Table of Contents

Course Guide xiăxv

Topic 1 Introducing Linguistics 1

1.1 What is Linguistics? 2
1.2 Fundamental Concepts 3
1.2.1 Mother Tongue 4
1.2.2 Language and Literacy 4
1.2.3 Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammars 5
1.2.4 Linguistic Competence and Performance 7
1.3 Design Features of Language 8
1.3.1 Features Shared by All Systems of Communication 8
1.3.2 Features Shared by Some Systems of Communication 9
1.3.3 Features Shared by Only Human Languages 10
1.4 Development of Modern Linguistics 11
Summary 13
Key Terms 14
References 14

Topic 2 Sounds of Language 15

2.1 Applications of Phonetics and Phonology 16
2.2 Phonetics 17
2.2.1 The Vocal Tract 19
2.2.2 Types of Speech Sounds 20
2.3 Phonology 23
2.3.1 Phonemes and Allophones 23
2.3.2 Distribution of Phonemes and Phonotactics 24
2.3.3 Syllable Structure 25
2.3.4 Prosody 26
2.4 Phonetic Transcription 28
Summary 29
Key Terms 30
References 30

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Topic 3 Structure of Words 31

3.1 Types of Words 32
3.1.1 Lexical Words 32
3.1.2 Function Words 33
3.2 Morphemes: Free and Bound 34
3.3 Derivational and Inflectional Affixes and Clitics 36
3.3.1 Derivational Affixes 36
3.3.2 Inflectional Affixes and Clitics 38
3.4 Allomorphs 40
3.5 Morphological Analysis 41
Summary 44
Key Terms 45
References 45

Topic 4 Structure of Sentences 46

4.1 What is Syntax? 47
4.2 Hierarchical Structure 49
4.2.1 Constituency Units 50
4.2.2 Constituency Tests 51
4.2.3 Lexical and Structural Ambiguity 52
4.3 Syntactic Units 55
4.3.1 Clauses 56
4.3.2 Phrases 56
4.3.3 Phrase Structure Rules 58
Summary 60
Key Terms 61
References 61

Topic 5 Semantics and Pragmatics 62

5.1 What is Meaning? 62
5.2 Semantics 64
5.2.1 Reference and Sense 64
5.2.2 Semantic Features 65
5.2.3 Word Relations 66
5.2.4 Structural Semantics: Thematic Roles 69
5.3 Describing Meaning Across Cultures 71
5.3.1 What is Cognitive Semantics? 71
5.3.2 Metaphors 72
5.3.3 Categories in the Mind 73
5.3.4 Natural Semantic Metalanguage 73

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5.4 Pragmatics 76
5.4.1 Sentence versus Utterance 76
5.4.2 Speech Acts, Performatives and Illocutionary Force 77
5.4.3 Felicity 78
5.4.4 GriceÊs Maxims 79
Summary 81
Key Terms 82
References 82

Topic 6 Sociolinguistics 83
6.1 Language as a Social Phenomenon 83
6.1.1 Speech Community 84
6.1.2 Interactive Context 84
6.2 Social Varieties and Variation 85
6.2.1 Regional Variation 85
6.2.2 Social Dialects 87
6.2.3 Age Related Variation 88
6.3 Registers 88
6.4 Bilinguals and Language Use 90
6.5 Language Shift and Endangerment 92
6.5.1 Language Shift 92
6.5.2 Language Death 93
Summary 94
Key Terms 95
References 95

Topic 7 Psycholinguistics 97
7.1 Language and Cognition 97
7.2 Language and Processing 99
7.2.1 Speech Perception 100
7.2.2 Sentence Processing 102
7.2.3 Speech Production and Perception Models 103
7.3 Language and the Brain 106
7.3.1 Physical Features of the Brain 106
7.3.2 Lateralisation 107
7.3.3 Brain Imaging Techniques 108
Summary 110
Key Terms 111
References 112

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Topic 8 Language Acquisition 113

8.1 First Language Acquisition 114
8.1.1 The Cooing and Babbling Stage 114
8.1.2 The Holophrastic or One-word Stage 115
8.1.3 Two-word Stage 115
8.1.4 Telegraphic Stage 116
8.1.5 Basic Mastery 116
8.2 How Children Learn Language 116
8.2.1 Conditioned-response Learning 117
8.2.2 Imitation 118
8.2.3 Hypothesis Testing and Learning from Analogy 119
8.2.4 Innate Predisposition to Learn Language 120
8.3 Second Language Acquisition 121
8.3.1 First Language versus Second Language Learning 122
8.3.2 Factors Influencing Second Language Learning 123
Summary 128
Key Terms 129
References 129

Topic 9 Human Language and Animal Communication 131

9.1 Animal Communication Systems 131
9.1.1 Bees 132
9.1.2 Birds 134
9.1.3 Monkeys 135
9.2 Teaching Animals Human Language 136
9.2.1 Teaching Chimpanzees Sign Language 137
9.2.2 Bonobos and Gorillas 138
9.3 Origins and Evolution of Human Language 139
9.3.1 Divine Source 139
9.3.2 Natural-sound Source Theories 140
9.3.3 Oral-gesture Theory, Physiological Adaptation 141
and Genetic Changes
Summary 142
Key Terms 144
References 144

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Topic 10 Unity and Diversity in Language 145

10.1 Universals of Language 146
10.2 Language Typology 148
10.2.1 Morphological Typologies 151
10.2.2 Syntactic Typologies 153
10.2.3 Phonological Typologies 154
10.3 Explaining Unity and Diversity of Language Structures 155
Summary 156
Key Terms 157
References 157

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