UnChilled#8532 1

LünarWølf#8588

AP BIOLOGY
________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 2: CELL STRUCTURE

BASED ON CHAPTER 3 FROM THE BARRON’S
UnChilled#8532 2
LünarWølf#8588

UNIT 2: CELL STRUCTURE

BASED ON CH 3 OF THE BARRON’S

TYPES OF CELLS
In this section, we will be talking about the different types of cells, the parts of a cell, the differences between
Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes, and the cell membrane.

Important Information
Theory of Endosymbiosis: Scientific theory that proposes Eukaryotic cells merged with the prokaryotic ancestors of the
chloroplast and mitochondria in order to form more complex eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotic Cells: Larger cells with more specialized compartments called organelles.
- Usually have their DNA wrapped into proteins which are condensed into chromosomes.
- Have larger ribosomes than prokaryotes & present cytoskeleton.
- Primarily multicellular with many differentiation of cell types.

Different Types of Eukaryotic Cells

Images by Wikipedia, wisegeek.com, biologywise.com, and easynotecards.com
Prokaryotic Cells: Smaller classification of cells with no defined nucleus or organelles.
- DNA floats within the cell in a circular form
- Have small ribosomes with an absent cytoskeleton
- Primary unicellular

NOTE: Recall that the 6 kingdoms of life are as follows: Animals, Plants,
Fungi, Protists, Archaea and Bacteria. All types of archaea and bacteria
are considered to be prokaryotes whereas plants, fungi, animals, and
protists are considered to be eukaryotic cells, with minor exceptions.

Diagram of prokaryote
Image by Wikipedia

2|SchoolSimplified
UnChilled#8532 3
LünarWølf#8588

WHY ARE CELLS SMALL?

Surface-to-volume ratio states that a cell needs to have a high cell membrane to cell size in order for it to
function properly. Otherwise, the cell will not be able to gain necessary resources for metabolic processes.
Additionally, in order for an organism to grow, the cell will then start to become multicellular.

Surface-To-Volume Ratio: Limiting factor on why cells are small.

Take a look at the diagram below comparing two cubes. The cubes will represent different cells.
(Note: wildly not to scale)
5mm Cube

1mm Cube

If we calculate the surface area and volume of each cube, we’ll be able to determine the ratio for both the 1mm
cube and the 5mm cube. Remember that the surface area of a cube is length times width times 6 whereas the

1mm Cube Measurements 5mm Cube Measurements

Surface Area 1mm x 1mm x 6 = 6mm2 5mm x 5mm x 6 = 150mm2

Volume 1mm x 1mm x 1mm = 1mm3 5mm x 5mm x 5mm = 125mm3

Ratio 6/1 = 6:1 150/125 = 1.2:1

volume is length times width times height.

Notice how the smaller cube has a higher surface area-to-volume ratio. If we think of the cube as a cell, the cell has
more cell membrane to volume ratio. That means that the smaller cell is able to get access to more nutrients,
proteins, and other important materials relative to its size. The larger cell has less cell membrane to compensate for
its large size, which means it will be less efficient.

3|SchoolSimplified
UnChilled#8532 4
LünarWølf#8588

TYPES OF ORGANELLES & CELL STRUCTURES

Recall that Eukaryotic cells have a lot of different specialized compartments called organelles. In this section,
we will take a look at all the different types of cell structures.

Nucleus: an organelle that contains the chromosomes of the cell, which is why it is also known as the “brains” or
“headquarters” of the cell. It is surrounded by a permeable membrane called the nuclear envelope that separates the
nucleus from the rest of the cytoplasm.

Nucleolus: Not an organelle but is a region in the nucleus that synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and combines
proteins with the rRNA. It is not a membrane-bound structure but rather a clump of chromatin and proteins.

Peroxisomes: Specialized organelles that produce catalase, an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Also detoxifies alcohol in liver cells.

Ribosomes: Freely bound structures made up of rRNA that produce proteins. Ribosomes suspended in cytosol produce
proteins for the cell whereas ribosomes in the Endoplasmic Reticulum (rough ER) produce proteins to export outside of
the cell.

Cytosol: The fluid within the cell containing all of a cell’s organelles.
- Cytoplasm is a term used to describe both the cytosol and the organelles.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Organelle that consists of a system of channels and is responsible for certain functions.
- Rough ER: Contains ribosomes that produce proteins that are exported outside of the cell.
- Smooth ER: Produces lipids, more specifically steroids, as hormones. Also stores Ca+2+ ions to enable muscle
contractions. It also detoxifies the body of any drugs and poisons.
Golgi Apparatus/Golgi Complex: Organelle that lies near the nucleus and is responsible for the transport, packaging,
and shipment of various particles into vesicles. From there, vesicles are shipped through various parts of a cell OR
outside the cell.

Mitochondria: Organelle responsible for cellular respiration, hence “the powerhouse of the cell”. Contains a double
outer membrane and inner membranes called cristae. Also contain their own DNA which they can swap with other
mitochondria in order to improve their functions. Their double membrane and their own DNA support the theory of
endosymbiosis.

4|SchoolSimplified
UnChilled#8532 5
LünarWølf#8588
Organelles & Cell Structure Continued
Vacuoles: Large vesicles that derived from the ER and Golgi Apparatus. Used primarily for storage in plants and protists
and are not found in animals. There are several types of vacuoles.
- Central Vacuole: large vacuole used for storing food and water.
- Contractile Vacuoles: pumps out excess water in protists.
- Food Vacuoles: formed by phagocytosis of external particles.

Chloroplast: Double membraned organelle that is responsible for photosynthesis. Contains a pigment called
chlorophyll that absorbs sunlight in order to create glucose through photosynthesis. Contains an inner membrane
system called thylakoids and have their own DNA. Their double membrane and DNA support the theory of
endosymbiosis.

Cytoskeleton: Complex system of proteins throughout cytoplasm that help maintain the cell’s shape and positions of
organelles. Consists of microtubules and microfilaments.
- Microtubules: Hollow tubes made up of tubulin that create structures such as cilia, the flagella, and spindle
fibers. However, flagella found in prokaryotes are NOT made up of microtubules.
- Microfilaments: created from actin to help support the shape of the cell.

Cell Wall: Structure found in plants, algae (as cellulose), and fungi (as chitin) that provide structure for the cell. They lie
outside the cell membrane.

Centrioles & Centrosomes: Non-membranous structures located on the outside of nuclear membrane. They are
responsible for cell division and organizing spindle fibers in eukaryotic cells.

Take a look at the diagrams below and study them carefully. Make note of where each organelle is located and the
general shape and structure of each organelle.

Labeled Diagram of Plant Cell Labeled Diagram of an Animal Cell

Image by Wikimedia Commons Image by Wikimedia Commons

5|SchoolSimplified
UnChilled#8532 6
LünarWølf#8588

CELL/PLASMA MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane, also known as the cell membrane, is perhaps one of the more important parts of the
cell. Without the cell membrane, a cell wouldn’t really exist. They are responsible for determining the start
and end of the physical cell and regulating the import and export of materials.
Cell Membrane: a semipermeable membrane that surrounds the cell consisting of a phospholipid bilayer that regulates
the import and export of materials.

Parts of the Cell Membrane

Integral Proteins: proteins that are embedded throughout the entire cell membrane. Some integral proteins act as a
channel to allow certain particles to flow. These are
known as channel proteins.
Peripheral Proteins: proteins that are not or loosely
embedded in the cell membrane/
Glycolipids & Glycoproteins: Carbohydrates that
attach to membrane and serve as a “recognition
symbol” (like a gamer tag) for the cell.
Cholesterol: a steroid that maintains fluidity of the
cell membrane based on the temperature of the
environment.

Cell Membrane Diagram

Image by Wikimedia Commons
Functions of the Cell Membrane
The Cell membrane has many important functions. Some of them are listed here.

1) Transport necessary ions and molecules through channels and pumps

2) Enzymatic activity: synthesizing enzymes from ATP
3) Signal Transduction: Certain proteins are responsible for signaling the cell via chemical receptors.
4) Cell-to-cell recognition (these are the glycolipids & glycoproteins)
5) Cell to Cell Attachments
6) Attachment to Cytoskeleton

6|SchoolSimplified
UnChilled#8532 7
LünarWølf#8588

CELLULAR TRANSPORT
In order for the cell to release or take in certain materials, the cell membrane has a system of various
transport mechanisms.
Diffusion: random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration.
Types of Passive Transport
Passive Transport: The movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is
reached. Does not require any energy.
 Simple Diffusion: a type of passive of passive transport that allows the movement of small, nonpolar
substances directly across the membrane. Ex: CO2
and O2.
 Facilitated Diffusion: type of passive transport
that allows the transport of certain particles,
usually charged, polar, or ion compounds through
a hydrophilic protein channel. Ex: Water, Na+, Cl-.
 Ion Channels: A method of facilitated diffusion
that allow ions to pass through. Protein will open
or close in response to a stimulus.

Simple vs Facilitated Diffusion

Image by sciencefacts.net
Other Important Vocabulary
Aquaporins: channel proteins that allow the diffusion of water via facilitated diffusion.
Osmosis: diffusion of water through a membrane, typically through aquaporins.

Types of Active Transport

Active Transport: the movement of molecules up the concentration gradient (low to high) and requires ATP to
execute. There are several types of active transport present in organisms.
Pumps: carry particles across membrane via active transport. Examples include the Sodium-Potassium pump.
Contractile Vacuole: protist vacuoles pumping
out excess water
Exocytosis: process of releasing molecules such
as hormones or digestive enzymes out of a cell
via vesicles.
Endocytosis: Process of taking in substances by
forming vesicles. There are two primary types.
- Pinocytosis: formation of vesicles
around liquids or small particles.
- Phagocytosis: engulfing of large
particles or small cells. Types of Active Transport
Source: OpenStax/Wikimedia Commons

7|SchoolSimplified
UnChilled#8532 8
LünarWølf#8588

SOLUTE & WATER POTENTIAL

The AP Biology exam may ask several questions regarding the movement of solvents and solutes. In cells, it’s
important to know what water potential, solute potential and the various other factors that are responsible
for the diffusion of materials up and down the concentration gradients.
Solvent: substance that the solute is dissolved in. (Ex: water is the universal solvent)
Solute: substance that is being dissolved.
Type of Solutions
Hypertonic Solution: having greater concentration of solute than another solution
Hypotonic Solution: having a lower concentration of solute than another
Isotonic Solution: water concentration is at equilibrium and there is no net movement of water.
Notice how in a hypertonic solution, the red blood cells shrivel up. This is because there is a high amount of solute
compared to water in the solution, hence the prefix “hyper”. In a hypotonic solution, there is less solute which means
there is a higher concentration of water. (“Hypo” means low. Think “hypothermia”).

Cells in types of solutions

Image by biologydictionary.net

8|SchoolSimplified
UnChilled#8532 9
LünarWølf#8588
Water Potential
Water Potential (Ψ): value that determines the flow of water. Is calculated by taking the sum of solute potential (Ψs)
and pressure potential (Ψp). Below are some important tips.
- Water Potential (Ψ) of pure water is always zero and can be calculated Ψ = Ψs + Ψp.
- Ψs is always negative, which means Ψ within a cell is always negative.
- In an open container, Ψp is always going to be 0.
- Ψs is determined by the formula Ψs = -iCRT, where i = ionization constant, c = concentration in molarity
(mols/L), R = 0.0831 liters bar/molK and T = temperature in Kelvin.
- The ionization constant of sugars is always one whereas the ionization constant of salts is 2. This is because salts
dissociate into their various ions when exposed to water (NaCl --> Na+ and Cl-).

Sample Problem
Q: The value for Ψ in onion root tissue was found to be -3.3 bars. If you take the root tissue and place it
in a 0.1 M solution of sucrose at 20°C in an open beaker, what is the Ψ of the solution, and in which
direction would the net flow of water be?

Known Values Calculation & Answer

Ψs = -1(0.1)(0.0831)(293) = -2.43 bars
i = 1: since solute is sucrose, a sugar.
Ψsucrose = 0 + -2.43 = -2.43
T = 293: since 20oC = 293K Since -2.43 > -3.3, water will flow into the root tissue since the
R = 0.0831: since R is always a constant water potential of the root tissue is less than the water
potential of sucrose.
C = 0.1: given
Ψonion = -3.3: given

9|SchoolSimplified