THEORIES OF CRIME

CAUSATION
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 CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY
(the breaking of laws - the causes of crime)
this division in the study of criminology attempts to
analyze scientifically the causes of crime.
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 WHAT IS A THEORY?
THEORY – is a statement that explains the
relationship between abstract concepts in a
meaningful way (Siegel, 2007).
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 Single or Unitary Factor Theory
Single or unitary theory believes that crime is produced
only by one factor or variable, they are either:
a. Social
b. Biological
c. Mental
Others
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d.
 Multiple Factor Theory of Crime
Multiple-Factor-Theory of Crime explains that the
factors/elements that are said to cause crime are
varied and many.
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 Approaches in the
Study of Criminal
Behavior
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 1. Biological Approach - The biological approach of criminal
behavior refers to the study of criminal act through biological
perspective. Biological approach is any of the following:
a. Anthropology
b. Phrenology
c. Physiognomy
d. Heredity

Biological approach believes that criminal behavior is inherited or

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is identified through physical characteristic of a criminal.

 2. Psychiatric Approach - Psychogenic approach to the
criminology behavior gives the emphasis on linking
criminal behavior to mental state. Psychogenic approach
repeatedly asserts that crime is an outcome of criminal
mind, especially:
a. Mental Disease
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b. Mental Disorders
 3. Psychological Approach - Psychological approach
considers that criminal behavior is caused by
psychological disorders as supported by the
Psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud.
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 4. Sociological Approach - Sociological approach insists that
criminal behavior is caused by social factors as supported by the
following theories:
a. Differential Association Theory

b. Differential Identification Theory

c. Labeling Theory

d. Imitation Theory
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e. Strain Theory
 5. Geographical Approach - Geographical approach
considers that geographical location triggers criminal
behavior.
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 Demonological/Supernatural Theory
Demonological theory posits that man commit anti social acts
because the demons, evil spirits, or some forces from the "other
world" forced or pushed them to do so. This belief is true during
the pagan age when any wrongful act of man is attributed to the
will of devils or other supernatural beings. In addition, to free men
from the evil spirits people resulted to rituals to drive away the evil
spirits and to avoid them from being under their influence and
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control.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
IN CRIMINOLOGY

1. Classical School of Thought

2. Neo-Classical School of Thought
3. Positivist School of Thought
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 1. Classical School of thought
Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria-
Bonesana (1738-1794)
- Italian philosopher and
politician
- Founder of Classical School of
Thought together with Jeremy
Bentham
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- Known in his essay entitled

Crimes and Punishment
Cesare Beccaria
 Key points on his essay on
crimes and punishments
● Only the law can prescribe punishment.
● The law must be applied equally to all people.
● Making the law and law enforcement public.
● Punishment must be proportional to the harm the
crime has caused.
● Punishment should be certain and swift.
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● He argued against death penalty.

 “ So that any punishment be not an act of violence of
one or of many against another, it is essential that it be
public, prompt, necessary, minimal in severity as
possible under given circumstances, proportional to the
crime and prescribed by the laws.”
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Cesare Beccaria – “On Crimes and Punishments”

 Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
- English jurist, philosopher, and

legal and social reformer

- Advocate Utilitarianism

- The principle of utility:

“Greatest happiness for the

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greatest number of people”

- Felicity or hedonistic calculus
 1. Classical School of thought
Pioneered by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham
The two primary doctrines are:
● Freewill by Cesare Beccaria, which stated that man, is
entirely unrestricted in his ability to choose between good
and evil or man has the capacity to choose what is right
and what is wrong.
● Hedonism that was introduced by Jeremy Bentham. A
philosophy where people choose pleasure and avoid
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pain.
● “Let the punishment fits the crime.”
 2. Neo-Classical School
● This school maintained that while classical doctrine was
correct in general, some of its detail should be modified
to include:
● Children and lunatics should not be regarded as
criminal; hence they are free from punishment.

● In the study of legal provision, it serves to exempt or

mitigate a person in his sentence from the commission
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of the crime
 2. POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Cesare Lombroso
(1835-1909)
-Father of Criminology
- He was the first to put
emphasis on the need to
study Criminology
scientifically.
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-Born Criminal
 WHO WAS THE FOUNDER OF
SOCIOLOGY?

● Founder of Sociology
● ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE
FRANCOIS XAVIER COMTE
- Applied scientific method to
the study of society.
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 Cesare Lombroso
His theory of Born Criminal states that
criminals are a lower form of life,
nearer to their apelike ancestors than
non-criminal in traits and disposition.
They are distinguishable
from non-criminals
by various atavistic stigmata-
physical features of creatures at
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an earlier stage of development.

 Atavistic stigmata, includes the
following, protruding jaw,
drooping eyes, large ears,
twisted and flattish nose, long
arms relative to the lower limbs
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and sloping shoulders,

 THREE TYPES OF CRIMINALS
BY LOMBROSO
● Atavistic- these criminals are those considered born
criminals.
● Insane Criminals- these refers to people who became
criminals due to alcoholism, kleptomaniacs,
nymphomaniacs, and child molesters.
● Criminaloid- these criminals refer to those categorized as
“habitual criminals”, “juridical criminals”, and “criminal by
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passion”
 Raffaele Garofalo
(1851-1934)
An Italian nobleman,
magistrate, senator, and
professor of law who rejected
the classical principle that
punishment should fit the
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crime, arguing instead that it

should fit the criminal.
 He traced the roots of criminal
behavior which is not in physical
features but to their
psychological equivalents,
which he called “moral
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anomalies.”
 Enrico Ferri
Lombroso’s best associate;
argued that criminals should not
be held morally responsible for
their crimes, because they did not
choose to commit crimes rather,
were driven to commit crimes
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due to economic, social and

political factors (moral
responsibility).
 Positivist School of thought
● Founded by Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and
Raffaele Garofalo
● This school promoted the Doctrine of Determinism
which stated that man’s choices, decisions and
actions are decided by antecedent causes,
inherited or environmental, acting upon his
character.
● Emphasized on the scientific treatment of the
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criminal, not on the penalties.

● “Let the treatment fits the criminal.”
 CHARLES BUCKMAN GORING
Together with his physician KARL PEARSON found out that
based on their 3000 ENGLISH CONVICT respondents found
out that DEFECTIVE INTELLIGENCE rather than PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS was the main factor why a person
commits a crime.
In 1913 published a book entitled The English Convict: A
Statistical Study concluded that there is no such thing as a
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physical criminal type.

 CLASSICAL
THEORIES
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 RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
Holds that person will engage in criminal behavior after weighing
the consequences and benefits of their actions. Criminal behavior is
a rational choice made by a motivated offender who perceives that
the chances of gain outweigh any possible punishment or loss.
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 ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY

LAWRENCE COHEN AND MARCUS

FELSON
Motivated Suitable
● View that crime is a “normal” offender target

function of the routine activities CRIME

of modern living; offenses can
be expected if there is a
motivated offender and a Lack of capable
suitable target that is not
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guardian

protected by capable guardians.

 If criminality is a rational choice and a routine activity,
as some believe then criminality prevention is a matter
of three general strategies:
1. GENERAL DETERRENCE

2. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE

3. SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION

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 1. GENERAL DETERRENCE THEORY
● Aimed at making potential criminals fear the
consequences of crime.
● That crime does not pay.

● Crime is a function of severity, certainty and speed of

punishment
● Focuses on potential offenders
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 GENERAL DETERRENCE POLICY
● A crime control policy that depends on the fear of

criminalities; such as long prison sentences for violent

crimes; the aim is to convince law violators that the pain
outweigh the benefit of criminal activity. (SOCIETAL
DETERRENCE)
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 2. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE
● This theory holds that if offenders are punished so

severely, the experience will convince them not to repeat

their illegal acts.
● It targets offenders who have already been convicted.

● Punishing more criminals will reduce their involvement in

criminal activity.
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 3. SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION
● Crime prevention method that relies on reducing the

opportunity to commit criminal acts by:

a. Making them more difficult to perform (target-hardening

technique)
b. Reducing their reward

c. Increasing their risks

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 ITALIAN OR POSITIVIST
THEORIES (1810)
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 BIOLOGICAL
FACTORS:
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 BIOSOCIAL THEORY
● Viewed that both thought and behavior have
biological and social bases. Argues that no two
people are alike and that the combination of human
genetic traits and the environment produces
individual human behavior.
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 LATENT TRAIT THEORY
DAVID ROWE & WAYNE OSGOOD
● A stable feature, characteristic, property, or
condition, such as defective intelligence or impulsive
personality that makes some people delinquency-
prone over the life course.
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 THEORIES ON HEREDITY, INTELLIGENCE
AND CRIME
1. NATURE THEORY

vs
1. NURTURE THEORY
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 Nature Theory-
Holds that low intelligence is largely determined
genetically.
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 KALLIKAK FAMILY
Henry H. Goddard

Kallikak came from Greek words

“kallos” which means beauty and
“kakos” which means bad.
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 JUKE FAMILY
Richard Dugdale
Ada Juke- Mother of Criminals

- 1,200 descendants
- 7 murderers, 60 habitual thieves, 90 or more criminals,
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50 prostitutes, and 280 paupers, 100 drunkards

 2. NURTURE THEORY
Argued that intelligence is not inherited and that low-
IQ parents do not necessarily produce low-IQ
children.
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 PHYSIOGNOMY
Giambattista Della Porta (popularized by Johann Kaspar
Lavater)

Physiognomy (from the Greek PHYSIS meaning nature and

GNOMON meaning judge or, 'interpreter)

Physiognomy is a theory based upon the idea that the

assessment of the person's outer appearance, primarily the
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face, may give insights into one's character or personality.

 PHYSIOGNOMY
Della Porta (1586), in his book
De Humana Physiognomia
Libri III, introduced examples
of human-animal similarities.

Dr. James W. Redfield, in his

book “Comparative
Physiognomy or
Resemblances Between Men
and Animals” (1852), showed
several examples of man’s
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personality make-up with

animals whom they resemble.
 PHRENOLOGY
FRANZ JOSEPH GALL (1758-1828);
JOHANN KASPAR SPURZHEIM (1776-
1832)

-It is the science which studies the

relationships between a person's
character and the morphology of the skull.
It is a very ancient object of study.

-The shape of the skull and bumps of the

head to determine whether these physical
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attributes were linked to criminal behavior

 SOMATOTYPE THEORY
Ernst Kretchmer (popularized by William Sheldon)
Argued that there is a link between the body structures of a
person to the kind of crime he or she may be committed.

This theory associates body types with human

temperament types. (Sheldon, 1940’s)
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 Types of Physique (Kretchmer):

1. Asthenic Type:
Those who are skinny and
slender; Their crimes petty
thievery and fraud.
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 Types of Physique (Kretchmer):

2. Athletic Type:
Those who are muscular and
strong: They usually connected
with crimes against violence.
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 Types of Physique (Kretchmer):

3. Pyknic Type:
Those who are stout and with
round bodies; They tend to
commit deception, fraud and
violence.
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 Types of Physique (Kretchmer):

4. Dysplastic or mixed Type:

Those who are less clear evident
having any predominant type.
Their offenses are against decency
and morality
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 Types of Physique and Temperament (Sheldon)
1. Endomorph - the short, fat body; This body types is characterized by soft,
round, and whose digestive viscera are massive and highly developed.
Endomorph person is overweight and has a large stomach.
2. Mesomorph - is the athletic type. They are muscular and whose "somatic
structures" are in the ascendancy. Person considered as mesomorph has
larger bones and considerable muscle mass.
3. Ectomorph is the tall, skinny body; they are fragile and who has “long,
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slender, poorly muscled extremities, with delicate pipestem bone.

Endomorphic- fat Mesomorphic- masculine Ectomorphic – thin

 Types of Physique and Temperament (Sheldon)
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 Types of Physique and Temperament (Sheldon)
1. Ectomorph. This body type are CEREBROTONIC or restrained, shy and
inhibited temperament. (artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert.)
2. Endomorph. This body type are VISCEROTONIC or relaxed and sociable.
(tolerant, love of comfort and luxury, extravert.)
3. Mesomorph. This body type are SOMATONIC and are likely associated
with delinquency or somatotonia, which he described as a
"predominance of muscular activity and vigorous bodily assertiveness”.
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(courageous, energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, and aggressive and

risk taker.)
 Psychological
Factors:
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 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
Because many people live in poor homes, destructive
neighborhoods, friends etc., these relationships seem to
indicate a disturbed personality structure. Crime is a
function of person’s mental and emotional disturbance.
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 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
SIGMUND FREUD
● Holds that the human personality is controlled by
unconscious mental processes developed in early
childhood. Argues that human personality contains three
major components:
1. Id – pleasure principle

2. Ego – reality principle

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3. Superego – morality principle

 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES BY FREUD:
1. ORAL STAGE- first year of a life of a child (sucking and biting)
2. ANAL STAGE – eliminating bodily waste (second and third year)
3. PHALLIC STAGE- focus their attention on genitals
● OEDIPUS COMPLEX- attachment of a male child to their mother
● ELECTRA COMPLEX – attachment of a female child for their father
4. LATENCY – begins at 6; sexuality are repressed
5. GENITAL – puberty; focus is back to genital
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 COGNITIVE THEORY
WILHELM WUNDT, EDWARD TITCHENER and WILLIAM
JAMES
● The branch of psychology that studies the perception of
reality and the mental process required to understand the
world we live in. Person makes it difficult to decide while
under stress.
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 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
DEVELOPED BY LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG
● Viewed that people who
obey the law only on
self- interest are the
ones who likely violate
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the law.
 SOCIOLOGICAL
FACTORS:
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 1. SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORY
Viewed the disadvantage economic class position as a
primary cause of crime. Neighborhoods that experience high
levels of poverty will also have high delinquency rates. It
finds delinquency and criminality to be a consequence of the
inequalities built into the social structure.
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 1.a. CONCENTRIC ZONE THEORY
ERNEST BURGESS AND
ROBERT EZRA PARK (1925)
● When cities are fully grown;
the community will take into
the form of five concentric
rings and criminality will be
concentrated on the inner
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center.
 1.b. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY
CLIFFORD SHAW & HENRY MCKAY
● These scholars found out that criminality rates were

high in what they called transitional neighborhoods.

ELEMENTS:
➢ High unemployment

➢ School dropout rates

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➢ Single-parent households
 TRANSITIONAL
NEIGHBORHOODS- areas
that are changed from
affluence to decay. They
claimed that areas continually
hurt by poverty and long-term
unemployment also
experience social
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disorganization
 1.c. ANOMIE THEORY
● DAVID EMILE DURKHEIM
● A- means “without” and “nomo” or “nomos” means
“law”.
● ANOMIE – Means without law or the breakdown of social
order as a result of loss of standard and values.
● NORMLESSNESS – produced by rapidly shifting moral
values.
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 DAVID EMILE DURKHEIM
• Defined crime as a normal and necessary

social event.
• Argued that crime can be useful and on
occasion, even healthy for society.
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• Crime calls attention to social ills.

 1.d. STRAIN THEORY
● ROBERT KING MERTON

● Holds that crime is a function of the conflict between

the goals people have and the means they can use
to legally obtain them. Consequently, they feel
anger, frustration and resentment, which is referred
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to as STRAIN.
 5 MERTON’S MODE OF ADAPTATION
GOALS MEANS
● Conformity + +
● Innovation + -
● Ritualism - +
● Retreatism - -
● Rebellion + +
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 1.e. DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY
RICHARD CLOWARD & LLOYD OHLIN
● People in all strata of society share the same

success and goals but that those in lower class have

limited means of achieving them.
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 1.f. RELATIVE DEPRIVATION THEORY
JUDITH BLAU AND PETER BLAU
● Condition that exists when people of
wealth and poverty live in close
proximity to one another; the relatively
deprived are apt to have feelings of
anger and hostility, which may produce
criminality. Sharp divisions between
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rich and poor create an atmosphere of

envy and mistrust.
 1.g. GENERAL STRAIN THEORY
ROBERT AGNEW
● Agnew suggests that criminality is the direct result of

negative affective states – the anger, frustration,

depression, disappointment and other adverse emotions
that derive from strain.
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 VARIOUS SOURCES OF STRAIN:
1. Strain caused by the failure to achieve positively valued

goals.
2. Strain caused by the disjunction of expectations and

achievements.
3. Strain as the removal of positively valued stimuli from the

individual.
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4. Strain as the presentation of negative stimuli.

 1.g. CULTURE DEVIANCE THEORY
● Links delinquent acts to the formation of independent

subcultures with a unique set of values that clash with the

mainstream culture.
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 2. SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES
● Not all sociologists believe that merely living in an
impoverished, deteriorated, lower-class area is a
determinant of a delinquent career. Instead, they argue
that the root cause of delinquency may be traced to
learning criminal behavior from peers, becoming
detached from school, etc.
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 2.a. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
ALBERT BANDURA
● People are not actually born to act
violently but they learned to be
aggressive to their life
experiences.
● Asserts that criminality is learned
through close relationships with
others; asserts that children are
born “good” and learn to be “bad”
from others.
● ELEMENTS: Family, environment,
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and mass media

 2.a. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
ALBERT BANDURA
● People are not actually born to act
violently but they learned to be
aggressive to their life
experiences.
● Asserts that criminality is learned
through close relationships with
others; asserts that children are
born “good” and learn to be “bad”
from others.
● ELEMENTS: Family, environment,
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and mass media

 2.b. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY
EDWIN SUTHERLAND
● Sutherland's Differential Association Theory suggests that people
commit crime by learning in a social context through their
interactions with others and communication with them. He believed
criminal behavior is learned by interaction with others, and this
includes learning the techniques of committing the crime, and the
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motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes for committing it.

 2.c.DIFFERENTIAL IDENTIFICATION THEORY
DANIEL GLASER.
Glaser called it ROLE THEORY. This theory had been derived from
Differential Association Theory of Sutherland. It was maintained that a
person pursues criminal behavior to the extent that he identifies himself
with real or imaginary persons from whose perspective his criminal
behavior seems acceptable. A person with the propensities of becoming a
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thief will consider thieves as their ideal person to identify themselves.

 2.d. DRIFT THEORY
DAVID MATZA and GRESHAM SYKES
● Suggest that delinquents hold values similar to those law abiding
citizens but they learn techniques that enable them to neutralize those
values and drift back and forth between legitimate and delinquent
behavior.

WHAT IS DRIFT?
● DRIFT – is the process by which an individual moves from one
behavioral extreme to another, behaving sometimes in an
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unconventional manner and at other times with constraint

 NEUTRALIZATION TECHNIQUES
● Sykes and Matza suggest that a person develop a distinct set of
justifications for their behavior when it violates accepted social rules and
norms.
● These neutralization techniques allow a person to drift away from the
rules of the normative society and participate in criminal behavior.
1. Denial of the Victim – he has it coming, she talked back, and he has a bad
attitude.
2. Denial of Responsibility – they made me do it, I don’t have a choice, and it’s
either me or him
3. Denial of Injury – they have insurance, they have too much money, what’s one
CD to a big store.
4. Appeal to Higher Loyalties – I have to protect my buddies, only cowards run
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away
5. Condemnation of the Condemners – Everyone steals, why pick on me?
 2.e. THEORY OF IMITATION
Gabriel Tarde
This theory states that individuals copy behavior
patterns of other individuals, and that those
with weaker personalities tend to get
influenced easier by those with stronger
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personalities
 THREE LAWS OF IMITATION:
1.the law of close contact,
2.the law of imitation of superiors
by inferiors, and
the law of insertion.
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3.
 2.f. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY
ROBERT BURGESS
● People tend to repeat behaviors that are reinforced or
rewarded and are less likely to continue behaviors that
aren't reinforced.
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 2.g. CONTROL/ SOCIAL BOND THEORY
● TRAVIS HIRSCHI
● Claimed that criminality results from commitment to the major
social institutions (family, peers and school); lack of such
commitment allows them to exercise antisocial behavioral
choices.
● ELEMENTS: (THESE FOUR (4) ARE CALLED SOCIAL BONDS)
1. Attachment 3. Involvement
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2. Commitment 4. Belief
 2.h. CONTAINMENT THEORY
● WALTER RECKLESS

● Assumed that in every individual there is a containing

internal psychological and protective external social

structure both of which provides defense and
insulation against criminality.
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 3. SOCIAL REACTION THEORIES
● The way society reacts to individuals and the way

individuals react to society determines behavior.

● Being stigmatized, or labeled, by agents of social control,

including official institutions such as the police and the

courts, and unofficial institutions, such as parents and
neighbors, is what sustains criminal careers.
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 3.a. LABELING THEORY
● HOWARD BECKER and FRANK TANNENBAUM

● Explained that society creates deviance through a system

of social control agencies that designate (label) certain

individuals as delinquent, thereby stigmatizing a person
and encouraging them to accept this negative personal
identity.
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 STIGMATIZED
● People who have been negatively labeled because of

their participation, or alleged participation in deviant or

outlawed behaviors.

SELF-LABELING
● The process by which a person who has been

negatively labeled accepts the label as a personal role

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or identity.
 SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
● Deviant behavior patterns that are response to an earlier
labeling experience, a person act out these social roles even
if they were false bestowed.
● Ex.) Teachers already think I’m stupid, so why should I bother
to study.

DRAMATIZATION OF EVIL
FRANK TANNENBAUM
● First suggested that social typing, which he called
“dramatization of evil,” transforms the offender’s identity from
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a “doer of evil” to “an evil person”.

 3.b. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DEVIANCE
EDWIN LEMERT
● People who bear negative labels become secondary

deviants – their label becomes a master status by which

they are defined.
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 4. CONFLICT CRIMINOLOGY
● The law favors the powerful, but not any one particular

group. The greater the wealth, power, and prestige a group

has, the more likely the law will favor it. The distribution of
political power that leads to some interest groups being
able to criminalize the acts of other interest groups.
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 Cartographic or Geographical School
It emphasized the distribution of crimes on
certain areas, both geographical and social
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 THERMIC LAW OF DELINQUENCY
● ADOLPHE QUETELET
● FOUNDER OF SOCIAL CRIMINOLOGY
● used data and statistics in performing criminological
research

● THERMIC LAW OF DELINQUENCY- stated that

crimes against person tend to increase during
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summer while crimes against property during winter.