). G.
MONOD: Contribution to the
geological study of the provinces
of China. - A. LECLÈRE:
Fishing in the
Great lake of Cambodia. Bulletin
de la Société de Géographie
(No. 12 of 1900).
KLOBUKOWSKI: Les Indes
British, - E. FRANDON: On
possibledevelopment
trade between France and China.
France Coloniale (5
sept.). G. BIDOT-MAILLARD:
Les alcools dénaturés en
Algeria. Journal des Chambres de
commerce (Sept 10). Henri
BLANCHEVILLE: The
Franco-Russian trade. Socialist
movement (Sept. 15). S. J.
KATAYAMA: The political and
economic
of Japan. Nouvelle Revue
internationale (August 31). Paul
POUROT: Gibraltar. Fortnight
(August 16) . PPISANI: The
Protestant missions in the 19th
century. Colonial fortnight (10
sept.). CHAILLEY-BERT: Our
colonies in Africa
Western Europe. Investigating
the change brought about by the
ten
years. Economic reform (Sept.
15). CH.
GEORGEOT: Workregulations.
—. PVERGNE: The English and
the cultivation of cotton in Egypt.
Revue (formerly REVUE DES
REVUES). JEAN de
MÉZERAY: The new UnitedStates
the australian confederation.
Revue bleue (Sept.21).
AUGUSTE MOIREAU: Mac-
Kinley. Revue du Cercle
(Sept. 21). French expansion in
Africa
occidentale. Revue commerciale
et coloniale de Bordeaux (13
sept.). HENRI LORIN: The
Algeria's railroads. - VICTOR
ORBAN: A country
of the future, Bolivia. Revue des
Deux Mondes (Sept.15).
ROUIRE: Settlers of Algeria. I. -
The
historical phase of colonization.
Revue générale des
Sciences (Sept. 15). J. BOYER:
The current state of the
marble in France. - A. PETTIT:
Histologicalmaterials
compared. Instruction for
explorers. Revue de Paris (15
sept.). Baronne de
FONTMAGNE; A Franco-Turkishconflict
in 1857. Revue scientifique (Sept.
21). J. DE BLOCH: The balancesheet
maneuvers according to

Lessons from the Transvaal War.

Science Sociale (Sept.). G.
D'AZAMBUJA: About the
Russian alliance. Sympathies
between nations.

II. - FOREIGN MAGAZINES.

Germanmagazines.
Deutsche Kolonlalzeitnng (Sept.
12 and 19). E. PRAGER: The
gutta cultivation in the German
colonies. - The conflict,
between Venezuela and
Colombia and the

German trade. - The French in

Dahomey. - ERNST
VOHSEN: Niger, Benue and
Lake Chad, fiftyyearsago
yearsold.

448 DIPLOMATIC AND

COLONIALISSUES

Export (Sept. 12 and 19).

England and Bolivia. - Study on
Thibet. - Germany and the United
States in Guatemala.
Kolonialc Zeitschrift (Sept. 12).
CARL PETERS:
The organization of work in
Africa. - R. DEEKEN: The
German interests in Samoa. - Farsan
Islands.
Oesterreichische Monatsschrift
für den Orient (August). Situation
trade and industry in southwest
Asia. - The
Nile and the irrigationdepartment.
Englishmagazines.
Coutemporary Review (Sept.). J.
DE BLOCH: The wars of
the future. - HAVELOCK ELLIS:
The genius of Russia.
Fortuightly Review (Sept.). E.-B.
IWAN MÜLLER: The
situation in South Africa. - W.-II.
MALLOCK: The
religion and science at the dawn
of the 20th century.
Monthly Review (Sept.).
CHARLES BILL: Some seriousstuff
foreign policy issues. - W.-H.
MALLOCK: The
Britain's economic decline.
National Review (setp.). SIR
EDWARD GREY: The causes of
the southafricanwar.
Westminster Review (Sept.).
JOHN E. ELLAM: Imperialism
and the impending crisis for
democracy. - F.-A. WHITE: The
consequences of the South
African war and how we
must prevent the possibility of
similarnew wars.

Belgianmagazines.
Bulletin de la Société d'études
coloniales (Sept.). The roads
from Manchuria. - Caré, quinine
and
wood in the DutchIndies.
Essor économique universel
(Sept. 18). Louis STRAUSS: La
industrialcrisis.

Geographical movement (Sept.

22). PAUL BARRÉ: The
railroads in America.
Italianmagazines.
L'Esplorazione commerciale
(Sept. 15). A. PARAZZOLI: La
currentsituation
in Eritrea. - A. RAVAIOLI:
Economicpolicy
indispensable to Italy
and Italian foreign credit. La
Rassegna Internazionale
(Sept.). RICCARDO FORSTER:
La force de vivre.

—SEM BENELLI: Italian

chronicle. - GEORCES
EECKOUD: Belgian chronicle.
La Rassegna Nazionale (16
sept.). GIROLAMO DE
FERRARI: The Shah of Persia,

Nasser-ed-Din, and his reign. -

RAFFAELLO RICCI: The
Italian railroads in
1899. Rivista Politica e letteraria
(Sept. 15). XXX: The two
alliances. - Letter
by Francesco Crispi.

Portuguesemagazines.
Rivista Portugueza Colonial e
Maritima (Sept.). A.-J.
D'ARANJO: Emigration in
Asian countries. - II. DE V.
The usefulness of colonies.
Managing Director: . PCAMPAIN.
PARIS. - IMP. . FLEVÉ, RUE
CASSETTE, 17.