UNIT - III

ENGINE SYSTEMS
SYLLABUS:
Piston and Jet Engines- Fuel systems – Components - Multi-engine fuel systems,
lubricating systems – Starting and Ignition systems.
PISTON ENGINE / RECIPROCATING ENGINE
The reciprocating engines also known as Piston engines that fall under the
category of Internal combustion engines. A piston engine uses one or more pistons to
convert the chemical energy into work. They are further divided into spark ignition
and compression ignition engines.

The basic components of the Piston engine are: -

 Cylinder Block- It is the main supporting structure for various components. The
cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block and both are provided with the water
jackets and cooling fins in the case of water and air cooling respectively.
 Cylinder- The cylinder is the type of vessel in which the piston makes a reciprocating
motion.
 Piston- It is the major component of the piston engine fitted inside the cylinder
forming the boundary of the engine.
  Combustion Chamber- The region enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, where
the pressure from the combustion of fuel and release of thermal energy is formed in
this part of the cylinder.
 Inlet and Exhaust manifold- The pipe through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn
into the cylinder is known as the inlet manifold and it connects the intake system to
the inlet valve. The exhaust manifold connects the exhaust system to the exhaust
valve through which products of combustion escape into the atmosphere.
 Inlet and Exhaust valves- These are provided on the cylinder head for regulating the
charge coming into the cylinder and discharging the combustion products from the
cylinder.
 Connecting rod- It connects the piston to the crankshaft.
 Crankshaft- It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary
motion of the output shaft.
 Camshaft- Camshaft and its associated parts i.e. cams control the opening and closing
of valves.
 Flywheel- To achieve a uniform torque, an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is
attached to the shaft and it is known as the flywheel.
 Spark plug- It is a component to initiate the combustion process and it is present on
the cylinder head of the SI engine.

Working principle of Piston engines

The engine has to follow a cycle of operations in a particular sequence for its proper
functioning. Engines are also classified based on cycle operation i.e. Four-stroke and two-
stroke engines. In a four-stroke engine, the cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston or
two revolutions of crankshaft whereas, in a two-stroke engine, the cycle is completed in one
revolution and two strokes, suction and exhaust. They only differ in the way of filling the
fresh charge and removing burnt gases from the cylinder.
Working of both SI and CI engines are same, it only differs in certain parameters-
 The compression ratio of the SI engine is between 6 to 10 whereas, for CI, it is from
16 to 20.
 In CI engine only air is inserted during a suction stroke but in a SI engine, the air-fuel
mixture is inducted.
 Both the carburetor and ignition system is required in a SI engine, whereas, in CI
engine self-ignition takes place.
The ideal sequence of four-stroke engine operation is:
 Suction or Intake- The charge consisting of air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the
cylinder.
 Compression Stroke- The charge taken is now compressed by the return stroke of the
piston.
  Expansion or Power Stroke-The power is produced during this stroke. Both
temperature and pressure decrease.
 Exhaust Stroke- In this stroke, the pressure falls to atmospheric level and burnt gases
escape from the exhaust valve.
Two-Stroke Engine
A Two-stroke Engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes one
rotation of the crankshaft in two motions of the piston. It completes the entire cycle of
rotation in one stroke of the piston.
In an internal combustion engine, the crankshaft is moved with the help of pistons. To
rotate the crankshaft the pistons, have to go through a cycle of events called the stroking of
the engine. During the stroking of an engine first, the piston intakes the fuel inside the
piston chamber and compresses it. The piston head then expands due to the combustion of
the fuel and then the exhaust is released.
A two-stroke engine completes this entire process in two rotations to move the
crankshaft in one complete rotation.
Two-stroke petrol engines are commonly found in smaller, lightweight applications
such as chainsaws, mopeds, outboard boat motors, and some motorcycles. They are known
for their simplicity and high power-to-weight ratio but tend to be less fuel-efficient and emit
more pollutants. Two-stroke diesel engines are typically used in larger applications, such as
some marine vessels, industrial machinery, and certain types of generators. They are known
for their durability, efficiency, and ability to produce high torque at low RPMs.

Schematic diagram of a 2-stroke Internal combustion engine

 Cross-section of a 2 stroke IC engine - Upstroke and Downstroke
Upstroke: During the upstroke, the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture into the upper
part of the piston chamber where the spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture. The ignition of
the intake gasses causes the piston to move down to the centre of the piston chamber
which opens the inlet port and fresh air comes into the piston chamber forcing the exhaust
gasses out through the exhaust port.
Downstroke: During the downstroke, the piston is in the centre of the chamber and due to
the momentum gained during the upstroke, it again moves to the upper part of the
chamber while compressing the fuel-air mixture and the whole cycle is repeated.

Difference between Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engine

Parameter Two-Stroke Engine Four-Stroke Engine
Number of strokes per cycle 2 strokes 4 strokes

Intake stroke During upward stroke Separate intake stroke

Compression stroke During downward stroke Separate compression stroke

Power stroke During upward stroke Separate power stroke

Exhaust stroke During downward stroke Separate exhaust stroke

Weight Lighter weight Heavier weight

Emissions Produces more emissions Produces less emissions

Fuel/air mixture Pre-mixed fuel/air mixture Separate fuel and air intake

Lubrication Oil is mixed with fuel Oil is separated from fuel

Efficiency Lower efficiency Higher efficiency

Applications motorcycles, chainsaws, etc Cars, trucks, motorboats, etc

Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Engine

Advantages
 A two-stroke engine is a simple construction as it does not have any valves.
 The two-stroke engine is less expensive to operate.
 It is cheaper to operate.
 It is light in weight and thus is mostly used in bikes.
Disadvantages
 The parts can wear and tear at a faster rate if they are not properly lubricated.
 It produces a lot of pollution as an unburnt air-fuel mixture can just pass through the
exhaust port.
 It produces a lot of noise during its operation.
 The oil of a two-stroke engine is expensive and a large amount is required due to
most of the oil being wasted.
“Piston aircraft fly at an altitude below 15000 feet (4.57 km) and have one or more piston
engines connected to propellers, which provide thrust to move the airplane on the ground
and in the air. Manufacturers of piston-engine airplanes are Cessna, cirrus, diamond, etc.”

PETROL ENGINE: OTTO CYCLE (Constant volume)

DIESEL ENGINE: DIESEL CYCLE (Constant Pressure)

JET ENGINES:
All jet engines, which are also called gas turbines, work on the same principle. The
engine sucks air in at the front with a fan. A compressor raises the pressure of the air. The
compressor is made with many blades attached to a shaft. The blades spin at high speed
and compress or squeeze the air. The compressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an
electric spark light the mixture. The burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle,
at the back of the engine. As the jets of gas shoot backward, the engine and the aircraft are
thrust forward. As the hot air is going to the nozzle, it passes through another group of
blades called the turbine. The turbine is attached to the same shaft as the compressor.
Spinning the turbine causes the compressor to spin.
Parts of a Jet Engine
 Fan - The large spinning fan sucks in large quantities of air. Most blades of the fan are
made of titanium. It then speeds this air up and splits it into two parts. One part
continues through the "core" or centre of the engine, where it is acted upon by the
other engine components.
  The second part "bypasses" the core of the engine. It goes through a duct that
surrounds the core to the back of the engine where it produces much of the force
that propels the airplane forward. This cooler air helps to quiet the engine as well as
adding thrust to the engine.

 Compressor - The compressor is the first component in the engine core. The
compressor is made up of fans with many blades and attached to a shaft. The
compressor squeezes the air that enters it into progressively smaller areas, resulting
in an increase in the air pressure. This results in an increase in the energy potential of
the air. The squashed air is forced into the combustion chamber.

 Combustor - In the combustor the air is mixed with fuel and then ignited. There are as
many as 20 nozzles to spray fuel into the airstream. The mixture of air and fuel
catches fire. This provides a high temperature, high-energy airflow. The fuel burns
with the oxygen in the compressed air, producing hot expanding gases. The inside of
the combustor is often made of ceramic materials to provide a heat-resistant
chamber. The heat can reach 2700°.

 Turbine - The high-energy airflow coming out of the combustor goes into the turbine,
causing the turbine blades to rotate. The turbines are linked by a shaft to turn the
blades in the compressor and to spin the intake fan at the front. This rotation takes
some energy from the high-energy flow that is used to drive the fan and the
compressor. The gases produced in the combustion chamber move through the
turbine and spin its blades. The turbines of the jet spin around thousands of times.
They are fixed on shafts which have several sets of ball-bearing in between them.

 Nozzle - The nozzle is the exhaust duct of the engine. This is the engine part which
actually produces the thrust for the plane. The energy depleted airflow that passed
the turbine, in addition to the colder air that bypassed the engine core, produces a
force when exiting the nozzle that acts to propel the engine, and therefore the
airplane, forward. The combination of the hot air and cold air are expelled and
produce an exhaust, which causes a forward thrust. The nozzle may be preceded by
a mixer, which combines the high temperature air coming from the engine core with
the lower temperature air that was bypassed in the fan. The mixer helps to make the
engine quieter.
TYPES OF JET ENGINES:
1. Turbojet
2. Turbofan
3. Turboprop
4. Turboshaft
5. Ram jet
6. Scram jet
7. Pulse jet
TURBOJET:
The basic idea of the turbojet engine is simple. Air taken in from an opening in the
front of the engine is compressed to 3 to 12 times its original pressure in compressor. Fuel is
added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to raise the temperature of the fluid
mixture to about 1,100°F to 1,300° F. The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine,
which drives the compressor. If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the
turbine discharge will be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure, and this excess pressure is
sent to the nozzle to produce a high-velocity stream of gas which produces a thrust.
Substantial increases in thrust can be obtained by employing an afterburner. It is a second
combustion chamber positioned after the turbine and before the nozzle. The afterburner
increases the temperature of the gas ahead of the nozzle. The result of this increase in
temperature is an increase of about 40 percent in thrust at take-off and a much larger
percentage at high speeds once the plane is in the air.

Cross -section of a typical Turbojet engine

The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gases push
hard against the front of the engine. The turbojet sucks in air and compresses or squeezes it.
The gases flow through the turbine and make it spin. The se gases bounce back and shoot
out of the rear of the exhaust, pushing the plane forward.

Real Cut -section of a Turbojet engine of an aircraft

TURBOPROP:
A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The turbine at the back is
turned by the hot gases, and this turns a shaft that drives the propeller. Some small airliners
and transport aircraft are powered by turboprops.

Like the turbojet, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor, combustion

chamber, and turbine, the air and gas pressure is used to run the turbine, which then
creates power to drive the compressor. Compared with a turbojet engine, the turboprop has
better propulsion efficiency at flight speeds below about 500 miles per hour. Modern
turboprop engines are equipped with propellers that have a smaller diameter but a larger
number of blades for efficient operation at much higher flight speeds. To accommodate the
higher flight speeds, the blades are scimitar-shaped with swept-back leading edges at the
blade tips. Engines featuring such propellers are called propfans.

Cross -section of a typical Turboprop engine

Reference image of a turboprop engine in an aircraft

 Turboprop engine of an aircraft

TURBOFAN:
A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. Most of the air flows
around the outside of the engine, making it quieter and giving more thrust at low speeds.
Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans. In a turbojet all the air entering the
intake passes through the gas generator, which is composed of the compressor, combustion
chamber, and turbine. In a turbofan engine only a portion of the incoming air goes into the
combustion chamber. The remainder passes through a fan, or low-pressure compressor, and
is ejected directly as a "cold" jet or mixed with the gas-generator exhaust to produce a "hot"
jet. The objective of this sort of bypass system is to increase thrust without increasing fuel
consumption. It achieves this by increasing the total air-mass flow and reducing the velocity
within the same total energy supply.
Cross -section of a typical Turbofan engine
Real images of a Turbofan engine
TURBOSHAFT:
This is another form of gas-turbine engine that operates much like a turboprop
system. It does not drive a propellor. Instead, it provides power for a helicopter rotor. The
turboshaft engine is designed so that the speed of the helicopter rotor is independent of the
rotating speed of the gas generator. This permits the rotor speed to be kept constant even
when the speed of the generator is varied to modulate the amount of power produced.

Cross -section of a typical Turboshaft engine

Real Cut -section of a Turboshaft engine

 Real images of a Turboshaft engine mounted on a rotorcraft

RAM JET
A ramjet is a form of airbreathing jet engine that uses the forward motion of the
engine to take in air for combustion that produces jet thrust. Since it produces no thrust
when stationary (as there is no ram air), ramjet-powered vehicles require an assisted take-
off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust. Ramjets
work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (3,700 km/h) and can operate up
to speeds of Mach 6 (7,400 km/h).

Cross -section of a typical Ramjet engine

 Real images of a ramjet engine

SCRAM JET:
A scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet
engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow. As in ramjets, a scramjet relies
on high vehicle speed to compress the incoming air forcefully before combustion (hence
ramjet), but whereas a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion
using shock cones, a scramjet has no shock cone and slows the airflow using shockwaves
produced by its ignition source in place of a shock cone.This allows the scramjet to operate
efficiently at extremely high speeds.

Cross -section of a typical scramjet engine

FUEL:
Fuel is a substance that, when combined with oxygen will burn and produce heat.
Fuels may be classified according to their physical state as solid, gaseous, or liquid.

Solid Fuels
Solid fuels are used extensively for external-combustion engines, such as a steam
engine, where the burning takes place under boilers or in furnaces. They include such fuels
as wood and coal. Solid fuels are not used in reciprocating engines, where the burning takes
place inside the cylinder, because of their slow rate of burning, low heat value, and
numerous other disadvantages.

Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels are used to some extent for internal-combustion engines, where a large
supply of combustible gas is readily available. Natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are
two of the more common types. Gaseous fuels can be disregarded for use in aircraft
engines. The large space they occupy limits the supply of fuel that can be carried.

Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels, in many respects, are the ideal fuel for use in internal-combustion
engines. Liquid fuels are classified as either non-volatile or volatile. The non-volatile fuels
are the heavy oils used in diesel engines. The volatile class includes those fuels that are
commonly used with a fuel metering device and are carried into the engine cylinder or
combustion chamber in a vaporized or partially vaporized condition. Among these are
alcohol, benzol, kerosene, and gasoline.

Aviation fuel is a liquid containing chemical energy that, through combustion, is

released as heat energy and then converted to mechanical energy by the engine. This
mechanical energy is used to produce thrust, which propels the aircraft. Gasoline and
kerosene are the two most widely used aviation fuels.

Due to the wide range of operating conditions and high rate of fuel consumption, jet
engines require specific fuels to operate efficiently and maintain a reasonable engine service
life. Various grades of jet fuels were developed to meet specific operating or handling
characteristics.

Characteristics
 Volatility (vapour pressure and distillation)
 Flash point and fire point
 Heat energy content
 Viscosity
 Handling characteristics
 Combustion products
 Effects of additives and impurities
 Freeze point
 Petroleum products distillation

FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION

There are several forms of contamination in aviation fuel. The higher the viscosity of
the fuel, the greater is its ability to hold contaminants in suspension. For this reason, jet
fuels having a high viscosity are more susceptible to contamination than aviation gasoline.
The principal contaminants that reduce the quality of both gasoline and turbine fuels are
other petroleum products, water, rust or scale, and dirt.
FUEL SYSTEM
The aircraft fuel system stores fuel and delivers the proper amount of clean fuel at the
right pressure to meet the demands of the engine. A well-designed fuel system ensures
positive and reliable fuel flow throughout all phases of flight, which include changes in
altitude, violent maneuvers and sudden acceleration and deceleration. Furthermore, the
system must be reasonably free from tendency to vapor lock, which can result from changes
in ground and in-flight climatic conditions. Such indicators as fuel pressure gages, warning
signals, and tank quantity gages are provided to give continuous indications of how the
system is functioning.
GRAVITY FEED FUEL SYSTEM:
A gravity-feed fuel system uses the force of gravity to cause fuel to the engine fuel-
control mechanism.

Gravity feed fuel system

 For this to occur, the bottom of the fuel tank must be high enough to assure a proper
fuel-pressure head at the inlet to the fuel-control component [carburettor] On the
engine.
 In high-wing aircraft this is accomplished by placing the fuel tanks in the wings.
 An example of this type of system is shown in figure. In this example fuel flows by
gravity from the wing tanks through the feed lines to the fuel-selector valve.
 After passing through the selector valve, the fuel flows through the fuel strainer and
then continues on to the carburettor.
 Fuel for the primer is taken from the main fuel strainer.
 Since both tanks may feed fuel to the engine simultaneously, the space above the
fuel must be interconnected and vented outside of the wing, where the possibility of
fuel siphoning is minimized.
PRESSURE FEED FUEL SYSTEM:
A pressure-feed fuel system, a simple version of which uses a pump to move fuel from the tank to the
engine fuel-control component.

Pressure feed fuel system

 This arrangement is required because the fuel tanks are located too low for sufficient
head pressure to be generated or because the tanks are some distance from the
engine.
 The system in figure is for a low wing aircraft, where the wing tanks are on the same
approximate level as the carburettor.
 The fuel flows from the tanks through separate fuel lines to the fuel selector valve.
 After leaving the selector valve, the fuel flows through the fuel strainer and into the
electric fuel pump.
 Note that the engine-driven pump supplies the fuel pressure necessary for normal
operation.
 During high-altitude operation, take-off, and landing, the boost pumps operated to
ensure adequate fuel pressure.
 Most large aircraft and aircraft with medium-to-high powered engines require a
pressure-feed system, regardless of fuel-tank location, because of the large volume of
fuel that must be delivered to the engines at a high pressure.
 When reference is made to high pressure in the fuel-feed system, the value is on the
order of 137.9, 206.9, 275.8 Kpa.
COMPONENTS OF FUEL SYSYTEM:
FUEL TANKS
 Tanks can be constructed of aluminium alloy, synthetic rubber or stainless steel
 They are normally fabricated to be an integral part of the wing or fuselage
 Some aircraft utilize bladder type fuel tanks
 They must be designed to distribute weight evenly
 Expansion space should be incorporated to account for fuel expansion on hot days
 Vents are incorporated to allow air to escape as fuel expands due to heat and
allow air to enter as fuel is drawn into the engine. Some aircraft use forward
facing vents to maintain positive pressure above the fuel
 Tanks may be pressurised to reduce vapour formation at altitude, suction relief
valves will be incorporated to ensure fuel flow should the pressurisation system
fail
 Baffles are fitted inside tanks to increase strength and prevent fuel surgingSumps
and drains are used to allow contaminants to settle and be removed from the tank
 A standpipe is used to draw the fuel into the system allowing us to avoid drawing
in any contaminants in the sump, this leaves some unusable in the tank below the
standpipe level

FUEL GUAGE
Float Type:
 Most light general aviation aircraft utilize a simple float. Here a metallic float
sits on top of the fuel, movement of the fuel is transmitted via mechanical
linkage or electrical signal to the cockpit
 These systems are notoriously unreliable, you must dip the tanks to ensure the
actual fuel quantity is known before flight
Capacitance Type:
 Sophisticated general aviation aircraft and large aircraft use capacitance type
fuel quantity detectors, these are infinitely more reliable than float type
however they do cost more
 A capacitor is used to store charge by separating two conductive plates with a
dielectric, the dielectric is used to polarize the electric field
 The amount of charge that can be stored varies with the size of the plates, the
distance between the plates and the dielectric constant
 Air and fuel have different dielectric constants therefore allowing different
amounts of charge, a voltmeter is used to measure this voltage and a fuel
quantity is derived

STRAINERS / FILTERS
 The fuel will usually be strained at three points:
  The first is the tank outlet where the fuel will normally pass through a wire
gauze to remove larger foreign matter
 The second will be placed at the lowest point in the system and will also
incorporate a drain
 The final strainer will be located at the carburettor or fuel control unit, here
the fuel will be filtered through a fine gauze before entering the engine

TANK SELECTOR
 Selector valves allow individual tanks to be selected to feed the engine, they
will typically also include facility to isolate the system
 They must be readily accessible and provide sufficient ‘feel’ so that they cannot
be inadvertently miss-selected inflight
 The valves must be positioned on the opposite side of the firewall to the
engine so if a fire occurs it cannot spread to the tanks

FUEL PUMP
Engine Driven:
 The engine driven fuel pump operates automatically and provides fuel under
pressure to the carburettor or fuel control unit
 The most common system is the vane type:
 The engine drives an impellor which uses centrifugal force to increase fuel
pressure
 Constant fuel pressure is maintained by using a pressure relief valve, the fuel
pressure is determined by a combination of a spring tension and air pressure
on top of a diaphragm
 Should the pump fail a bypass valve is incorporated into the system

Electric Driven:
 Sometimes referred to as boost or auxiliary pumps
 Operate on the same centrifugal principals as the engine driven bump but are
driven by a small electric motor
 Are designed to provide 120% of the maximum demand of the engine
 Are used to:
 Prime fuel injected engines
 Provide fuel at the correct pressure during start
 Purge the fuel lines of any vapour and reduce the possibility of vapour lock
 Provide a backup to the engine driven fuel pump
 Will usually incorporate a bypass valve in case of pump failure

PRIMER
  For carburetted engines insufficient fuel is lifted out of the metering jets for
reliable starting, particularly on cold days where vaporisation of the fuel in the
intake manifold is poor
 The primer delivers extra fuel directly from the strainer bowl into the manifold
of one or more cylinders
 The system will normally utilize a simple hand pump operated from inside the
cockpit
 The primer must be locked when the engine is running to prevent excess fuel
entering the intake manifold

CARBURETOR
A carburetor (or carburettor) is a mechanical device that makes use of
the principle of a venturi to atomize liquid fuel and mix it with air in the correct
ratio for optimum combustion. This mixture is then sent to the engine intake
manifold where it is combusted.

SMALL MULTI ENGINE (RECIPROCATING) AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

The fuel system on a small, multiengine aircraft is more complicated than a single-
engine aircraft but contains many of the same elements. An example system used on a low-
wing aircraft is illustrated. It features the main fuel tanks in the wing tips and auxiliary tanks
in the wing structure. A boost pump is located at the outlet of each main tank. This
pressurizes the entire fuel system from the tank to the injectors eliminating the possibility
of vapor lock. An engine can operate with just its boost pump running in the event the
engine-driven injection pump fails. Typically, the boost pumps are used to prime and start
the engine.

Two selector valves are required on twin-engine aircraft, one for each engine. The
right selector valve receives fuel from a main tank on either side of the aircraft and directs it
to the right engine. The left selector valve also receives fuel from either main tank and
directs it to the left engine. This allows fuel to crossfeed from one side of the aircraft to the
opposite engine if desired. The selector valves can also direct fuel from the auxilliary tank to
the engine on the same side. Crossfeed of fuel from auxilliary tanks is not possible. From
the outlet of the selector valve, fuel flows to the strainer. On some aircraft, the strainer is
built into the selector valve unit. From the strainer, fuel flows to the engine-driven fuel
pump.

The engine-driven fuel pump is an assembly that also contains a vapor separator and
a pressure regulating valve with an adjustment screw. The vapor separator helps eliminate
air from the fuel. It returns a small amount of fuel and any vapor present back to the main
fuel tank. The pump supplies pressurized fuel to the fuel control. The fuel control, one for
each engine, responds to throttle and mixture control settings from the cockpit and supplies
the proper amount of fuel to the fuel manifold. The manifold divides the fuel and sends it to
an injector in each cylinder. A fuel pressure gauge is placed between the fuel control unit
outlet and the manifold to monitor the injector-applied pressure that indicates engine
power.

Twin-engine- light aircraft fuel system