TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

M.Sc. In Environmental Engineering Department

Water Chemistry and microbiology

Assignment-3

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Abriti Panta Department of Environmental
079/MSEne/002 Engineering
Table of Contents
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Introduction.......................................................................................................................................3

Principle of sedimentation.................................................................................................................3

Methods of Sedimentation.................................................................................................................3

Types of Sedimentation.....................................................................................................................4
1. Discrete or type 1 settling.........................................................................................4
2. Flocculating particles or type 2 settling......................................................................7
3. Hindered settling or type 3 settling and .....................................................................9
4. Compression settling or type 4 settling.......................................................................9

Factors that affect Sedimentation/ Settling.............................................................................10

Sedimentation basin design..................................................................................................12

References………………………………………………………………………………….…….....16

List of Figures

Figure 1: Plain sedimentation and flocculation followed by sedimentation ................................3

Figure 2: Types of settling.................................................................................................4

Figure 3: Discrete settling of particles……........................................................................5

Figure 4: Force in a settling particle…………………………...................................................5

Figure 5: Relationship between the drag coefficient and the Reynolds number…………………….6

Figure 6: Isoconcentration lines for Type II settling test using a 2-m-deep column…………...……8

Figure 7: Typical zone-settling characteristics graph………………………………...……………...9

Figure 8 - Influence of turbulence on settling in a horizontal flow settling tank……………………11

Figure 8 : Launders in horizontal-flow rectangular sedimentation tanks……………………………13

Table 1: Typical sedimentation tank overflow rates…………………………………………………12

Table 2: Typical design criteria for horizontal-flow rectangular sedimentation basins……………...15

Introduction

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Sedimentation is a fundamental process used in water treatment toremove suspended particles
and solids from water. It involves allowing the particlesto settle under the influence of gravity,
resulting in the separation of the solid materialfrom the liquid.Sedimentation is frequently used
in surface watertreatment to avoid rapid clogging of sand filtersafter coagulation and floc
formation and it is applied in groundwater installations forbackwash water treatment.

Principle of Sedimentation
The principle of sedimentation is based on the difference in density between the solid particles
and the liquid. By providing a quiescent or low-velocity environment, gravitational force acts on
the particles, causing them to settle to the bottom of the sedimentation tank. The clarified liquid
can then be separated from the settled solids.

Methods of Sedimentation:

1.Plain Sedimentation: In this method, water is allowed to settle in a large tank, known as a
sedimentation basin or clarifier. The settling process occurs naturally, aided only by gravity.

2.Coagulation-Flocculation Sedimentation: This method involves the addition of chemicals

known as coagulants and flocculants to the water. Coagulants destabilize the suspended particles,
causing them to clump together or form flocs. Flocculants aid in the formation of larger, denser
flocs that settle more quickly

Figure 1: Plain sedimentation and flocculation followed by sedimentation

Types of Sedimentation

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5. Discrete or type 1 settling
6. Flocculating particles or type 2 settling
7. Hindered settling or type 3 settling and
8. Compression settling or type 4 settling

Figure 2: Types of settling

1. Discrete Settling (Type 1): Type I sedimentation is characterized by particles that

settle discretely at a constant settlingvelocity. They settle as individual particles and do

not flocculate during settling.

Ideal Condition for discrete settling:
 Steady flow conditions (constant flow at a constant rate)
 Concentration of suspended particles is same at all depths in the inlet zone
 Once a particle hits the sludge zone it stays there
 Flow through period is equal to detention time

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 Figure 3: Discrete settling of particles

Sedimentation of discrete particles

A discrete particle in a fluid will settleunder the influence of gravity. The particle will accelerate
until the frictional drag force of the fluidequals the value of the gravitational force, afterwhich
the vertical (settling) velocity of the particlewill be constant.
The upward directed force on the particle, causedby the frictional drag of the fluid, can be
calculated by:

Figure 4: Force in a settling particle

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The force directed downward, caused by the difference in density between the particle and the
water, can be calculated by:

When the drag force is equal to the driving force, the particle velocity reaches a constant value
called the terminal settling velocity (vs).

Taking into account both forces and assumingthat the particle of interest is spherical yields
thefollowing equation for settling velocity:

The settling velocity is thus dependent on:

- density of both the particle and the fluid
- diameter (size) of the particle
- flow pattern around the particle.
The flow pattern around the particle is incorporated in the drag coefficient. The value of the drag
coefficient is not constant, but depends on themagnitude of the Reynolds number for settling.
For spherical particles the Reynolds number isgiven by:

Figure 5: Relationship between the drag coefficient and the Reynolds number

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In drinking water treatment practice, laminarsettling is common. The Reynolds number
forlaminar settling of spheres is Re<1, resulting inthe following relationship between the
Reynoldsnumber and the drag coefficient

Substitution of this relationship in the equation forthe settling velocity gives the Stokes’
equation:

The settling velocity is thus dependent on the viscosity of the fluid and also the temperature.
The relationship between kinematic viscosity andtemperature is:

For the transition region of R between 0.5 and 104, the drag coefficient for spheres may be
approximated by the following:

2. Flocculating Settling (Type 2)

 Involves flocculated particles in dilute suspensions.
 Stokes equations cannot be used because the particles are constantly changing
shape and size.
 Analysis is similar to the discrete particle suspension, the concentrations removed
are calculated.

Settling column model:

The settling column model is a laboratory method utilized to study the sedimentation behavior of
flocculants suspensions. The procedure entails filling a column with the flocculants suspension

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and allowing it to undergo settling. At specific time intervals, samples are extracted from varying
depths within the column, and the concentration of suspended solids in each sample is
ascertained. The removal percentage of suspended solids is determined by comparing the initial
concentration with the concentration at a given depth and time.

Calculation of Percent Removal: The removal percentage of suspended solids at a particular

depth and time is computed using the equation:

R% = (C0 - Ct) / C0 * 100.

Here, R% signifies the removal percentage, C0 represents the initial concentration, and Ct
denotes the concentration at time t and depth.

The computed removal percentage values are plotted against depth to form a graph.
Isoconcentration lines are drawn, linking points with equal concentration removal percentages
(such as 5% or 10% increments).

Figure 6: Isoconcentration lines for Type II settling test using a 2-m-deep column

Each intersection point of an isoconcentration line with the base of the column establishes an
overflow rate (vo), calculated through the formula:

vo = H / ti

where H stands for the column height, and ti is the time established by the intersection
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 3. Hindered Settling (Type 3)

Hindered sedimentation, also known as hindered settling, refers to the process in which the
settling of particles in a fluid is impeded or slowed down due to the presence of other particles or
obstacles.In hindered sedimentation, the settling velocity of the particles is reduced compared to
what would be expected in free or unhindered sedimentation. When a concentrated suspension,
originally of equal concentration throughout, is put in a cylinder as illustrated in Figure, the
settling phenomena occurs.

Figure 7: Typical zone-settling characteristics graph

The liquid tends to migrate up via the interstices of interacting particles due to the high
concentration of particles. As a result, the particles form a zone or 'blanket' around each other,
preserving the same relative position. This is referred to as hindered settling.A comparatively
clear layer of water forms above the particles in the settling region as the solids settle in a zone.
The pace of settling in the impeded settling zone is determined by the solids concentration and
features.

4. Compression settling or type 4

The settling particles can contact each other and arise when approaching the floor of the
sedimentation tanks at very high particle concentration. So that further settling will only occur in
adjust matrix as the sedimentation rate decreasing. This is can be illustrated by the lower region

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of the zone-settling diagram (Figure 7). In Compression zone, the settled solids are compressed
by gravity (the weight of solids), as the settled solids are compressed under the weight of
overlying solids, and water is squeezed out while the space gets smaller.

Factors that affect Sedimentation/ Settling

I. Turbulence: Turbulence refers to the irregular and chaotic motion of fluid,

characterized by rapid changes in velocity, pressure, and flow direction. It is a state of
fluid flow where there is a breakdown of smooth, laminar flow patterns, and instead, the
fluid exhibits turbulent eddies, vortices, and fluctuations
Effects of turbulence in sedimentation:
 Hindered Settling: Turbulence can disrupt the settling process by causing agitation
and mixing of the particles, hindering their downward movement. This leads to reduced
settling velocities and longer sedimentation times.
 Re-suspension of Settled Solids: Turbulence can cause the re-suspension of settled
solids back into the liquid phase. When turbulence is present, the upward movement of
liquid can re-entrain settled particles, leading to their re-suspension and carryover in the
effluent.

 Short-Circuiting: Turbulence can create preferential flow paths or short-circuiting

within the sedimentation tank. These pathways allow the flow to bypass the settling zone,
causing incomplete particle removal
 Stratification Issues: Turbulence can disrupt the formation and stability of distinct
layers or strata within the sedimentation tank. In an ideal sedimentation process, a clear
supernatant layer forms above the settled solids. However, turbulence can mix the
supernatant with settled solids, resulting in poor separation and reduced sedimentation
efficiency.
II. Short-Circuiting
Short-circuiting in the context of sedimentation refers to the phenomenon where water or
wastewater in a settling tank bypasses the intended settling zone and flows directly from
the inlet to the outlet without sufficient contact time with the settled solids. This results in
incomplete particle removal and reduced efficiency of the sedimentation process.

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 Short-circuiting can occur due to the presence of preferential flow pathways or hydraulic
imbalances within the sedimentation tank. These pathways allow the water to take a
shorter and faster route, bypassing the settling zone where particles are supposed to settle
out.
Effects on the sedimentation process and the overall performance of a water treatment
system:

 Reduced Particle Removal:Short-circuiting allows particles to bypass the settling

zone, resulting in inadequate removal of suspended solids, organic matter, and other
contaminants. This can lead to lower effluent quality and compromised treatment
effectiveness.

 Uneven Loading:Short-circuiting can lead to uneven distribution of solids within the

tank, with certain areas receiving more particles than others. This uneven loading can
further exacerbate the inefficiency of settling and hinder proper sludge management.

 Increased Operating Costs:Short-circuiting necessitates additional treatment steps

or processes downstream to compensate for the incomplete particle removal. This can
lead to increased energy consumption, chemical usage, and operational costs.
III. Bottom scour
In theory, a particle is removed from the water when it reaches the bottom of the settling
tank. However, when bottom scour occurs, settled particles are re-suspended and washed
out with the effluent. In Figure 15 the forces on particles at the bottom of the tank are
shown. When the flow velocity in a settling tank is lower than the critical scour velocity,
bottom scour doesn’t occur.

Figure 8 - Influence of turbulence on settling in a horizontal flow settling tank

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 SEDIMENTATION BASIN DESIGN

Inlet zone: For an efficient connection between the flocculation basin and settling tank, a
direct link is preferred. If piping is necessary, flow velocity is usually adjusted to 0.15 to 0.6
m/s. To evenly disperse the flow across the settling tank's cross section, a diffuser wall is
employed, similar to designing baffle walls in flocculation tanks. Placed about 2 m from the
inlet pipe, the diffuser wall reduces velocity and spreads flow evenly. Holes in the wall,
spaced 0.25 to 0.60 m apart with diameters of 0.10 to 0.20 m, create sufficient headloss,
ensuring effective mixing. The lowest hole should be around 0.6 m above the basin floor
(Willis, 2005).

Settling zone: In the settling zone of a sedimentation basin, overflow rate is the primary
sizing parameter. Recommended overflow rates are provided in Table

Table 1: Typical sedimentation tank overflow rates

Basins with mechanical sludge removal equipment are typically 3 to 5 meters deep.To ensure
effective treatment and minimize short-circuiting, a minimum length-to-width ratio (L:W) of 4:1
is recommended, with a preferred ratio of 6:1.Horizontal flow velocities should be controlled to
avoid turbulence and scouring. GLUMRB suggests velocities not exceeding 0.15 m/min.
Velocities between 0.6 to 1.2 m/min are acceptable for depths of 2 to 4.3 meters. Reynolds and
Froude numbers help assess turbulence and backmixing. Desired values are R < 20,000 and Fr >

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10^5, indicating limited turbulence and controlled flow.Baffles placed parallel to the flow
direction can reduce Reynolds number and increase Froude number. These baffles should be
positioned above sludge collection equipment, about 3 meters apart.GLUMRB recommends a
minimum detention time of four hours or an overflow rate not exceeding 1.2 m/h. Modern
designs with depths not emphasizing large sludge storage areas typically find 1.5 to 2.0 hours of
detention time sufficient for effective treatment.

Outlet zone:The outlet zone of a sedimentation basin consists of parallel launders running along
the tank's length. Weirs should ideally cover one-third to half of the basin length and be evenly
spaced across the tank's width, as illustrated in Figure

Figure 8 : Launders in horizontal-flow rectangular sedimentation tanks.

Water level control is achieved through end walls or overflow weirs. V-notch weirs are
connected to launders, while broad-crested weirs attach to end walls. Submerged orifices on
launders can be utilized to prevent delicate floc breakup, particularly for rapid sand filters. High-
rate filter designs are less concerned with floc breakup due to smaller, stronger floc and the use
of filter aids. GLUMRB specifies a maximum hydraulic loading of 250 m3/d · m for outlet

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launders, cautions against locating submerged orifices lower than 1 m below the flow line, and
limits entrance velocity through submerged orifices to 0.15 m/s.

Sludge zone: When deciding the sedimentation tank's depth, a 0.6 to 1 meter margin is allocated
for sludge accumulation and equipment removal. To aid sludge removal, the tank bottom inclines
towards a sludge hopper at the tank's head. For mechanical systems, a slope of at least 1:600 is
recommended. Chain-and-flight collectors, limited to about 60 meters, are common for sludge
removal. Their flight widths range in 0.3 meter steps, up to a maximum 6 meters width between
chains. Up to three parallel trains (max 24 meters width) can be used in a basin. To prevent
disturbing settled sludge, chain-and-flight scraper velocities should not exceed 18 m/h. Traveling
bridge collectors suit lengthy tanks and are cost-effective for basins over 80 to 90 meters long
and widths over 12 meters. They can span up to 30 meters. For suction sludge removal units,
higher velocities (up to 60 m/h) are acceptable to avoid interfering with settling, though not
sludge resuspension. The cross collector, typically 1 to 1.2 meters wide at the top and 0.6 to 1.2
meters deep, conveys sludge across the hopper using a helicoid screw or chain-and-flight system.
Traditionally, the hopper has an approximately 60-degree steep angle for efficient sludge
withdrawal.

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Horizontal-Flow Rectangular Sedimentation Basin Design Criteria

Table 2: Typical design criteria for horizontal-flow rectangular sedimentation basins

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REFERENCES

1. Mackenzie l. Davis. “Water and Wastewater Engineering,Design Principles and

Practice”. The McGrawhill Companies, 2010.

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