Preservation and Restoration

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Introduction
• Ethiopia is gifted with several tangible and intangible, natural and historical
heritages. However, the conservation and restoration work in this country
encountered many problems.
• Historical buildings is the one that gives a sense of wonder which make us
want to know more about the people on the past. Each geographical region
on the past has had its own method and way of building structure, as a result
each types of the building structure has different preservation and rapier
problem depending up on strength of the primary and secondary material.
• Conservation can be defined as any action taken to prevent decay or wear out
of material on the structure. It entitles a consideration of material as well as
the irrelevant aspect of heritages and prevents all acts that draw out the life of
historical as well as cultural heritages.
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In order to preserve and keep the aesthetic and historic value of heritages, the
conservation and restoration process needs highly specialized operation. As
result each stage of conservation and restoration process of historical heritages
should be done by professionals with the supported modern technology.

Restoration is defined as the act or process of accurately describing the form,

features, and character of a structure as it appeared at a particular period of time
by means of the removal of features from other periods in its history and
reconstruction of missing features from the restoration period. The limited and
sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems and other
code-required work to make properties functional is appropriate within a
restoration project.

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• It is well known that Ethiopia is one of the richest countries which have
cultural and historical heritages but poor on the handling of those heritages.
The concept of conservation and restoration practice in this country is on the
infant stage.
• Coming to Addis Ababa, The city was the site of numerous interesting
buildings which were erected during the Menilek, Iyasu, Zawditu period….
• Currently there are about 440 historical heritages and buildings that are
registered as tourist attractions so that since 2015 ,Addis Ababa is visited by
more than 750 thousand tourists each year.
• On the other hand these historical and cultural heritages encounter serious
problems of heritage management. As a result of this, around 80 historical
building have been demolished in the last half century.
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 Concept Related to Historical Buildings
and Architectural Conservation
• Historic building is generally considered to be a building or structure that has some
kind of historic value. Historical building is the one which gives us a sense of wonder
and makes us want to know more about the people and culture that produce it.

• These kinds of buildings which are constructed in the past have high historical,
architectural, spiritual, social, political and economic values. Similarly heritage
buildings are highly valuable and informative in terms of socio-cultural, socio-political,
socio-economical and even technological activities of a specific society or group of
individual.

• A building may hold special historic interest or values with respect to a particular
historical event or period. Alternatively, there might be special historic interest in the
building itself, this may include; construction methods, design, architectural
significance, and so on.
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• Since historical structures are a unique resource if they are once lost, they
cannot be replaced, as a result special attention, periodic supervision,
appropriate maintenance and conservation practice should be given for them.

• Different literatures and different authors define conservation in different ways

as ” the process of caring for buildings and place and managing changes to
them in such way as to retain their character and special interest”.

• Architectural conservation can also define as a cultural, artistic, and technical

craft activity based on scientific studies and systematic research. It should
consist of all efforts designed to understand cultural heritages itself. The
conservators should know the heritages history with its meaning in order to
ensure its material safeguard as required.

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• The main objective of conservation is to prolong the life of cultural heritage and
if possible, to clarify the artistic and historical messages therein without the loss
of originality and meaning.

• Monuments and historical buildings which have no further use have high chance
of decay and deterioration than the one which are still in use. So that in order to
minimize and prevent decay and deterioration occurred on historic buildings, the
conservation process is always facilitated by making them for some socially
useful purpose.
• But there is always one rule when we re-use historical building for other purpose
which is; it is not allowed to change its lay out or decoration of the building.
• As a result whenever we make conservation of historical buildings and
monuments there should be some guild line which should be followed.

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• The following standard of ethics must be strictly observed in conservation work:

o The condition of the building must be recorded before any intervention

o Historic evidence must not be destroyed, falsified or removed

o Any intervention must be the minimum necessary

o Any intervention must be governed by respecting the aesthetic, historical

and physical integrity of cultural property

o All methods and materials used during treatment must be fully

documented

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• Conservation of historical buildings may include maintenance, preservation,
restoration, reconstruction and adoption or a combination of more than one of
these. As an example the Government of Canada, categorized historic buildings
treatment in to four approaches which are;

• The first treatment approach is called preservation and it is

defined as “The action or process of protecting, maintaining and/or stabilizing
the existing materials, form and integrity of a historic place, or of an individual
component, while protecting its heritage value. Preservation can be also called
as preventive conservation because it is the practice of maintaining artifacts and
repair of existing historic materials in order to minimize further damage or
deterioration.

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• The second treatment approach is called restoration and it is
defined as “The action or process of accurately revealing, recovering or

representing the state of a historic place, or of an individual component, as

it appeared at a particular period in its history, while protecting its heritage

value’’. The aim of restoration is to preserve and keep the aesthetic and

historic value of the monument based on respect for original material and

reliable/original documents.

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• The other treatment approach stated is rehabilitation and it
is defined as “The action or process of making possible a continuing or
compatible contemporary use for a historic place, or of an individual
component, through repair, alterations and or additions, while protecting its
heritage value.”

• The fourth treatment approach is called re-construction. It is

defined as a process of re-creating lost or non-surviving part of the structure
for interpretive purposes.

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• Maintenance can be divided into two,

• The first one is preventive maintenance and it is process of systematic inspection,

detection, correction, and prevention of incipient failures, before they become actual or
major failures. Since this kind of maintenance is carried out at predetermined time
intervals it is divided in to two categories which include regular and periodic
maintenance.

• The major similarity between regular and periodic maintenance is that both are time-
based maintenance in which they are performed at set of time intervals while the asset
is operational.

• On other hand the major difference between the two is that regular maintenance is
performed more often than periodic maintenance and it is a simple, small-scale
activities (usually requiring only minimal skills) and general maintenance of a building
against normal wear and tear.
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• While periodic maintenance is maintenance carried out by a competent and suitable
agent, to ensure that an item of equipment is operating correctly and to avoid any
unscheduled breakdown and downtime or noticing small problems and fixing them
before major ones develop.

• The second type of maintenance is corrective maintenance and it can be

defined as any maintenance activity which is required to correct a failure that has
occurred or in the process of occurring.

• Since historical buildings reflect socio, cultural, and religious way of past societies, it
is must to keep its originality to the present and future generation. This is done by
using different conservation technic or treatment approach which includes
preservation, restoration, reconstruction and rehabilitation. But the choice of
treatment depends on a variety of factors, including historical significance, physical
condition, proposed use, and intended interpretation of historical building.

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International Institution working on conservation and restoration
A. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO)
UNESCO’s has several missions related with world heritage, some of missions related
with the conservation of heritages are:
I. encourage countries to sign the World Heritage Convention and to ensure the
protection of their natural and cultural heritage
II. encourage States Parties to establish management plans and set up reporting systems
on the state of conservation of their World Heritage sites
III. safeguard world heritage sites by providing technical assistance and professional
training;
IV. provide emergency assistance for World Heritage sites in immediate danger
V. support States Parties in awareness-building activities for world heritage
conservation
VI. encourage participation of the local population in the preservation of their cultural
and natural heritage 14
World Heritage Convention (UNESCO, 1972) takes a different approach, instead
dividing cultural heritage into three categories:
A. Monuments: erected structures, pillars and buildings that have
become significant
from the point of view of history, art or science and combinations of these
features.
B. Groups of buildings: isolated or attached buildings built in proximity
that possesses
significant values in terms of history, art, science and archaeology, as well as
social or technical importance. and,
C. Sites: landscapes and sceneries that reflect a living synthesis of people
and nature
consisting of historical, scientific and aesthetically significant values.

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B. The International Council of Museums (ICOM)

C. International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works

(IIC)

D. International Conservation Center for Restoration of Monuments

(ICCROM)

E. International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)

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 Ethiopian Ministry of Culture and Tourism Bureau
• It is the ministry of the Government of Ethiopia responsible for researching,
preserving, developing, and promoting the culture and tourist attractions of
Ethiopia and its peoples, both inside the country and internationally. In doing so the
Ministry closely works together with different national and international
stakeholders.

• Under proclamation No. 209/2000 Article 6, “the Ministry of Culture and Tourism
is given the power to registers Cultural Heritage in cooperation with the
appropriate body to protect and supervises Cultural Heritage, to give the necessary
education and advice on the content, benefit and preservation of Cultural Heritage
and gives permission for Cultural Heritage restoration and conservation works.”

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• Mission of the ministry is to study, preserve, develop and promote the cultural wealth
and the national tourism attractions of the nations, nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia
and to build the positive images of Ethiopia with a view to adding a sustainable socio-
economic and political values with popular and stakeholder’s participation.

• And its Vision is to make Ethiopia one of the top five tourist destinations of Africa
through the development of its cultural wealth and natural attraction.

• The minister work together with four subordinate bodies which are; the Authority for
Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH), Ethiopian Wildlife
Conservation Authority (EWCA), National Archives and Library Agency, and
Ethiopian National Theatre.

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• The Ministry of Culture and Tourism has placed considerable emphasis on
developing and managing tourism in a competitive and sustainable way.

• The Ministry has collaborated with the Eastern Africa member states under the
umbrella of IGAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development) in developing a
Regional Sustainable Tourism Master Plan, 2013-2023.

• The Sustainable Tourism Master Plan for Ethiopia (ESTMP) sets out a vision for
sustainable tourism development in the country and includes strategic programs,
priority projects, and activities in a 10 years implementation framework.

• In this sense, it marks an important milestone for the systematic development of

Ethiopia (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015).

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 Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage Proclamation

• Conservation and restoration of heritage in Ethiopia is also supported by law and it is

sated on the Proclamation No. 209/2000 as Research and Conservation of Cultural
Heritage Proclamation. This proclamation has 48 Articles which are categorized under
four parts. The first part deals with its title and definitions of key words where the
second part discuss about management of cultural heritages and part three explain
how to exploration, discovery and study of cultural heritage and the final part of the
proclamation state about miscellaneous provisions of cultural heritages
(Proclamation No. 209/2000).

• According to Proclamation No. 209/2000 Article 19 “Any conservation and restoration

work on Cultural Heritage shall be carried out with the prior approval of the Authority”
but where the expenses required for the conservation and restoration are beyond the
means of the owner, the government may grant the necessary assistance to cover part
of such expenses.
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 Structural Aspect of Historical Building
• The structures of historical buildings have a major role in reflecting the characteristic,
cultural aspect and also special feature of the building. As a result, before starting the
conservation process on historical buildings, making strong assessment is very
important. The assessment can helps to evaluate common deterioration and structural
problems and also to identify the best options for intervention.

• In the case of conservation, the historic structure should be considered as a whole

all material, including structural members, in-fill panels, weather-boarding, roofs,
floors, doors and windows, etc., should be given equal attention. In principle, as much
as possible the existing material should be retained. The protection should also include
surface finishes such as plaster, paint, coating, wall-paper, etc.

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A. Wall
• Different region and period in the history has its own characteristics way of building
walls. Based on their function, walls can be load bearing or non-load bearing walls
and based on walling material; it can be timber, brick or masonry wall, mud wall etc.
Each types of wall have different preservation and repair problems depending up on
type and strength of their materials.

• In order to keep the historic value of the building, before making any maintenance
work it is necessary to study and identify what has happened on the structure. Related
to this at the time of assessing the contribution of structural elements, including walls
and associated features the following things should be considered;

A. What is the original structural system of the protected structure?

B. Has this been altered in the past? If so, are the alterations of interest or have they
damaged the appearance or the structural integrity of the building?
C. Is the present structural material, cladding or finish original?
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 D. If not, is it of interest or does it covers an original surface or earlier finishes
under?
E. If there is an original surface or earlier finish under, should it be investigated or
were there reasons why it was covered over, such as poor quality materials or
unsightly alterations?

• Regular inspection and maintenance should be done for walls of historical building and
when deterioration is detected, the owner or responsible persons should consult with an
architect, engineer or contractor knowledgeable in historic construction techniques and
materials.

• During maintenance work especial consideration should be given to repairing only

those areas needing attention and it is mandatory to use the same types of materials as
the existing but if deterioration is general, replacing the entire wall may be required.

• The material used for the replacement should be chemically and physically compatible
with adjacent materials and is similar in appearance to the existing material.
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B. Door and Windows
• Door and windows of historical buildings is important architectural feature of an
elevation and have strong contribution on reflecting deep message for the next
generation about the building by using different design on the structure. It is always
important to understand doors and windows style, characteristics and components to
ensure that routine maintenance, repair, or replacement.

• Like that of other structural elements during restoration work strong assessment
should be done on the design, materials, and assembling methods of the doors and
windows of the buildings.

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C. Roof
• In many buildings, the roof is a major element that gives the building its unique profile.
Like other structural elements of historical buildings strong assessment should be done
before starting the conservation and restoration process. The following things should be
considered during the assessment of roof structure;

A. Is the roof structure, or any of its component parts, original to the building?
B. If not original, is the roof structure nevertheless of architectural merit or of other
interest?
C. What are the existing cladding materials? Do these contribute to the character of
the building?
D. Are the details such as dormer windows, chimney stacks etc. original to the
building? Are they part of a later remodeling? Do they contribute to the interest of
the building?

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• After identifying the special characteristic of the roof, by considering whether or not
roofs retain its original profile and structure, we can provide appropriate materials and
techniques of repairing the roof. if the present profile is not likely to be the original
than it is very important to analyzed the carpentry joints, timber damage, connection
of the roofing material and so on in order to provide appropriate material.

• Structural element of historical building has special way or method of construction.

As a result before making any maintenance and restoration work on historical
buildings, it is mandatory to prepare check list and make strong assessment on the
structural part of the building.

• Therefore the cause of deterioration and appropriate preventive measure of each

structural element are provided based on the assessment result.

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Cause of Decay in Material and Structure
• The built heritage is continuously subject to various types of deterioration, including
weathering, ageing process, and consumption by use.

• Deterioration of the structure may be caused due to various reasons, some of which are
long life, lack of maintenance, unchecked growth of trees & creepers on the structures,
improper drainage system, irregular inspection, material deterioration and weathering
effect etc.

• On the other hand cultural heritages which are found in many area of the world are
subjected to natural risks, such as earthquakes and floods, which cause permanent
problem and damage of historic buildings.

• In addition to this armed conflicts, wars, revolutions, deliberate damage, and demolition
add to the long list of risks to heritage caused by humankind itself. The degree of
deterioration on the historic building mainly depends on the type of structure and
material of the building. 27
• Consequently, repair traditions may differ in different cultures and geographical
region.

• Consequently, when analyzing the causes of deterioration and loss in an historic

building, the following questions must be asked;

(1) What are the weaknesses and strong characteristics of structural design and the
component materials of the object?

(2) What are the possible natural agents of deterioration that could affect the
component materials? How rapid is their action?

(3) What are the possible human agents of deterioration that could affect the
component of architectural conservation materials or structure? How much of
their effect can be reduced at source.

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 Historical Building Conservation and Restoration Process
• Since Conservation of historical building is not only one single design stage, it needs
strong assessment and study. It is the process which consists of study about the
general characteristic of old structures, identify cause of the problem and providing
appropriate maintenance. The proper restoration works of historic buildings must
focus on preserving the original condition of structures and, if repair or restoration
works are needed, they must cause minimum changes.

• The study of historic buildings and the design of any interventions must be carried out
by using serious procedures which is supported by scientific insight and methodology.
The scientific reasoning must include both theoretical concepts and experimental
evidence. Previous experience resulting from scientifically acquired knowledge must
be considered and integrated in the process leading to the diagnosis and the design of
the interventions.

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The process of preservation of historical buildings can be categorized
under three main phase. This include;

I. Planning/ pre-planning phase; any planning for structural conservation

requires both qualitative and quantitative information. When qualitative data emerge
from direct observation of material decay and structural damage, and quantitative
data may result from specific tests, monitoring and structural analysis using
appropriate mathematical models.

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• the planning stage of historical buildings consists of three sub-stages the first one is
preliminary or assessment stage during this stage the status of the historical building
is identified.

• The second stage on the planning phase is conducting researches, and this research
can be historical or architectural. The main objective of historical researches is to
obtain and document information about the building, the person and events
associated with it. And the main objective of conducting architectural research is to
obtain strong and deep understanding about the building itself.

• The last stage of the planning phase is program definition stage which refers to the
preparation of a preservation project brief which consists of detail description about
the functional requirements, performance criteria schedule and budget of the project
in detail.

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II. The implementation phase; this phase consists of two components or stages
The first one is called the designing stage and the main focus of this stage is on the
preservation strategy and giving recommendation on the preservation brief and
illustrate the impact of interventions. The second stage on implementation phase is
construction documentation which refers to the production of working drawings and
specifications. These documents are used to obtain contacts with previous and form
the basis for construction in accordance with the execution strategy.

III. Execution phase; like that of the previous phase the execution phase also
divided in to three sub- stages; the first one is bid and negotiation stage in this stage
the architect is expected to spend more time on briefing bidders, particularly if they
are unfamiliar with the preservation project and the bidders must be made aware of
the significance of the heritages and the necessity of protecting it from damage.

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• The second stage is construction and contract administration stage, this stage
involve reviewing both shop drawing and proposed methods and materials,
obtaining cost breakdowns and schedules from the contractors, organizing regular
project meeting, conducting regular inspections and so on.

• The third and final stage of execution phase is commissioning stage this stage refers
to the handing over of the building from the contractors to the owner or operator.
And on this stage architects are responsible to prepare both building documentation
and maintenance manual.

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• On the other hand, the process of conservation of historical building through
different steps and this steps consists of different disciplines which include ;

o The names and characters of the actual creators should be recorded, if known,

o The aesthetic principles and concepts of composition and proportion relating to

the building should be analyzed.

o Its structural and material condition must also be studied: the different phases of
construction of the building complex, later interventions, any internal or
external peculiarities and the environmental context of the surroundings of the
building are all relevant matters.

o If the site is in an historic area, archaeological inspection or excavation may be

necessary, in which case adequate time must he allowed for this activity when
planning a conservation programmer.

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Professionals Involved in the Conservation and Restoration Process

• Building conservation is a specialized discipline and the method of work needs to be

specified by experts with a knowledge and experience of historic buildings.

• A great many disciplines are involved with building conservation, and workers in
those areas should understand its principles and its objectives because unless their
concepts are correct, working together will be impossible and productive conservative
action cannot result .

• The input of professional advice should not be enclosed with the planning application
process. In order to ensure that the works are competently and correctly completed,
continued expert involvement may be necessary in the management and site
supervision of the project, by using experienced and skilled professionals with proper
and adequate supervision.

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• The need for knowledge and experience involved in the understanding of historical
buildings is paramount and cannot be covered by a single professional, a variety of
different contributions being required.
• The conservation and restoration process need the participation of different experts
covering a range of skills and related with conservation and restoration process
many training are given in all specializations and at all levels of academia and
professional expertise.
• Some of professionals in the conservation and restoration process are planners,
engineers, architects, historians, archaeologists, mineralogists, geophysicists.

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A. The role of conservation architect

• The conservation architect is the generalist in the whole building conservation

process. He/she must have a good knowledge of all periods of architecture, combined
with a systematic understanding of modern building practice. He/she must also be
able to preserve the artistic and historical value of the old structure, yet prepare
schemes which are satisfactory in respect to modern requirements. This latter
includes; complying with relevant requirements laid down by codes of practice and
building regulations, or obtaining waivers to any inapplicable building codes
regulations were justified by reference to fundamental principles.

• The architectural conservator must be trained in the new technology and in scientific
laboratory methods for the conservation process. He should also know how to use
new archaeological techniques for analyzing site evidence, computer technology for
retrieval of recorded information and photogrammetry for producing accurate
dimensional drawings and solving difficult problems of recording.
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B. The role of Structural engineering

• Structural engineering supplies the technical and scientific support necessary to safeguard
the cultural and historical value of the building. However, structural engineering cannot be
implemented in a conventional way, or cannot be applied merely as in modern structures.

• Historical structures are complex entities often made with diverse materials and forming
sophisticated geometries. These structures may experience a variety of actions, occurring
over long periods of time or associated to long-term processes .

• An engineer working on historical buildings must be aware that much of the effort in
understanding their present state requires an attempt to understand the historical process.
The engineer involved at the beginning of the process might not only have questions that
can easily be answered by the archaeologist or architectural historian, but he/she might be
also able to offer explanations for the data being uncovered. He/she is also responsible to
repair and strengthening the structural components of historical buildings on the basis of
principles of authenticity, reliability, compatibility, durability, reversibility, and monitor
ability. 38
C. The role of Architectural historians

• Architectural History is a sub-discipline of architecture concerned with building

that has a historic context while Architectural historians are professionals who have
a keen knowledge for both history and the architectural trends and structures of
past eras. Most of the time this professionals work in an advisory service.

• Tasks which are performed by Architectural historians may include; conducting

historic resources surveys, making assessments on historic building, preparing
historic context statements that include cultural, social and economic elements and
schedule data collection and field studies of historic structures.

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• It is well known that by using a single professional knowledge, it is very difficult to
keep the original appearance of historical structure as it is before. So that it is
mandatory to involve different professionals and experts on the conservation and
restoration work of historical buildings.

• This professionals and experts which are involved in such work have their own role
on each activates of the conservation and restoration process.

• But most conservation and restoration work involves very critical and unique
features so that training should be given for all professionals and experts in order to
improve their skill and professional knowledge on the field.

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 Contractor selection criteria for the conservation and
restoration work
• Preserving heritage projects is different from construction of new building because of
their complexity, originality, artistic expression, and historical, ethnic, and religious
value. Due to this unique feature of heritage projects, the selection process of
conservation contractor become very difficult and complex task.

• So that whenever the project owner or the client want to select contractors for the
conservation and restoration work, especial emphasis should be given on the
experience of the contractor on the heritage field, contractor’s knowledge on the
legislation of heritage activity and his awareness of the conservation and restoration
technique.

• Otherwise if there is inappropriate contractor’s selection, it lead to claims, disputes,

failures, litigation, low-quality work, and increased costs for project management and
performance. 41
 Conservation practice and challenges in different countries
• It is well known that Africa is rich by wealth of immovable heritage that ranges from
historic sites to historic towns, monuments and cultural landscapes. But too many of
these important cultural properties remain unknown, unrecognized and too often
poorly maintained and are therefore threaten. According to African cultural heritage
organization, the survey was done on 32 African countries and the result showed that
the conservation of historical and cultural heritages in Africa had some weaknesses
and these identified weaknesses includes;
o Conservation policies o Awareness
o Legislation o Economic development and conflicts
o Institutional structure o Financial and infrastructure resources
o Human resources o Documentation and inventory
o Planning and management

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• The most significant challenges encountered by structural engineers in restoration
process can be categorized in to four major groups, including inadequate restoration
courses in civil engineering education, absence of records of previous interventions in
historic buildings, lack of standards and guidelines with respect to historic structures,
and finally, ineffective participation of structural engineers in restoration projects.

• On the other hand problems and the issues related with the conservation and restoration
work have been classified into six main categories which include;

I. Technical problems; it is the problem associated with the technical aspects of

conservation from the beginning to the end of the building life. It can be usage of new
material instead of original material, Poor quality control, Unavailability or poorly
written operation and maintenance manual and so on…

II. Management and administrative problems; this is problems associated with

management, planning, organization, performance and execution of maintenance task. It
can be poor management, method of classification of maintenance contractors, lack of
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uniform specifications, codes, and uniform maintenance contract. etc.
III. Financial problems; it is associated with the budgeting control that aims to plan and
control the use of resources to achieve the desired objectives (Nurul and Azizia, 2016).

IV. Human behavior and attitudes; this is the problems related to weaknesses and human
error as the experience of the workforce and their attitudes to understand the
maintenance work. It can be unavailability of experienced and skilled manpower, lack
of number of specialized, experienced maintenance contractors, importance of
maintenance work not understood by public and misuse of facilities after completion.

V. Spare parts problems; this is problems related to lack of tools and materials required
to perform maintenance work. It can be unavailability of original materials and tools in
the local market, materials become obsolete and lack of proper tools to perform
maintenance work.

VI. Lack of institutional and training facilities; it is problems of inadequate institution to

provide related training and incomplete training facility.
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• However the challenges discussed on the above section does not mean that they are
challenges in all over the world because different counties have different conservation
practice. Conservation and restoration challenges in each country will depend on their
conservation practice and other related factors. To illustrate this idea the conservation
practice and challenges of six countries are discussed as follow;

A. South Africa

• South Africa has many historical, cultural and natural heritages that merit preservation
for future generations. These heritages may include hominid sites, archaeological
sites, historic buildings, structures, graves, sacred spaces, liberation spaces and
memorials.

• The growing awareness of heritage conservation issues in this country reflects an

international trend. As a result Conservation of heritages has become a specialized
field in its own right, guided by principles which have been set out in various
conservation charters adopted by international and national conservation bodies.
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• In South Africa conservation of heritages is supported by law which is known as
National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA). The aim of NHRA is to protect the
heritage resources from incompatible development and neglect, and conserve it for
the benefit of the community and for future generations.

• According to the NHRA, heritage places can be protected and managed at local,
provincial and national levels and it makes provision for cultural heritage
significance at the three levels of government and national significance being the
highest.

• The South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) is the national

administrative body responsible for the protection of South Africa's cultural heritage.
It was established through National Heritage Resources Act, number 25 of 1999 and
it will provide for communities to participate in the identification, conservation and
management of cultural resources in South Africa.

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• South Africa also has its own Cultural heritage survey guidelines and an assessment
tool which is prepared based on National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA).
According to this guideline survey of cultural heritage resources is basic process for
both documentation and restoration work.

• A survey of cultural heritage resources will generally combine uses of oral and
historical documentary research, and field work. The result of the survey is a basic
record and inventory of the cultural heritage. And it is true that Inventorying and
documentation are indispensable tools for the purposes of identification,
interpretation and physical preservation of the cultural heritage assets.

• Even if South Africa has its own proclamation and cultural heritage survey
guidelines for the conservation and restoration work of heritage site and historical
structures which are located inside the country, there is still problem related with the
field. Financial problem and lack of skilled professionals are the two most dominant
challenges faced on the conservation and restoration work of heritage site and
historical building in South Africa. 47
B. Egypt

• Ancient architecture is not one style, but a set of styles with commonalities used
during each period of ancient Egyptian history. The most well-known example of
ancient Egyptian architecture are Egyptian pyramids, the temples in Luxor and
Aswan, the mosques and churches in Cairo and many other monumental buildings .
Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient
Egyptian were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but they also use
sandstone and granite in considerable quantities as building material.

• The Ministry of State for Antiquities (MSA) is an independent government body in

Egypt which is responsible in formulating and implementing all policies concerned
with antiquities; issues guidelines and permits for the excavation, restoration,
conservation, documentation, and study of sites and monuments; and manages a
country-wide system of antiquities’ museums.

4
• However the country has faced severe social and political conditions since 2011 and
many heritage sites were looted and destroyed due to the absence of a system for
management and insufficient restoration and maintenance of cultural heritage sites.

• There is also lack of management plan for heritage sites in Egypt because most of
the existing management plans are only "papers plans" without effective actions and
sometimes the plans do not follow the time frame so it results in many delays in
implementation. It is obvious that there is a lack in visitor management programs and
visitor centers, especially for the heritage sites that are not included in UNESCO list.

4
C. Tanzania

• Tanzania has an interesting mix of manmade monuments and natural landmarks.

Many of its historic monuments and statues date back to colonial times, when the
country was under German or British authority. The country also has significant
cultural heritage resources which range from the Pliocene period about four million
years ago to present time.

• The Antiquities Act of Tanzania, which is enacted in 1964 and amended in 1979 and
1985, is the basic legislation for the management, protection, and preservation of
movable and immovable tangible cultural heritage resources. The act protects all
buildings, structures, paintings, carvings, and earthworks made by humans before
1886. In addition, the act protects all objects such as wooden doors or doorframes
that were carved before 1940.

5
• At present, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism is responsible for the
management and conservation of Tanzania's cultural and natural heritage resources.
Within the Ministry, the Director of Antiquities is charged with management and
conservation of immovable and movable tangible cultural heritage.

• Like that of other countries the conservation and restoration of cultural heritages and
monuments has faced different challenges which include; neglected maintenance ,few
competent staff with conservation skills to meet conservation requirements, low
involvement of stakeholders in management and development of the heritage resources,
poor infrastructures to some sites which are found in remote areas with no water,
electricity and even roads , owners were not well informed of the legal, technical and
professional requirements for the conservation of the buildings which they own and
problems related with effect of climate such as heavy rain.

5
D. China

• Ancient Chinese buildings such as palaces, temples, government offices, residential

buildings, memorial gateways, dhamari columns, parks, tombs, etc., stand towering
among various types of buildings over the world with their unique structural system,
and national and architectural style (Chengyou, 2019). The country gives especial
attention for the conservation of those ancient buildings; as a result starting from
1990 China has been in an active phase of theory development about cultural
heritage conservation. Along with a deeper understanding of the conservation
concepts of authenticity, integrity, and appropriate utilization, there has been
recognition of new types of cultural heritage, which in turn have enriched China's
theoretical foundation for conservation.

• At the end of 2015 the revised edition of the Principles for the Conservation of
Heritage Sites in China was released.

5
• The Principles are a set of professional guide lines for heritage conservation. All
those who work in heritage conservation, including public servants and persons
involved in management, research, survey, design, construction, education, and the
media, are bound by the Principles in matters of professional practice and ethics.
This document has 38 articles which are categorized under five chapters.

• Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, cultural heritage conservation in

China has experienced vibrant professional development, with new and better
practices, greater theoretical work, and increasing exchange and cooperation with the
international conservation community. As a result of this a great number of priority
protected sites has been effectively conserved with their settings remarkably
improved. Cultural Heritage.

• Even if China achieved much in cultural heritage conservation over the last decade,
the conservation process have faced many challenges, particularly the effects of
climate change, and continuing pressure from development will take the first line.
5
• When we see Pressure from development.it has both an opportunity and a challenge
on the conservation process. The opportunity can be if there is development there will
be more investment in conservation process for instancing from 2010 to 2015 the
overall fund for heritage conservation reached 140 billion RMB, with an annual
increase of 16.5 percent. This investment spurred development in both the practice of
and theoretical research on heritage conservation.

• On the other hand, the challenge related with development can be raised from the
state capital investment projects such as the Three Gorges Dam, the South-North
Water Diversion Project, and the Project of Gas Transmission from the West to the
East have had major impacts on heritage.

• The other challenge of conservation process in china is related with climate change.
Such as Tangshan earthquake, the ancient buildings of different styles from various
periods in the Tangshan District were seriously damaged in the Tangshan earthquake.
For some of these buildings bases cracked, main structures inclined, and roofs fell
down and walls collapsed. 54
E. Germany

• In total there are approximately one million listed monuments are found in Germany.
From 981 properties which are recorded on World Heritage list 38 of the properties
are found in German.

• Contrary to most other European and overseas countries, the conservation of

monuments in Germany is not centrally organized. Instead, in accordance with the
German constitution and the independence of the 16 States of the Federal Republic
of Germany in cultural matters, the protection and conservation of monuments and
sites are the responsibility of each individual Land, which itself pursues this task in
co-operation with the towns and communities on a regional and local level.

• On the whole, the ministries in each State responsible for either culture or for
buildings and town planning are also legally and politically in charge of conservation
issues.
5
• The legal basis for cultural heritage conservation in Germany is provided by the
cultural heritage laws of the 16 German states. These laws define the heritage value,
jurisdiction, access to monuments, tasks, rights and obligations of the government
authorities and monument owners.

• Depending on the legal basis and regional characteristics, the different states may
apply the concept of cultural heritage differently. So far, however, all state laws are
based on a common definition of cultural heritage covering architectural,
archaeological and movable monuments as well as heritage ensembles and areas and
individual building elements worthy of protection.

5
• According to ICOMOS, world report, conservation of heritages in Germany has faced
some money Challenges which include; many buildings in Germany have political
character and conservation debates between individuals due to this highly important
works of architecture and restoration work do not receive the necessary public attention
in cases of danger.

• On the other hand privatization of listed properties originally belonging to the

government, which has already been initiated and will continue on a large scale, must be
seen as a particular challenge because most of the time privet owners went to demolish
the buildings, in order to use plot of land for a more lucrative development and to attract
wealthier customers.

5
F. Greek

• Greece is a country with very rich cultural heritage. From the prehistoric ages down to
present, Greek civilization has created monuments and artworks, which are outstanding
landmarks and exceptional points of reference in human history.

• Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalized characteristics, both

of structure and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each
building appears to have been conceived as a sculptural entity within the landscape,
most often raised on high ground so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects
of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles.

• The history of restoration of monuments in Greece is divisible into three periods: the
first extends from the creation of the Greek State in the 1830s until the 2nd World War,
the second corresponds to the post-war years until the military dictatorship in 1967, and
the third covers the period from the restoration of democracy in 1974 to today.
5
• According to Greece-ICOMOS, 2001 the extreme weather phenomena seen in recent
years, as well as air pollution and acid rain is the major challenges of conservation
and restoration work. It created structural problems in the walls and temples of the
Acropolis, which is still one of the best-preserved archaeological sites in Greece.

• The whole conservation and restoration practices discussed on the above section are
summarized on table as follow;

5
 Table: Summary of conservation and restoration challenges in different country
Name of Challenges on conservation and restoration work of historical heritages
the
countries
South Africa• Financial problem
•
Lack of skilled professional
Egypt • Severe social and political related problems
• Insufficient restoration and maintenance practice
• Lack of management plan for heritage sites
Tanzania • Neglected maintenance
• Lack of competent staff with conservation skills
• Low involvement of stakeholders in management and development of
the heritage resources,
• Poor infrastructures for heritage located in rural area
China • Effects of climate change,
• Continuing pressure from development
Germany • political related problems
•
privatization of listed properties originally belonging to the government
60
Greek • Effects of climate change
Lion monument before restoration work Lion monument after restoration work

6
A. Algae and fungi colony on external staircase B. cleaning work on external staircase

6
Restoration Steps
The steps for restoration works differ from site to site, and thus a site based
restoration activity need to be carried out.

Steps of Restoration:
1. Prepare a conservation master plan.

2. Analysis of Actual Site and the Building.

3. Authenticity of the cultural heritage building.

4. Structural Analysis of the Building.

5. Restoring the Building with remedial measures.

6. Landscaping of the site.

7. Reuse of the Building.

6
1. Prepare a conservation master plan.

• All countries shall properly identify and document their cultural and
natural heritage.

• The Ethiopian Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural

Heritage (ARCCH) is preparing the master plan for the Ethiopian heritages.

• Obligation due to World Heritage Conservation Act.

6
2. Analysis of Actual Site and the Building.
• The site for restoration shall be properly surveyed with respect to the site size,
site configuration, location, climate, topography, building codes and zoning
laws, site utilities, society around the site with their culture, occupation and
economy.

• The building shall be investigated and actual drawings shall be prepared.

• Physical Materials used both for structural and non structural parts must be
identified.
• The actual deterioration shall be properly mapped and the causes shall be
identified.

• Based on the causes of deterioration appropriate restoration methods shall be

suggested.
6
3. Authenticity of the cultural heritage building.
• Authenticity is the gist of the restoration process and shall be given
due attention.
• Authenticity according to UNESCO includes: all efforts designed to
understand cultural heritage, know its history and meaning, ensure
its material safeguard and, as required, its presentation, restoration
and enhancement.

4. Structural Analysis of the Building

• Investigate the over all stability of the structure and its possibility for
future use by the public.
• From a detail structural analysis a set of remedial measures could
be identified.
• The structural analysis of historical building is a complex task due to lack
of resource and knowledge. 66
Problems: -

• Geometry data is missing,

• Information about the inner core of the structural elements is also missing,

• Characterization of the mechanical properties of the materials used

is difficult and expensive,

• Large variability of mechanical properties, due to workmanship and use

of natural materials,

• Significant changes in the core and constitution of structural

elements, associated with long construction periods,

• Construction sequence is unknown;

• Existing damage in the structure is unknown,

• Regulations and codes are non – existent or non-applicable. 67

 According to ICOMOS (International Council on
Monuments and Sites):
• Holistic Approach - considering the building as a whole rather than just the
assessment of individual elements.

• Safety Evaluation - should be based on both qualitative (as documentation,

observation, etc.) and quantitative (as experimental, mathematical, etc.) methods
that take into account the effect of the phenomena on structural behavior.

• Uncertainty attached to data (actions, resistance, deformations, etc.), laws,

models, assumptions, etc. used in the research, and by the difficulty of
representing real phenomena in a precise way.

• Selecting an appropriate model.

• Suggestion of Remedial Measures.

6
5. Restoring the Building with remedial measures.
• A multi-disciplinary approach is obviously required,

• Works which are Least invasive and most compatible with heritage
values, consistent with the need for safety and durability shall be
used,
• Therapy should address root causes rather than symptoms,
• Control of the efficiency of the interventions.

6. Landscaping of the site.

• The restoration of a building can never be complete if it is not
in harmony with the existing landscape.
• Surface treatment and Circulation Pattern are usually used.

6
7. Reuse of the Building.
• Compatible reuse functions like hotel, art gallery, residence and
park, bazaar, Sunday market, exhibition should be encouraged.

7
 Restoration in Ethiopia

• UNESCO has listed 830 properties as world heritages.

• From these, 644 are cultural including buildings, 162 are natural and
24 are mixed.

• These properties are located in 138 state countries.

7
 Ethiopia has 11 world heritage sites.
The list includes:
Cultural
AKSUM (1980)
FASIL GHEBBI, GONDAR REGION (1979)
HARAR JUGOL, the Fortified Historic Town
(2006) Lower Valley of the AWASH (1980)
Lower Valley of the OMO (1980)
Rock – Hewn Churches, LALIBELA
(1978) TIYA (1980)
Konso (2012)
Meskel (2014)
Chembelala (2015)
Natural
Simien National Park (1978)
7
 Restoration activities

• ARCCH has been engaged in the activity of conservation and restoration of

buildings ever since 1974.

• It carries out the task on Buildings that are included in the International and
National heritage lists.

• It is financed by the Government and the main aim is to restore the buildings
so that they become tourist attraction sites and generate foreign currency.

• The Ministry of Culture and Tourism has established an office for Ethiopian
Cultural Heritage Projects (ECHP) financed by the World Bank (WB).

7
 Restoration activities in Ethiopia

The following steps are commonly practiced in ARCCH for restoration

purposes:
• Back ground Survey – A survey on the site is carried out and the back
ground information is collected.

• Preparation of Proposal – A proposal for the detail survey to be done is

prepared. This is mainly due to lack of skilled manpower to carry out the
task.

• Finance – The finance for the detail investigation is secured either from
the Government or international sources.

7
• Detail Investigation – Detail investigation on the site and also the
building is carried out by hired foreign consultants. Remedial measures are
suggested.

• Restoration – Based on the remedial measures indicated the restoration

process is carried out. Here the local artistic skill will be used and the
historical nature of the building is kept up to the standard. Local Contractors
are involved also.

7
• The following sites have been restored or party restored under the ARCCH.

• Tigray Region
• Tsion Mariam Church – the building and the paintings have
been completely restored.
• Aksum Obelisk and Surrounding – the caves of Remhaye, King
Kaleb, King Bazen and King Geber Meskel have been preserved
by providing shelters.
• Remains of Queen Sheba Palace – weak masonry wall have been
restored and places for a better view for tourists are being
prepared.
• Abraha Woashbeha hewn church and others around it.
• King Yohannes Palace.
• Agewa Cherkos Ancient Church.

7
• Chehe Selassie Ancient Church.

7
• Amhara Region
• Gondar

• King Fasil Palace – has been restored with success. The

restoration included the addition of floors.
• King Fasil swimming pool is under restoration with a foreign help.
• Etege Mintewab and King Yohannes palaces -

• Debre Birhan Selassie and Debre Sina Mariam Ancient Churches -

the building and the paintings have been completely restored.
• King Bakafa Palace – study is being done by a second body.

7
• Lalibela Hewn Churches
• Preservation measures have been taken for 16 hewn churches. The main
problem is the churches have been exposed to natural moisture for a
very long time and before any restoration activity can be carried out.

• The difficult road to Yemrehane Kirstos has been maintained for

easy access.

• Jimma
• Aba Jifarre Palace has been maintained but requires additional restoration.

7
• Wollega
• Dejazemach Kumsa Palace is being restored by a foreign contractor.

• Harrar
• Harrar Jegol Ginbe and Arter Rambo house have been restored.
Arter Rambo's residence is serving as a library to the community.

• Shoa
• Addadi Mariam church has been restored by a foreign fund.

8
 Summary
• Conservational work of historical buildings is different from construction of new
building because of, its originality of material and historic value of the building.
Historical building gives all information about social, economic and political
activities of past societies. So that it is mandatory to keep its historic value and
originality of the building in every steps of conservation process this is because, the
main objective of conservation is to prolong the life of cultural heritage and if
possible, to clarify the artistic and historical messages of the building without the
loss of authenticity and meaning.

• In the conservation process there are four treatment approach which include
preservation, restoration, rehabilitation and reconstruction. Depending on different
situations we can use one or combination of more than one of these treatment
approach on the conservation process.
8
• Conservation process is the process which consists of study about the general
characteristic of old structures, identify cause of the problem and providing
appropriate maintenance. Conservation and restoration process starts from the
planning stage followed by implementation and execution phases.

• A great many disciplines are involved in building conservation and restoration

process. The method of work in each stage of the process should be specified by
professionals who have a knowledge and experience on historic buildings. In
addition to this each experts or professionals in this area should understand the
principles and objectives of conservation and restoration otherwise working together
will be impossible and productive conservative action cannot result.

8
• On the other hand the field of conservation and restoration may face several
challenges. Major problems or challenges related with the conservation and
restoration work have been classified into six main categories which include:
Technical problems, management and administrative problems, financial
problems, human behavior and attitudes, spare parts problems, and lack of
institutional and training facilities.

• However, the challenges discussed on the above section does not mean that they
are challenges in all over the world because different counties have different
conservation practice and the conservation challenges will depend on
conservation practice of each country and other related factors.

8
• The science behind restoration is highly complex and requires multi-
discipline professionals effort, like Engineers, Architects,
Geologists, Historians, Ecologists, Economists and Sociologists.

• This makes the process and cost of restoration too lengthy and costly.

• In Ethiopia,
oThere are large number of historic sites which needs to be properly
documented,

oLack of professional awareness,

oLack of trained professionals.

83
BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Outline
• Introduction
• Definition of maintenance
• Objectives of maintenance
• Types of maintenance
• Factors influencing the decision to carry out maintenance
• Assessing maintenance priorities
• Maintenance management
• Nature of maintenance
INTRODUCTION
“That which is taken from the ground tends to return to the ground”

• This statement of fact does explain why some form of maintenance is

required.
• In addition, it sums up the problems of deterioration and the care needed for
its prevention.
• All elements of buildings deteriorate at a greater or lesser rate dependent
generally on:
 Material and methods of construction
 Environmental conditions, and
 The use of the buildings
• Property owners normally make an effort to keep maintenance expenditure to
a minimum, ignoring or misunderstanding the adverse long term effect of
such decisions.
• The objectives of building construction are mainly concerned with the:

 Stability of buildings,

 The weather tightness,

 Internal comfort level,

 The optimum use of the building and

 Its longer serviceable life.

• In order to achieve these objectives, it is necessary to carry out periodic and planned
maintenance, at regular intervals.

• The maintenance should start immediately after the building has been constructed for
its intended use.

• After completion, all buildings require regular, planned and timely maintenance to
preserve and enhance their serviceability.
DEFINITION OF MAINTENANCE
• The term maintenance comes from the French verb “maintenir”, which connotes
to hold.

• In general, Maintenance means to hold, keep, sustain or preserve the building

or structure to an acceptable standard of serviceability.

• Building maintenance is therefore the act of maintaining the building in its

serviceable condition.

• Another definition “Maintenance is synonymous with controlling the condition

of the building including services so that the serviceability remains within
specific region of acceptability”.

• Maintenance is the work undertaken to keep, restore or improve every facility in

every part of a building, its services and surroundings to an accepted standard.
• Maintenance is essential to sustain utility value of the building and its facilities.

• Acceptable standard is defined as one which sustains the Utility and value of the
facility.

• The question of what is an acceptable standard is a matter of conjecture and is

generally subjective.

• Each owner or tenant will have to establish his own standards based on many factors,
such as:
 Usage of building
 Anticipated life
 Availability of capital, materials and manpower
 Change in usage and
 Business prestige.
OBJECTIVES OF MAINTENANCE
 The objectives of maintenance are to ensure that building and its services can
perform its designed functions for the desired period of time with high
degree of reliability.

 The main objectives of maintenance are:

a) To preserve buildings and its services in good serviceable condition

b) To restore buildings and its services in its original standard, when deterioration
occurs due to any reason.

c) To make improvements in serviceability whenever required.

d) To sustain the utility value

e) To prevent and slow down the rate of deteriorations of structures

f) To enhance serviceability of the structures.

g) To avoid crisis maintenance by regular and planned maintenance programme.

TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
 British Standard 3811 classified building maintenance as the
followings:

Maintenance

Planned Maintenance Unplanned Maintenanc

Preventive Maintenanc Corrective Maintenance Corrective Maintenanc

e

Scheduled Maintenance Condition based Maintenance

A. Planned Maintenance: “The maintenance organized and carried out with
forethought, control and the use of records to a predetermined plan.”

B. Unplanned Maintenance: “The maintenance carried out to no

predetermined plan.”

C. Preventive Maintenance: “The maintenance carried at pre-determined

intervals or corresponding to prescribed criteria and intended to reduce the
probability of failure or the performance degradation of an item.”
i. Condition-based maintenance: “The preventive maintenance
initiated as a result of knowledge of the condition of an item from
routine or continuous monitoring.”
ii. Scheduled maintenance: “The preventive maintenance carried out to
a predetermined interval of time, number of operations, mileage, etc.
 C. Preventive Maintenance:

Preventive Maintenance

Condition based Maintenance

Scheduled Maintenance

 Inspection
 Lubricating & servicing Cleaning & adjusting Component replacement
 Continuous Periodi c On demand

D. Corrective Maintenance: “The maintenance carried out after a failure has
occurred and intended to restore an item to a state in which it can perform its
required function.”
• Corrective maintenance often warrants no action until failure occurs and then
repair or replacement becomes a matter of urgency.
• This of course is not a very satisfactory state of affairs from the user’s point of
view as well as from economic aspect.

E. Emergency Maintenance: “The maintenance which it is necessary to put in

hand immediately to avoid serious consequences.” This is sometimes
referred to as day-to-day maintenance, resulting from such incidents as gas
leaks and gale damage.
• In general maintenance classification could be as:
1. Major repair or restoration
2. Periodic maintenance
3. Routine or day-to-day maintenance
• A system which is based on planned inspections and maintenance will have
higher overhead costs than the one that is not, but the planned lead to lower
maintenance expenditure.

Cost of defects of design or construction

Time (years)

Cost relationship between planned and unplanned system

(Source: Managing Building Maintenance)
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DECISION TO CARRY
OUT MAINTENANCE

MAINTENANCE NEEDS
• The prime aim of maintenance is to preserve a building in its initial stage, as far as
practicable, so that it effectively serves its purpose. Some of the main purpose of
maintaining buildings are:

 Retaining value of investment

 Maintaining the building in a condition in which it continues to fulfill its

function, and
 Presenting a good appearance.

• The amount of necessary building maintenance work could be reduced by

improved methods of design, specification, construction, and feed back of
maintenance data to designers.
• Also, effective maintenance management embraces many skills including:
 The technical knowledge and experience necessary to identify
maintenance needs and to specify the right remedies
 An understanding of modern management techniques
 A knowledge of property and contract law

 An appreciation of the relevant sociological and economic aspect:

• Every buildings, through neglect and deterioration, faces certain death from
progressive decay.

• Proper maintenance is cheaper, quicker and easier than major repairs.

PRINCIPAL CRITERIA'S INFLUENCING THE DECISION
TO CARRY OUT MAINTENANCE
• There are various factors which influence the decision to carry out
preventive or corrective maintenance.
• Therefore, it is necessary to consider these factors for effective
maintenance of building structures :
i. Costs
ii. Age of property
iii. Availability of Physical resources
iv. Urgency
v. Future use
vi. Social considerations
i. Cost

• The cost of maintenance comprises of direct and indirect cost. The direct
cost in maintenance operations ranges generally from 70% to 90%.
• Before coming to a decision to implement a particular item of maintenance,
indirect cost factors like restricted access, production stoppage, safety
aspects, availability of time, overhead expenses, etc. Must be considered.

ii. Age of building

• To obtain the maximum life out of materials, components, services,

equipment and the building itself, a planned programme of inspection and
maintenance should be established as soon as the building has been
constructed.

iii. Availability of physical resources

• Physical resources in the context of maintenance is defined as all the

materials, components, service and equipment which are necessary for
maintenance.
• Therefore, when an item of maintenance is planned, the availability of all
these physical resources must be considered and ensured.

iv. Urgency

• The matter of urgency may outplay other factors when decisions is to be

taken to carry out a specific maintenance job.

• Urgency is a relative term and therefore it must be established whether the

repairs need to be carried out immediately, within hours or within days.

v. Future use

• The future use of a building as a whole must be considered while deciding

when and how much maintenance to carry out any given period of time.
vi. Social consideration

• The agencies carrying out maintenance activities can create disturbance

such as noise, safety, dust, smells and temporary interruption of service.

• Plan the maintenance in such a manner that the disturbance will be kept to a
minimum level, particularly when working within the occupied building.

• Pleasing environment should be created by regular and planned maintenance

of building structures.
ASSESSING MAINTENANCE PRIORITIES
• It is difficult to formulate a precise order of priorities of maintenance
activities as they are so diverse and any assessment is likely to be a
subjective evaluation.

• Some of the principal functions of maintenance are:

 To ensure the safety of occupants, visitors and the general public
 To maintain services, such as heating, lighting, escalators and fire
alarm systems
 To maintain decorative surfaces and carry out adequate cleaning
 To prevent or diminish significantly deterioration of the fabric.
• There are some formulated maintenance priority guidelines to be used for
financial stringency on how monies are to be spent. Typical is the following
approaches, adopted by different country codes:

i. Work required for health and safety, such as emergency exits

and fire precautions
ii. Work required to preserve the structure, such as essential
roof repairs and external paintings.
iii. Work required for occupational efficiency, such as
increased lighting.
iv. Amenity work, mainly internal, such as interior decorations.
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
• Maintenance management is considered as an act of dealing, planning,
controlling, directing and guiding maintenance team for keeping the production
process components in good working condition.

• Maintenance management involves the following basic functions:

a) Planning and designing of maintenance system

b) Coordinating, communicating and controlling of maintenance jobs

c) Motivating, directing and guiding maintenance team

a) Planning and designing of maintenance system

• This would include organizing the maintenance department by ensuring

availability of all the maintenance process components (men, machines,
materials, and work instruction) of adequate quality and quantity at the required
time.
• Another aspect of planning and designing would be setting of targets
and standards of maintenance.

b) Coordinating, communicating and controlling of maintenance

jobs
• Controlling is a continuous process of inspection, measuring, and
comparing with the planned targets and standards.

• Controlling includes recording communication and feeding back the

information for future designing and modifications in design and
standard.

• Coordinating refers to making cross-functional teams to work

harmoniously in achieving the set goals and objectives using different
resources.
c) Motivating, directing and guiding maintenance team

• This is an important management function of maintenance team leader to

inspire loyalty, effectiveness, quality, efficiency, pride and sense of
commitment to the goals of organization.

• Clear directions and guide lines need to be provided regarding approaches,

targets, and responsibilities in achieving the desired goals.

• Performance measurement tools and procedures need to be clearly

specified for every one to know and use.

• Motivation and guidance help maintenance team in realising the

organizational goals of maintaining good working conditions at the optimum
level of efficiency and economical in terms of cost.
 Importance of building maintenance

Function & maintenance policy

Building maintenance manual & document

MAINTENANCE
Communication system & building inspection
Enhancement of building life
MANAGEMENT
CYCLE

Corrective/preventive & protective maintenance Maintenance budget & job inspection

Health, safety & quality consideration

NATURE OF MAINTENANCE
• Main components of maintenance are:
I. Servicing

II. Rectification

III. Replacement

IV. Renovation

I. Servicing:

• A cleaning operation undertaken at regular intervals of varying frequency and is

sometimes termed day to day maintenance.

• Typical frequencies could be:

 Floor swept daily and polished weekly
 Windows washed monthly
 Painting for decoration and protection every 1-5 years.
II. Rectification:

• Occurs early in the life of the building and arises from:

 Default in design,

 Inherent faults or unsuitability of components,

 Damage of goods in transit or installation and

 Incorrect assembly.

• Objective of rectification is to ensure that components and materials are

suitable for their purpose and are correctly installed.

 Rectification Work can be reduced by the use of:

o Performance specifications, and

o Codes of installation.
III. Replacement:

• Replacement is inevitable because service conditions cause materials to decay at

different rates.

• Most replacement work is carried out not so much from Physical breakdown of the
materials or element as from deterioration of appearance.

• Thus, the length of acceptable life often involves a subjective judgment of aesthetics of
change.

 Determining the durability or length of life of a material is a very difficult

technological problem.

• Replacement can be reduced by the use of better quality of materials and components.

IV. Renovation:

• It consists of work done to restore a structure, service and equipment by a major

overhaul to the original design and specification, or to improve on the original design.
HIGH-RISE
BUILDING

29
Definition
• An architect or a city planner will define it as a building that clearly extend beyond or above the
surrounding buildings. If the height of the building has a big impact on the evacuation or if the
height of the building is greater than the maximum reach of firefighting equipment it can be
called a high-rise building because of fire regulations. In the United States, a building taller
than 23 meters is called a high-rise building.

• A building is an enclosed structure that has walls, floors, a roof, and usually windows. “ A ‘
tall building ’ is a multi-story structure in which most occupants depend on elevators [lifts] to
reach their destinations. The most prominent tall buildings are called ‘ high-rise buildings ’ in
most countries and ‘ tower blocks ’ in Britain and some European countries. The terms do not
have internationally agreed definitions. ”

• For a structural engineer, the dentition of a high-rise building lies with the problems that are
associated with the design of the building. A building is then most often considered a high-
rise building when dynamic loads becomes relevant.
However, a high-rise building can be defined as follows:
1. Any structure where the height can have a serious impact on evacuation

2. For most purposes, the cut-off point for high-rise buildings is around seven
stories. sometimes the definition is more than seven stories. Sometimes, the
definition is stated in terms of linear height (feet or meters) rather than
stories.

3. Generally, a high-rise structure is considered to be one that extends higher

than the maximum reach of available fire-fighting equipment. In absolute
numbers, this has been set variously between 75 feet (23 meters) and 100 feet
(30 meters), or about seven to ten stories (depending on the slab-to-slab
distance between floors).
History
• Tall buildings can be seen all over the world, they can be used to show of
wealth and power, religious beliefs or to push the boundaries of engineering.
The ancient Egyptians built the pyramids nearly 5000 years ago as tombs for
their Pharaohs and to this day they are still standing as some of the oldest
high-rise structures in the world. However, they are not considered buildings
since they are not inhabitable.

• The Gothic cathedrals of Europe were the skyscrapers of medieval time, rising
far above anything else in Europe. All the early high-rise structures have one
thing in common; they have a structural system made of masonry which
limited the building height due to the high self-weight of the material. When
reinforced concrete and steel were introduced as building materials, taller
buildings could be built.
• For a long time Chicago was the leading city in high-rise building design. It
was here that the first steel high-rise building was built, the Home Insurance
Building, a 10-story Building finished in 1885. This building marked the
start of high-rise building design. In the beginning of the 20th century tall
buildings started to appear in New York.

• In 1903 the Flatiron Building (22-stories) was finished, in 1909 the

Metropolitan Life Insurance Building (50-stories) and in 1913 the
Woolworth Building (57-stories).
• For many years, the United States was the leading country when it came to
high-rise buildings, both in the amount of buildings being built and the
maximum height. Since the end of the last century, Asia and the Arabic
region have constructed a large amount and the tallest high-rises in the
world. These have included the Petronas Towers in Malaysia, Taipei 101 in
Taiwan and Burj Khalifa in Dubai. High-rise buildings can today be found
on all continents and there is always a new record setting building being
built.
 Empire State Building – 381 m, 1931.
 Petronas Tower in Malaysia – 482 m, 1998.
 Taipai 101, Taiwan – 508 m, 2004.
 Burj Dubai – 750 m, 2008.
 Burj Dubai

Petronas Tower

Empire State Bulding Taipei

 Structural systems High-rise Building

• There are a variety of different load bearing systems for high-rise buildings,
which one to use depends on the height of the building, where the building
is located and the architectural design.

• Some of the most common structural systems used in high-rise buildings

are explained below.
1. Rigid frames
• For buildings with a fairly low height, a rigid frame can be used. A rigid
frame consists of columns and girders with moment resisting connections. It
resists lateral loads with the bending resistance of the columns and beams.
When designing buildings with moment resisting frames, the size of the
columns and beams are often controlled by the bending stiffness and not by
the load capacity.
• Steel or concrete can be used for this type of system. For steel, the
maximum appropriate height is about 30 stories and for concrete about 20
stories. For buildings over 30 stories there is a risk of large lateral swaying
from wind and earthquakes, the connections between the beams and the
columns also become too complicated and too expensive in order to
withstand the large moments, especially for steel frames .
 2. Shear wall
• Shear walls have a high resistance in their own plane and used to resist
lateral loads.
• Shear walls can resist overturning moments, shear forces and also
torsion if they are properly placed in the building.
• Shear walls can be used in different ways. One way is to use a system of
columns with a flat slab and shear walls, which will extend the effective
height up to about 20 stories compared to 10 stories for a similar system with
columns and slabs.
• windows and doors, this type of system is effective up to 40 stories
3. Core and outrigger systems

• A very common way of using shear walls is to use them in a core supported
structural system, which means that shear walls are cast around elevator and
stair shafts to create a core. The core can resist lateral, vertical and torsional
loads. This system is effective up to 45 floors.

• A combination of shear walls and rigid frames can be used to create buildings
up to 60 floors. The shear walls are often placed around elevator and staircases
to create a core while the frames are on the exterior of the building which allows
deep beams to be placed on the outside of the building.
 4.Braced frames and shear trusses
• Diagonal braces can be a supplement to a rigid frame in order to create a more rigid
building. Braced systems reduce the large shear racking deformations by
decreasing bending of girders and columns. Diagonal members are placed inside
the frames which carry lateral loads and reduces bending of beams and columns.

• Braced frame systems are often more economical than moment resisting frames.
There are however several disadvantages, for example reduced flexibility in floor
plan layout, space planning and electrical installation. The braced frames are often
placed in the core of the building.
• Another type of truss system is the staggered truss system. This bracing
system was developed for residential buildings that are fairly long and narrow.
Normally the system can be used for heights up to 25 stories. In this system,
trusses that are one floor high are placed in an alternating pattern on each floor,
the floor transfers the lateral loads to the trusses which means that the columns
does not receive any bending action.

Illustration of a staggered truss system

5.Tubular systems
• There are many different types of tubular systems. Even if they are partly
different, they use approximately the same technique to carry loads. Most of
the tall buildings in the world are designed with some kind of tubular system .
• The framed tube system is used for buildings up to 60 stories.
• The load bearing capacity and stiffness of the structural system is provided by
the moment resisting frames that form a tube around the edge of the building.
• The tubes around the perimeter of the building engages the entire building to
resist lateral loads. To create the frame for the tube systems, columns are placed
closely together around the buildings exterior.
• To obtain an even better structural system, additional bracing can be
mounted on the exterior of the building. This type of system is called an
exterior diagonal tube system and is one of the most used system. The
exterior diagonal tube system can be used in buildings up to 100 stories.
By connecting individual tubes, a bundled tube system is obtained. The tubes
working together results in a very strong structural system, this means that the
columns be placed at an even greater distance which allows big openings for
windows
Building Demolition Practices
Introduction
•The era of demolition began centuries ago as construction had started. Nowadays, the

industry brings a lot of potentials and become highly sophisticated business requiring

expertise and competent persons across the world. People have demolished structures

to make room for new structures, to rehabilitate the existing ones, and to create new

buildings with materials taken from existing structures. When demolition occurs, it is

usually a sign of new growth, expansions and inner city urban renewals. Major cities

found in Washington DC, London and elsewhere are constantly renewing old

buildings and converted in to new structures.

•Building demolition Act (1984) further explained that, a building can be demolished

when it is deemed to be of no further use, dangerous and in a disastrous or neglected

state, especially in city centers or out of town shopping facilities.

• Demolition acts completely remove a building or cleans a site in order to release the potential
value for redevelopment or use the land as an open space for recreational purposes. Buildings
are changed in harmony with the needs of the age. Almost all of the residential building and
commercial building in developed countries nowadays are constructed with reinforced
concrete. As the complexity in construction increases, it is obviously important to
consider the overall demolition work is as being important as construction work.
• Demolition works become more common in order to eliminate the aged buildings and unsafe
structures in urban areas. New buildings which satisfy the modern requirements have been
constructed after the demolition of unused buildings. As a result, rapid developments in
building constructions have contributed to the growth of demolition techniques due to the
constructed materials and methods.
• In addition to materials and methods, it is also required the knowledge of labor costs
associated with removing and disposing of building materials, value of removed assets, and
opportunities for landfill diversion through recycling and reuse of materials as well as
regulatory requirements that govern demolition work. Understanding of these issues are
important for determining the most appropriate way to remove, handle, and dispose of
materials for a project.
•As time passes the method of demolition changed. Most of the demolition projects
undertaken nowadays are complex in nature, demanding greater skill and experience than
ever before. In addition, more legislations that are strict and growing commercial and
environmental pressure have made a major impact on the selection of demolition
techniques. Furthermore, various types of new demolition techniques are available in the
demolition industry, which make the selection more complex. Before selecting any type
of demolition technique, the demolition engineer has better to consider a set of criteria
and assess their relevance to the demolition work to be undertaken in order to arrive at the
most appropriate demolition technique.
•The selection of demolition techniques for structure is greatly affected by the structural
forms like reinforced concrete, pre stressed concrete, plain concrete or masonry and the
size of constructed structural members. Moreover, the location of the building, extent of
demolition either the whole or partial demolition, grade of safety in work and the time
taken to demolish the structure will greatly affect the evaluation or selection of demolition
techniques. The evaluation of demolition method is a very complicated as parameters
such as operation, application fields, nuisance, safety measurement, and performance of
work are interacted with each other.
• Thong adds that, many demolition techniques have been invented and applied in this
world until today such as using machinery method, hand method, chemical agent,
explosion and hydraulic demolition.
• Those techniques are still in upgrading especially to evaluate a more suitable method to
demolish structural buildings. In fact, even the most advanced demolition technique
does not guarantee a safe and successful demolition. Thus, the determination and
employment of the safest strategy to bring down a building is the key to ensure the safe
demolition operation.
• Unless proper methods and techniques are handled, demolitions of buildings or
structures give rise to many hazards. During demolition projects, the potential risks of a
fatal or serious harm accident are high to employees, contractors and even to the public.
Hazard identification and the promotion of safe methods of work are therefore essential,
and these should also be reflected in responsibilities to third parties.
• However demolition work is very high risk and complex, it requires knowledge and
strict regulation and precaution measurement that must be followed to avoid any
damage to human life and environment.
• Currently to ensure the health and safety of stakeholders in combination to
methods and techniques, the demolition practice is restricted by numerous factors,
budget of the project, location of the building subject to demolition, size of the building,
regulations, economics, new technology, management and so on.

• Methods can vary depending on the area where it will be held on, the building material,
the purpose of the demolition and the way that debris is going to be disposed. The
future of building demolition also predicated by the availability and cost of new
resources and by the scarcity of energy for machine operation, as well as by
heightened environmental awareness.
 Definitions of key terms
•Various definitions of the term 'demolition' have been found in the literature. Some of the
common definitions include:
‘Demolition’ “means dismantling, demolish, destroying or wrecking any building or structure
or any part thereof by pre-planned and controlled methods” (Hong Kong Code, 2004).
Building demolition represents the process in which an erected structure is purposely
destroyed to form a diversity of components and fragments of mixed materials. From a
lifecycle viewpoint, the demolition stage for buildings is achieved after the sequential stages
of planning, design, and execution.

„Demolition‟ as being conferred in this study also can be defined as: "The complete or partial
dismantling of a building or structure". It excludes refurbishment, provided this work does
not involve alteration of any existing structural components (OHSA, 2000). When combined
the two definitions, „demolition‟ can be summarized as removing, dismantling, destruction,
razing, wrecking, pulling down or knocking down of any building or structure by pre-planned
and controlled techniques to cause complete collapse of the whole or part of the building or
structure.
•In order to have a smooth working condition at demolition sites the issue of safety
and health should be given due attention like safety in construction. Health and safety
precautions are the responsibility of every one at work. The term „safety‟ is defined
as a relative freedom from danger, risk, or threat of harm, injury, or loss of personnel
and property, whether caused deliberately or by accident. „Safety‟ can also be
defined as the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk. As
titled in this study, „safety‟ is freedom from danger, harm, and injury to the person
involved in demolition activities whereas the term “health” refers to the freedom from
the immediate and long term effects of exposure to unhealthy working condition.
• Environment is also an important aspect in the execution of demolition in which
individuals are working. Besides, demolition sites are complex system with a lot
of stakeholders working together to accomplish the demolition project. So the
„Cambridge dictionary online‟ defines „environment is the condition that once can
live or work in and the way that it influence how once effectively can work‟.
 Development of demolition
• The history of building demolition tracked back to several thousand years, including the effects
from various ancient wars. Until the 1950s, buildings were mostly dismantled by hand at the
ends of their lives due to structural or functional obsolescence. The mechanization of demolition
work started in the late 1950s with the introduction of pneumatic hand hammer breakers and
steel balls as far as building structures are concerned.

• During the1960's and1970's the trends of demolition demand on the skills and working techniques of
demolition contractors. From 1967, chemical expansive demolition agents were developed in
Japan. In 1979, a study of the demolition of the Japan Power Demonstration Reactor (JPDR)
by the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JPDRI) resulted, in many useful developments
for the demolition of structural buildings by explosives, core boring machines, large diamond
cutters, and abrasive water jetting techniques.

• In the Later, in the 20th century, the shaped charge technology combined with manageable
seismology and non-electric delay systems were developed, allowing an ever-expanding variety
of structures to be explosively felled by demolition experts specially countries like Japan.
•Therefore, the nature and change of demolition had been undergone through
major transformation. Traditionally it was labor intensive, low skill, low technology, poorly
regulated and mainly dealing with deconstruction of simply constructed buildings. Then it
was developed to mechanization, replacing labor with machines.

•This is because of increased complexity in building design, financial pressures from

clients, health and safety issues, regulatory and legal requirements and advances in plant
design. After that the emphasis was also arisen in increasing environmental pressure,
particularly the disposal of demolition waste. This situation, along with more strict
legislation and growing commercial and environmental pressures has had a major impact
on the selection of demolition techniques.

•In addition, demolition is becoming a more complex and demanding process, as contract
periods become shorter, legislation more demanding, and the competition even tougher.
Thus, the trends were changed through considerable researches, trainings, preparation and
introduction of new techniques.
 DEMOLITION PROCESS
• Principally, the sequence of demolition is carried out in reverse order to the
construction process and the general execution of the demolition process can be
classified as comprising four main work phases as illustrated in Figure below the
sequential flow of activities involved.

A. Tendering stage

B. Pre-demolition stage

C. Actual demolition stage and

D. Post-demolition stage
Fig. : Demolition process flow
 A. Tendering Stage
•In this stage, the demolition process starts when the client makes a decision to demolish a
structure and demolition contractors are invited to bid their offers. The early selection of
contractor proceeds either by evaluating the contractor's previous performance, or on the
basis of competitiveness of an estimated preliminary cost given by the contractors.

•Next, contractors have to find out about the site before he/she can prepare a risk
assessment. As the British standard code of practice for demolition BS 6187 (2000) section
7.1 states, knowledge of the site should be produced by an initial desk study and followed
by an on-site survey to supplement the desk study. Off-site features that can affect work
on site should also be determined. Then, risk assessment has to be carried out which
identifies risks associated with work and planning of the removal or reduction of risks
before work commences.
•After that, the demolition engineer needs to select the demolition technique based on
risk assessment and other contributing factors such as technical and economic aspects.
It is also produces a method statement which addresses the site's particular needs (i.e.
site preparation) and details of the planned sequences and demolition techniques
selected in the previous process.
•Finally the tender document with the method statement will then be submitted to the
client. If the contractor is selected by the client to do the job, he/she will continue to the
next stage, which is the pre-demolition stage. If the client was not selected the
contractor, then the contractor has to abandon the project and bid for another job.
B. Pre-Demolition Stage
•The first process in the pre demolition stage is site preparation. The process may
include the erection of security fencing and setting-up welfare facilities (e.g. site
office, washing facilities and toilet).

•Decommissioning is the second step and it can be defined as the "process

whereby an area is brought from its fully operational status to one where all live or
charged systems are rendered dead or inert and reduced to the lowest possible
hazard level" (BS 6187, 2000).

•The decommissioning activities include for example, removal of all asbestos,

chemicals (e.g. battery acids, oils) and controlled release of stored energy
in strong springs or suspended counterweights.
• Soft stripping is the third process for the removal of non-structural items such as
fixtures and fittings, windows, doors, frames, suspended ceilings and partitions.

• Product from the soft stripping process can be reused and recycle in the fourth.
Materials such as wood from windows or door panels can be reused as building
lumber, landscape covering, pulp chip and fuel, as these can be cleaned and reused.

• Aluminum and stainless steel panels and copper are the typical recycled metals.
Architectural artifacts such as sinks, doors, bathtubs and used building materials are
usually resold.

• Even the industrial process equipment can be marketed both domestically and
internationally.
 C. Actual Demolition Stage
• The actual demolition stage is when structural elements are started to demolish. There
are three main types of structural demolitions which involve the actual stage. These are:
Progressive demolition, deliberate collapse mechanisms and deconstruction.
These alternative techniques can be selected by the contractor at the tendering
stage.
• Reuse and recycling process can be also done after or concurrently with the structural
demolition process. With current technologies such as hydraulic excavators
attached with pulverize, concrete crushing and screening machines, contractors are
able to separate demolition debris. This process can maximize the use of resalable
materials and subsequently reducing waste disposal costs. Metals and concrete debris
are typical examples of recycled materials.
• Recycled metals include scrap iron, reinforcement bars in concrete, aluminum, stainless
steel and copper. Concrete debris or crushed aggregates can be used as fill material,
lean for sub-bases and used to build non- structural partitions.
D. Post-Demolition Stage
• Site clearance is the last process which executes under the post demolition. Site
should be left in a clean, safe and secure condition. All contaminants must be left or
removed in a condition such that they represent no hazard to health or the
environment. Finally, the planning supervisor should ensure that the health and
safety file has been compiled and handed to the client on completion of the work.
• Other researchers also divided the demolition process in to three phases which are;
pre-demolition phase, demolition phase, post demolition phase. These phases are
further explained in the following sections. Figure below illustrates the sequential
flow of activities involved in each phase.
Fig. : Activities involved in the execution of demolition operations
• The pre-demolition phase focuses on works that are conducted prior to the actual
demolition and consists of activities such as;

o Site survey; carried out in form of desk study and on-site investigations. It is also
surveyed with respect to topographical features, ground conditions, locations and type
of existing services as well as adjacent properties. In addition core samples from
structural elements are taken for testing to ascertain the structures strength and
integrity.
o Site preparation and mobilization; site is prepared to receive demolition works. It
includes fencing and hoarding, site offices as well as site facilities. Mobilization
comprises of features such as conducting temporary works, erecting scaffolds and
safety signage. Diversion and protection of existing services and property as well as
establishment of plant and machinery are also executed under Site preparation and
mobilization.
o Decommissioning; it is done to bring the structure from its fully operational state
to one where all charged systems are terminated or reduced to the lowest
hazardous level. This includes disconnection of electrical, water, gas, plumbing
and telecommunication cables as well as removal of hazardous chemicals.

o Soft stripping; it is done to remove all non-structural items such as fixtures,

fittings, windows, doors, roof tiles and ceilings

o Recycling and reuse; soft stripping materials are collected and stored to be
reused, sold or recycled.

o Environmental monitoring; initial water and air quality as well as noise and
vibration levels are monitored by a team of specialists.
•The Demolition phase concentrates on the actual demolition operation and comprises
of activities such:
o Demolition is executed using heavy equipment and machinery depending on the
technique selected.
o Waste management and recycling is carried out to properly manage all wastes and
debris generated from the demolition. It is planned and monitored to avoid possible
environmental contamination and pollution.
o Environmental monitoring; water and air quality as well as noise and vibration
levels are monitored during the works to ensure that they do not exceed the allowable
limits.
•The post-demolition phase pay attention to activities implemented after the
major demolition works and includes;

o Site clearance; up on completion the overall work, the project site is cleared to
eliminate any potential hazards. Existing temporary drainages systems are
inspected and cleaned to ensure proper flow and function.

o Environmental monitoring; water and air quality as well as noise and vibration
levels are monitored during the works to ensure they are at acceptable levels.
• The difference between the researchers are, has been included the tendering
stage which is including clients decision to demolish a structure, bid
invitation, prior risk assessment, selection of demolition technique, method of
statement and bid submittals for the overall selection of contractors with
regard to previous performance and estimated preliminary cost which are
excluded under the demolition phases of .
Demolition Types, Methods and Techniques

Demolition Types
Depending on the structural elements to be removed or demolished and applying
the principles of structural demolition as reported in BS 6187 (2000) 'British
Standard Code of Practice for Demolition‟, demolition types can be classified in to
three.

1. Progressive demolition

2. Deliberate collapse mechanism

3. Deliberate removal of elements or Deconstruction

 1. Progressive Demolition

•The progressive demolition is the controlled removal of sections of the structure while
retaining the stability of the remainder, and avoiding collapse of all or part of the
structure to be demolished. It is particularly practical in confined and restricted areas and
may be considered for the majority of sites. The progressive demolition includes:
 Progressive demolition by hand (hand tools such as an impact hammer, diamond disc
cutter, and wire saw)

Progressive demolition by machine (Excavator attached with boom and hydraulic

attachments, such as pulverize, crushers, and shears) and

Progressive demolition by balling, involves the progressive demolition of a structure by

the use of an iron ball that is suspended from a lifting appliance and then released to
impact the structure repeatedly in the same or different locations.
Therefore, when this type of method is employed, the key structure members of the
structure and their sequence of removal should be clearly indicted in the proposed method
statement.
 2. Deliberate Collapse Mechanism

• Deliberate collapse mechanism is considering the removal of key structural

members to cause complete collapse of the whole or part of the building or structure
(BS 6187, 2000). This technique usually employed on detached, isolated, fairly
level sites where the whole structure is to be demolished. This requires sufficient
space in order to move and place equipment and personnel at a safe distance.
• Furthermore, deliberate collapse should not have the potential instability of the
remaining structure to cause the hazards to surrounding people and properties.
When this method is employed, the key members to be removed and the
sequence of work should be clearly indicated in the method statement.
• This is to make sure workers work up follow the procedures of work to ensure
their safety during the demolition. The demolition by deliberate collapse includes
deliberate collapse by explosive and deliberate collapse by wire rope pulling.
3. The Deliberate Removal of Elements (Deconstruction)

• The deconstruction technique is the removal of selected parts of the structures

by dismantling or deconstruction.

• It is also known as a top down technique or, in general terms, the demolition
proceeds from the roof to the ground. It is carried out using manual and
machines on a floor by floor basis in a top to bottom downward sequence.

• This method is carried out manually using hand-held electric and

pneumatic crushers or breaking away the structure by machine mounted with
percussive breaker or hydraulic attachments.
• The advantages of this method are salvaging reusable building materials and
minimize the release of hazardous materials into the air. This top-down method is
applicable for most sites, especially those situated in busy inner city urban areas.

• The reuse and recycling process can be done after or concurrently with the
structural demolition process. With the current applicable technologies such as
hydraulic excavators attached with pulverize, concrete crushing, and screening
machines, contractors are also able to separate demolition debris.
 Demolition Methods
• As building technology is evolving constantly, demolition keeps developing in
equipment and techniques. In the past, most demolition works were involved minor and
simple structures with few cases of fire damaged buildings and dilapidated structures.
• Today, major buildings are being demolished including infrastructure such as bridges
and highways. The methods of demolition have also improved from hand tools to the
advanced use of machineries and tower crane.
• The sequence in which a building or other structure is demolished can be critical for
the health and safety of workers and the general public.
• The demolition sequence will depend on the type of construction, location, and
demolition methods selected. Buildings and other structures has been demolished in
reverse order to their construction, that is, by „sequential demolition.
•Generally, there are several types of demolition methods that usually used in
demolition practices all over the world. The selection of demolition methods concern
about project and site condition, public safety and sensitivity, availability of tools and
equipment and many others requirement and regulations that must be followed. The
complex situation in the demolition site demands specialized skill, knowledge and
also expertise from the people that involved in the industry.

•According to the Australian standard code of practice for building demolition

classified the method of demolition in to;

1. Manual demolition
2. Mechanical demolition, and
3. Induced collapse
 1. Manual Demolition
• Manual demolition includes any technique where hand tools such as jackhammers,
sledge hammers and picks are used. Manual demolitions are shared many of hazards
that are present in other major demolition activities including unexpected collapse,
falls, falling objects, manual handling and exposure to noise, dust and hazardous
chemicals. To manage the risk of unplanned collapses, the condition of roofs, walls
and floors of the building should be assessed by a competent person before
commencing of the demolition work. Where pre and post-tension demolition work
is undertaken competent person advice should be sought as to demolition sequence.
Areas where debris will fall should be barricaded off and signs erected to prevent
persons from entering before demolition starts. As indicated in the figure below,
demolition workers are used scaffolds and personal protective equipment's while
executed manually. Scaffolds are used to protect demolishers from sudden collapse
and material falling to adjacent buildings.
Fig. Manual demolition
2. Mechanical Demolition
• Mechanical demolition involves both the pulling down and the knocking down
of the structures using machinery such as rams, bulldozers, cranes, and
excavators. On the other hand larger structures also involve wrecking balls.
Wrecking balls are heavy balls attached to strong cable and swung by large
cranes. Mechanical demolitions should be planned to be systematic and
sequential to demolish in the reverse order to which it was constructed as shown
in the figure below.
 Induced Collapse
• As indicated in the figure below, induced collapse is a systematic or sequential
removal of key structural members and the application of a force to result in the
controlled collapse of all or part of a building or structure. Expert advice has been
required from a competent person before this method is used. The application is only
used on detached, isolated structures on reasonably level sites. There must be
sufficient clear space into which the collapsing material will fall.

Figure: Induced collapse

 Demolition Techniques
• There are many types of demolition techniques in the demolition sector to achieve the
structural types of demolition together with demolition methods. Irrespective of which
demolition technique is adopted, its choice is based on minimizing the risk to
personnel and the re-use or the recycling of materials arising from the demolition. In
general the demolition technique employed in the industry can be classified in to five
main categories which are:
1. Demolition by hand
2. Demolition by towers and high reach cranes
3. Demolition by machines (with mechanical or hydraulic attachment)
4. Demolition by chemical agents
5. Demolition by water jetting
Figure below shows the detail classification of the five demolition techniques and in
this research some of them only discussed.
Figure: The demolition techniques
• The selection of techniques for demolish structures will be combination of

few techniques which is affected by the requirement and specification of

building. The content herein will elaborate to a certain extent of functions,

features as well as benefits and disadvantages of each respective technique.

1. Demolition by Hand
•According to the BS 6187 (2000) demolition by hand is the demolition of
structure progressively by hand held tools. The advantages of this method are
saving the reuse building material and reduce the air pollution. However, the
efficiency of this method is low if compared to other techniques.

•The technique is most often used in small scaled demolition operations. In large
projects, it is employed to primarily weaken the structure before heavier
equipment is brought in. Strict safety precautions in terms of working conditions
for example, scaffolding, and secure platforms always be considered and checked.
Safety belts or harnesses must be used when working on dangerous and high
elevations. If it is comparing the figure below, figure (a) demolishers are more
exposed to collapse and in (b) workers are carefully dismantled and they are safe.
Figure: (a) Demolition by hand & (b) Hand demolition
• Demolition by hand includes equipment's such as hand hammering and
hand held tools as discussed below.

I. Hand hammering
• Hand hammer is a light weight hammering process and can be easily
positioned to break and crack vertical and overhead concrete structures.
Figure below shows the hand hammering equipment. There are four types of
hammer which are operated by using pneumatic force, air compression,
gasoline and hydraulic force.

• The advantage of pneumatic hammer and gasoline hammer are lighter in

weight and low in vibration. However, it is more noise than the hammer that
operated by hydraulic force. Thus, hydraulic hammer is widely used in urban
areas.
• Electric hammer
• The stroke energy is obtained from an electric motor via eccentric cam,
which produces a reciprocating motion. It able to deliver more power full
blows since it typically have about 35% more power than rotary hammer.
This is due to the reduction in components as well as longer piston stroke.
Although the hammer delivers fewer blows per minute, the increased
strength of the tool makes it quick and more efficient in demolition
concrete and masonry. Figure below shows the electric hammer
operation system.
Figure: (a) Hands hammering (b) Electric hammering
• Rotary hammer
•The versatility of the rotary hammer allows it to demolish concrete with a hammer only
action or delivery rotary hammer action for boring holes. This is done in the rotary
hammer mode by driving twist drills and core bits. It uses a battery ram that floats inside
a cylinder and is launched and retrieved by a piston. A shock absorbing air space
between the ram and the piston compresses and drives the ram forward as the piston
advances, then sucks it back as the piston retracts.
• Pneumatic hammer
•The impact energy of this hammer is obtained by allowing compressed air to expand in
the cylinder of the hammer. Driving the piston rapidly against the anvil to transmits the
released energy to the chisel. This tool works on a basic principal of movement induced
by the expansion of compressed air. An air compressor is normally used to supply
compressed air to the hammer. The advantage offered is that, it can be easily mounted
on the light carriers, requires less accessories as well as maintenance. It does work better
in confined space due to its weight-power ratio and suitable for under water usage.
Figure: ((a) Rotary hammer, (b) Pneumatic hammer
• Hydraulic hammer
•The impact energy is obtained from hydraulic oil supplied at a fairly high pressure.
Since hydraulic oil is an incompressible fluid, the pressure cannot be converted in to
motion without an auxiliary medium. In order to make such a motion possible,
hydraulic hammers are equipped with a nitrogen bulb or chamber. The compressible
nitrogen is separated from the oil by a diaphragm and provides the requisite conversion
of pressure in to motion. In this way, the piston is able to thrust rapidly against the
anvil. The anvil then transmits the released impact energy to the chisel. The hydraulic
hammer operates with a completely enclosed hydraulic system.
• Gasoline hammer
•The stroke energy is obtained from the rotation of a gasoline motor, which is
converted to reciprocating motion by an eccentric cam. These hammers normally
weigh from 10-40 kg. However, the gasoline hammer produces lower strokes energy in
contact to the pneumatic and hydraulic type of hammers.
Figure: (a) Hydraulic hammer, (b) Gasoline hammers
II. Hand held tool
• There are many manually hand tools that are still applicable in
present for demolition construction or building material. Although the hand-
held tools are very slow in progress but those can demolish the part of
building precisely. Thus, those only suitable to be used for small renovation
purpose of small part of the structure. For example, a “crow bar” which is
typically has pry bar and hooked pry bar that can be used in removing the
nails or other fastener sand wedged into building materials.
2. Demolition by Machines
•Machines are usually applied to speed up the demolition process using mechanical or
hydraulic attachments instead of using manual hand tools especially for demolition of
bigger parts of structures. The efficiency of this technique is higher than using hand
method. The execution of demolition by engaging machines with mechanical
attachments are usually performed by balling, hydraulic crusher with long boom arm
and wire rope pulling.

• Wrecking Ball

•Demolition by ball involves the progressive demolition of a building by the use of weight
that is suspended from a lifting appliance and then released to impact the structure,
repeatedly, in the same or different locations. During the process, the ball is either
dropped onto or swung into the structure that is to be demolished. It is one of the oldest
and most commonly used techniques for building demolition. The ball is weighing up
to 6000kg to demolish concrete and masonry structures.
• For demolition by balling, the auxiliary machine from which the ball is suspended
must permit the ball to perform two types of motion: free fall and a swinging or
ballistic motion. The choice of auxiliary machine depends on the object to be
demolished, the direction of impact (horizontal or vertical as shown in figure
below), the size of ball required and the distances involved (including the height).

• To be safe during demolition by wrecking ball, the minimum horizontal distance of the
equipment or crane for both vertical drop and swing in line should be half of the height
of the structure to be demolished. Wrecking ball method is not suitable for all
demolition applications. Because for ball and crane demolition projects, only highly
skilled and experienced crane operators should be used.

• Besides, additional work in the form of cutting rebar may be necessary since the
concrete can be broken into rather small pieces. Moreover, the size of the building that
can be demolished with this method is limited by crane size and working room,
including proximity to power lines. Lastly, a wrecking ball method creates a great deal
of dust, vibration and noise.
 (a) (b)
Figure: (a) Vertical drop and (b) swing in-line wrenching ball
• Wire Rope Pulling
•This technique of mechanical demolition involves attaching wire ropes to a structure,
usually of steel and pulling the pre-weakened structure to the ground by winch or
tracked plant (BS 6187,2000).

•The technique is suitable to detach buildings when clear space is sufficient. Wire ropes
at least 16 mm in diameter are normally used with a safety factor. A safety distance of
1.5 times the height of element to be demolished shall be maintained between the
machine and the building during the pulling.

•The arm of the hydraulic excavator can also provide the required force on the rope.
This arrangement has the advantage that the machine operates at a suitable distance
from the member to be demolished. However, the wire rope pulling is often limited to
buildings less than 15m in height for safety reasons. This technique can be used for
timber framed buildings, masonry and steel chimney as well as bridges. Figure below
shows the operation of wire rope pulling technique.
Figure: Wire rope pulling techniques
• Hydraulic crusher with Long Boom arm

• The crusher attachment breaks the concrete and the reinforcement

by the hydraulic thrust through the long boom arm system. Normally,
this is applied in the top-down method. After the upper floor is destroyed
part by part, the crane will remove the debris to ground. Consideration
should be made to use an appropriate machine e.g. excavator fitted with
suitable booms and arms to mechanize the dismantling of high rise
structures or building as shown in the figure below.
Figure: Hydraulic crusher with long Boom arm
• Clam shell

• Demolition by clam shell typically involves the use of a crane equipped

with a clam shell attachment which progressively bites away the
structure. It requires a minimum safety distance of 0.5 times the height of
the building element being demolished to maintain the machine and
building during operation. The process of biting off the structural
elements begins from the top and progress downwards and operated not
less than 1 m above the structure being demolished. . Figure shows the
operation of calm shell technique.
Figure : Calm shell techniques
• Demolition by Towers and High Reach Cranes
•Demolition by towers and high reach cranes are normally used to carry out demolition
works on structures that are very high. It is also used for high structures that do not
provide sufficient working platforms such as towers, elevated water tanks and storage
silos. BS 6187 (2000) states that the use of such cranes for demolishing high rise
structures should be considered for the removal of structural elements and debris as an
alternative to dropping of materials.

• Explosive Demolition Techniques

•In order to induce the collapse, the explosion product realizes, in a controlled manner, a
mechanical work within the structure. Directing the explosives‟ enthalpy towards the
critical points of the structure represents the core of the design activities related
to a controlled demolition of a particular building.
• In Australia explosives do not apply to induce the collapse of any structure
unless approved by the regulatory authority. All possession, storage, handling
and use of explosives must be carried out in compliance with the relevant
dangerous substances/goods or explosives legislation applicable in once state or
territory (AS, 2013). There are two main methods for building explosive
demolition:
• Vertical collapse method
• Side collapse method
• Vertical collapse method
• he structural elements where to place the explosive charges are chosen in
order to create locally elementary mechanisms within the structural
elements. It is positioned symmetrically against the vertical-longitudinal
plan of the building. The loss of equilibrium was obtained as a result of the
vertical movement of the gravitational volume.

• In the demolition process all structural supports should be removed by

explosions in order to set the structural instability. This demolition
process can be done by the reducing the total number of supports to (n-1),
where n is the required number to guarantee the stability as figure shown
below.
Figure: Vertical collapse method
 Side collapse method
• indicated in the figure below, the method gradually removes some
structural elements in order to deny the dead load transfer to the basement
and to force the structure to bend towards the required direction. The
gravitational stage is when there are no more detonations and it is the
gravity alone that accelerates the mechanism movement.
• Demolition by Water Jetting
•BS 6187 (2000) defined high-pressure water jetting as “water jet stream pumped at
high pressure to erode the cement matrix and wash out the aggregates including
those using additives and abrasives where there is energy input to increase the
pressure of water and for cutting of reinforcing steel”. For example, a high-
pressure water jet about 250-300 MPa from a nozzle about 0.3-0.5 mm in diameter
can cut through plain concrete by abrasion.

•Water jetting is executed by hand held equipment's and imposes several

disadvantages such as it cannot be preset to a certain depth, difficult to work with
and requires frequent pause or two operators taking turns to avoid risk of
accidents‟ due to fatigue. It also generates a lot of water. On the other hand, the
benefits of water jetting are, it reduces the production dust and fire hazards.
•
• Combined Classification of Methods and Techniques

•This classification is according to Hurley and Hobbs (2000) the method of demolition
classify in to three categories based on their modernity of the methods and techniques
which are discussed under section 2.5.2 and 2.5.3 above. These are;
1. Traditional
2. Explosion and
3. Newer methods

•This classification differs from the above mentioned by Australian standard code of
practice for demolition, Hurley and Hobbs (2000) provides specific tools and equipment
required, the type of building the method is suitable for, and the procedure that the
method entails. On the other hand provides a commentary on the methods and includes
the advantages and disadvantages, just as each building to be demolished has its
own characteristics, and these must be considered carefully before any decision is
made on the method that would be most suitable for a particular case.
• The frequency of application of a demolition method is a result of the
evaluation from the suitability, performance, and nuisance. In many cases it is
likely that the demolition, which eventually takes place, is a combination of
methods, which achieve the overall aim of the project.
Traditional Methods
• Demolition by hand
• Tools or Equipment required for this type of demolition are, Portable tools
including: crowbars or mattocks, pneumatics drills and power saws. It is
suitable for reserved mainly for high and inaccessible areas, or architectural
salvage. Demolition proceed in a top-down fashion, floors in buildings are
removed prior to demolition to prevent premature collapse due to weight of
debris collection. This method is an oldest method, labour intensive and slow
and expensive if labour costs are high, debris is easily segregated for salvage
purposes, possible safety implications of working at height.
• Pulling
• Wire rope vehicle to provide pulling power used as equipment and
for brick or masonry structures suitably applied. The procedures to apply
pulling, remove all stabilizing elements example, pipework, beams and
lintels detach from adjacent buildings, set rope around section of
brickwork and drag to collapse. drawbacks of this method is causes dust
nuisance, time consuming if uncontrolled, collapse occurs due to
destabilized for a period before demolition bad safety implications.
• Impact
• Demolition ball between 0.5 and 2.0 ton suspended form a crawler, Crane
Pusher arm (extended arm and steel pad fitted to tracked vehicle) and
applied for fairly large, brick, masonry, concrete or reinforced concrete
structure. The preparation or procedure used for impacts are remove floors
as per hand buildings more than 30m high should be reduced by hand
before using ball, then detach from adjacent, finally arm is positioned at
top of wall and forward motion applied to the structures. It is widely used
in European countries produces noise, vibration, dust and can be set to
drop weight vertically onto floors and foundations. It is Popular in
late1970s, more controllable and versatile for demolition using ball in
restricted areas in terms of height of wall to be demolished.
• Percussion
• Tools used for percussion; hammer, hydraulic or pneumatic, hand held or
vehicle mounted hydraulic breaker. This is applied for concrete,
brickwork/masonry for capable of partial demolition.it Involves repeated
impact Jaw-like attachments break concrete by holding and crushing into
sections. Pneumatic hammer is smaller and lighter, but noisier than hydraulic
both produce persistent noise, produces small size materials, no need for
secondary crushing before use as recycled aggregate for reasonable cost.
• Demolition Using Explosives
• Borehole charges and lay-on charges
• Both method of demolition applied for concrete, brickwork and masonry, not
suitable for narrow members. Borehole charges place in pre-drilled holes and lay
on charges placed in contact with structure and contained with sandbags or clay.

• Concussion charges
• Applied for enclosed structures example tanks/ reservoirs or containers, and it
prepared with bulk charge placed within structure. Borehole, lay-on and
concussion charges create shock waves from powerful explosives can be
transmitted over great distances by some ground conditions such as clay and by
airwaves. Risk of flying debris produces medium sized materials that may
require further crushing before use as recycled aggregates.
• Newer Methods
• There are various methods under newer method of demolition, like expansion/
bursting (static and dynamic), abrasive, heating, cryogenic and bending.
• Expansion/ bursting (static and dynamic)
• The equipment's or tools used for this method are buster with wedges and
chemical expansive agent for dynamic bursting. Buster with wedges and
chemical expansive agent applied for concrete or masonry but chemical
expansive agent cannot be used for narrow structural members, reinforced
concrete or prestressed concrete. Mechanical wedges forced into pre- drilled
holes and expanded by hydraulic pressure and chemical expansive agents applied
by Injection of un slaked lime composite mixed with water into predrilled
hole, hydration of mixture causes expansion which splits surrounding material.
This method of demolition is create noise and dust at drilling stage, otherwise
nuisance free, slow, good for working in close proximity to other buildings.
• Abrasive
• Tools used for abrasive demolition; hammer drill, hand operated, or vehicle
mounted applied for general application and diamond boring machine
(drilling concrete), diamond disc cutter (capable of cutting R.C..), diamond
wire saw(cuts around circumference of concrete sections) and high-pressure
water jet(can be used to cut cement grout to release components).

• Hammer drill, hand operated, or vehicle mounted tools Reduces concrete to

dust using rapidly rotating and hammering bit. Vehicle mounted hammer drill
used for the destruction of mass concrete. Diamond boring machine is quite
slow and expensive, Diamond disc cutter and Diamond wire saw creates noisy,
but produces little dust or vibration. High-pressure water jet used 250-300 Mpa
water jet forced through small nozzle can cut plain concrete. Addition of
particles of steel allows it to cut through reinforced concrete.
• Heating
• Thermic lance (metal tube, approx. 3m long containing aluminum alloy
or iron alloy rods fuel oil flame used as a tool and applied for reinforced
concrete. Tip of lance heated to 1000oc oxygen fed to tip produces flame
2500oc, can melt reinforcing rods and concrete, combustion of mixture of
kerosene and oxygen gas produces flame to melt concrete. The draw a
back of this method is cutting of some materials can cause toxic fumes.

• Another tool of heating is, heating and peeling using electrical conductors
which is also used for reinforced concrete. Drill holes to reveal rebar‟s,
attach electrical conductors to induce current through the rebar‟s, causes
heating which dries out surrounding concrete so it peels. Little noise or
dust after drilling stage. This could use microwaves to dry out concrete
and omits use of drilling but it is expensive.
• Bending
•Jack-up is used to demolish reinforced concrete horizontal members. Application of point
force upwards against floor slab induces bending and shearing forces into slab designed
for down loading only. This method is developed in japan and rarely used.

•To conclude, the first types of demolitions discussed by BS 6187 (2000) are only for
structural demolitions and did not include non –structural demolitions. Next the Austrian
code of practice has been classified the methods in to three including of both structural
and non-structural demolitions. To achieve the execution both demolitions (structural and
non-structural) in literature clearly indicates that, the demolition technique employed in
to five main categories.

•Literature have been classified all the methods and techniques in to three based on their
modernity as well as provide specific tools and equipment required with available area of
application with their merits and demerits. Therefore this research study feeds from all
overviews and finally changed in to local context at the discussion and analysis part as
appropriately.
SELECTION OF DEMOLITION TECHNIQUES
•There are various demolition techniques available to the demolition contractor from
complex technique to the simplest once. Before selecting any type of demolition
technique, the demolition contractor needs to consider a set of criteria and assess their
relevance to the demolition work to be undertaken, in order to attain the most
appropriate demolition technique.

•The review of the available demolition techniques, it is important to explore a number

of considerations or criteria's that need to be taken into account as follow. There are six
main criteria and several sub-criteria that affect the choice of demolition techniques. The
main criteria are:
• Structural characteristics
• Site conditions
• Demolition cost
• Past experience
• Time
• Reuse and recycling.
• In addition, research done by Kasai's cited eight criteria which affect the
choice of demolition techniques
• Structural form of the building,
• Scale of construction
• Location of the building
• Permitted level of nuisance
• Scope of demolition
• Use of building
• Safety and period of demolition.
Criteria For Selection Of Demolition Techniques
• Client specification;
• Location and accessibility;
• Shape and size of the structure;
• Stability of the structure;
• Presence of hazardous material;
• Time constraints;
• Degree of confinement;
• Transportation consideration;
• Extent of demolition;
• Structural engineers’ approval;
• Financial constraint;
• Recycling considerations;
• Environmental considerations; and
• Health and safety.
• The selection of demolition techniques are also depends on a number of
other factors such as client specification, presence of hazardous material,
extent of demolition, financial constraints, environmental and recycling
consideration etc. When buildings are demolished, large quantities of waste
may be produced in a relatively short period of time, depending on the
demolition technique used.

• The demolition project duration can vary depending on the technique used
implode a structure with explosives, use a crane and wrecking ball
technique, or deconstruct the structure. The report added that, there are
thirteen criteria that may affect the selection of demolition techniques.
However, they did not mention the scale of significance on demolition
projects. The criteria listed by the researchers have been summarized
and discussed as follows:
• Client specification: The demolition contractor, before embarking on
any type of demolition technique, needs to be aware of the restrictions
imposed by the client such as on the type of demolition technique that
should not be used in a particular project;

• Location, accessibility, shape and size of the structure: The

location, accessibility, shape and size of a structure are important factors,
which can have an effect on the selection of demolition techniques on a
demolition project. For example, a high-rise demolition project located at
the center of a busy town center will require different demolition
techniques to a demolition project located on a remote site. Hence, a high
rise building has different demolition techniques compared to a single
storey building;
• Stability of the Structure: The stability of a structure is an important
factor, which needs great consideration before selecting a demolition
technique. For example, if a structure were highly unstable, then the
demolition contractor would be expected to select a technique, which does not
require site personnel operating within the structure. If the unstable structure
is located on a confined site, the demolition contractor needs to stabilize the
structure by providing appropriate temporary supports before selecting a
particular demolition technique;

• Presence of hazardous materials: In the presence of hazardous

materials, the contractor would be expected to assess the full extent of the risk
that is involved with the work. The demolition contractor then needs to select
safe demolition techniques to carry out the demolition work based on the
presence of hazardous materials;
• Time constraint: A time limit is usually imposed on demolition projects just as
in a construction project. However, demolition projects are generally required to be
carried out as quickly as possible by the client who may want to develop the land as
soon as the demolition work is complete. Where the time imposed on a demolition
project is short and the client is willing to pay for a quick demolition, the contractor is
expected to select demolition techniques with little regard for cost;

• Degree of confinement: The degree of confinement of a demolition site refers

to the number of existing features in close proximity of the structure. Therefore, it is
essential for the demolition contractor to survey the site and assess the confinement of
the structure before selecting demolition techniques. For example, city center
demolition works can be so confined that the demolition contractor is left with the
option of deconstructing the structure, which is a slow, expensive option but a safe and
more controlled demolition technique;
• Transportation consideration: The demolition contractor, unless he
plans to use debris as infill material, should consider the transportation of the
debris pile from site, before selecting a demolition technique. This criterion
has to be considered because it may result in increased of costs;

• Extent of demolition: The extent of demolition of a structure may

influence the selection of demolition techniques. For example, in partial
demolition, the contractor must not only worry about the demolition work but
must also consider the effect of the selected demolition techniques on the rest
of the structure that is to be retained. Therefore, the contractor is expected to
select appropriate techniques to demolish the building while at the same time
needing to retain parts of the structure unlike in total demolition of structures;
• Structural engineer approval: Due to increasing complexity of construction
techniques and structural forms, it is no longer easy for the demolition contractor to
readily assess the likely collapse mechanisms of structures. Therefore, the structural
engineer is actively involved in the demolition process of sophisticated structures
and directly influences the contractor's choice of demolition techniques;

• Financial constraints: The demolition contractor is expected to select a safe and

financially feasible demolition technique. However, the demolition contractor
should not, under any circumstance, compromise on safety while selecting a
demolition technique despite the financial constraint that may be imposed on the
demolition of a structure. Therefore, it is important that the demolition contractor
considers the financial implications of the demolition techniques selected for a
particular demolition work;
• Recycling consideration: Recycling of demolition materials is an important aspect
of demolition projects that the contractor needs to consider when selecting demolition
techniques. The more selective the demolition techniques that are used on a demolition
project, the higher the value of the materials to be recycled. However, the use of more
selective demolition techniques generally would mean a higher cost and more
time to carry out the work. Therefore balances need to be struck between the agreed
cost and time of the demolition work and the degree of selectivity of the demolition
techniques that are to be used by the demolition contractor;

• Environmental considerations: Several environmental restrictions are imposed on

demolition projects by local environmental authorities and by environmentally
conscious clients. Therefore, the demolition contractor is expected to work closely with
the local environmental services to fully assess the environmental risks before selecting
demolition techniques; and
• Health and Safety: The site personnel and the public are key issues, which
cannot be compromised by the demolition contractor when selecting a
demolition technique. The responsibility for safety lies on both the contractor
and the client. The demolition techniques selected by the contractor should not
at any time pose any threat to the health and safety of site personnel and the
general public.
• Another method of selecting demolition technique is also developed is
„Analytical Hierarchy Processes (AHP)‟. This method uses a multi-level
hierarchical structure of goals, criteria, sub criteria, and alternatives to
demolish structures using progressive, deliberate collapse mechanism and
deconstruction.

• A hierarchy is a tree-like structure that is used to decompose a decision

problem. It has a top-down flow, moving from general categories (criteria
related to structural characteristics, site conditions, cost, past experience, reuse
and recycling as well as time) to more specific ones (sub-criteria‟s such as
stability, health and safety, manpower, availability of plant and equipment,
level of reuse and recycling as well as actual demolition), and finally to the
alternatives, Figure below shows the hierarchal structures to select the most
appropriate demolition techniques.
Figure: Hierarchal structures for the selection of demolition techniques (Mahdi, 2002)
Demolition waste management and environmental issues
Waste Management
•Demolition is often considered to be a waste generating activity and results from
demolishing of built structures like buildings, roads and bridges for renovation, removal
or renewal. Most demolition wastes are classified as solid wastes. They are usually
categorized according to their composition, potential to harm the environment and their
disposal procedures. So Solid Waste Management (SWM) is associated with the
management of generation, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal of
solid waste using the best principle and practices of public health, economics, engineering,
conservation, aesthetics and other environmental conditions.

•Most developing countries do not have the technical and financial resources to
manage demolition wastes safely. This means that storage at the point of waste debris
generation is often inadequate and collection services are inefficient and insufficient. With
the sharp development of construction and increase of people‟s awareness concerning to
environmental protection, demolition waste debris control and management becomes one of
the great challenges of modern society for the mission of sustainable development.
Demolition debris is excess material produced during demolition of buildings and structures.
This debris is made up of materials such as asphalt, brick, concrete, masonry, lumber,
shingles, roofing materials, glass, plastics, aluminum, steel, architectural elements, drywall,
insulation, wiring, plumbing and electrical fixtures, vinyl and aluminum siding, corrugated
cardboard, soil, rocks, tree stumps and other landscaping. Demolition waste including of
demolished concrete, bricks, and masonry, limestone, ceramic and other materials are the
major constituent portions of a total solid waste or debris.

Table: Typical components of demolition debris material

• Demolition waste can be reused, recycled or returned to nature as compost
materials. The underlying goal of demolition waste management is to minimize or
eliminate the discharge of such rubble or debris into storm drain systems or water-
courses as it increases alkalinity levels in both land and water bodies. Demolition
rubble can be cored and ground into fine material, which can be used in the building
industry, whilst slurry can be disposed of in accordance with the Solid Waste
Management Standards and Specifications.
•
• Brick and concrete wastes can be used for on-site or offsite construction projects as
well as Wood waste can be used as covering in composting operations, landfill
covers and as an industrial fuel source. However, in developing countries as
demonstrated by Operation Restore Order in Zimbabwe, demolition waste disposal
options are often limited by structural, economic and logistical constraints. It is not
given special attention, unsystematic reuse and recycling is predominant. It is not
recycled with a high efficiency even though significant amount of demolition wastes
than construction wastes.
• Usually it is very difficult to gain data on the amount of generated
demolition wastes in developing countries. However, as tried by GTZ, for
example in Thailand particularly Bangkok in 2005, the average
generation rates of demolition waste were 984.66 kg/m² (residential
demolition) and 1,803.94 kg/m² (non-residential demolition) which is much more
relevant than waste from construction (56.23 kg/m² residential and 30.47
kg/m² non-residential). The report is also added about the main causes for the
demolition waste management problems in developing countries in general as
listed in the table below:
• Table: Demolition waste management problems in developing countries
•In developed countries like Germany, Netherlands, Britain, United States of America and
Australia stakeholders are familiarized with the importance of proper segregation of materials
to keep disposal costs at a minimum, partly because of the fact that the most potentially
harmful materials attract the highest disposal costs. If materials are mixed, the whole
consignment should deal with respect to the most harmful material and may be treated as
special wastes. Such countries especially in Europe is applied the waste management licensing
system implemented under the waste management licensing regulation with conditions
imposed by the Environmental Protection Act.

•As the Environmental Protection Act (EPA, 2000) states, it is illegal to treat, keep or dispose
of controlled waste without a waste management license. Those who produce, import, carry,
keep, treat or dispose of demolition wastes must take all reasonable measures to ensure that is
managed properly and recovered or disposed of safely. This clearly stresses that waste
management must take its duties and responsibilities seriously. The point is particularly
relevant at the demolition site since the nature of the waste may be difficult to identify.
Therefore to control the practice figure below illustrates the overall process of demolition
waste management framework.
Figure: Demolition waste management framework
•In implementing a sound waste management practice, there are several key areas
which can be actively addressed to ensure legislation compliance and to promote good
environmental practice. These areas are appointment and auditing of waste carriers and
disposal contractors, traffic management, storage and sorting of wastes, salvaging and
recycling as well as dealing with asbestos and other known hazardous materials. After
successful demolition Operations, considerations must be given to undertake a post-
demolition survey to establish the actual levels and areas of any residual contamination,
to act as a basis for future action and development and to ensure there has been no
unintentional cross-contamination of otherwise clean ground.

•Many environmental agencies appreciate the common problems faced by the

demolition industry with regard to waste management and effortlessly endeavor to
assist demolition organizations by providing information and guidance. However,
persons or companies that are ignorant and show disregard inadequately managing
wastes are normally prosecuted.
•This is partly due to the ever expanding and stringent policies outlined to counter and
control wastes as well as pollution. To support and implement the waste management,
both reuse and recycling are essential parts of the process. Reuse the main components
of residential and commercial structures appear to be making continuous progress.
•The benefits of reusing of waste streams from building demolition reduced depletion of
natural resources. This clearly signifies reclaiming or recovering materials on
demolition projects and using these products in the construction of new buildings have
less environmental impact than using recycled materials, as the energy used to
manufacture. However, due to the tight timescale given to the demolition contractors to
demolish a building, there is limited time to recover items that do not have high value.
•Moreover, the health and safety requirements placed on demolition contractors hinder
them in recovering lower value items for reuse.
•As the demolition process is highly mechanized and difficult to remove partly by
workforce, it results risk of injuries, such as falls and cuts. So demolition contractors do
not invest time into cleaning up demolition materials and components as this would
result in workers being put in closer proximity to the demolition work areas.

•As a second option next to reuse by the same researcher added that, recycling from
demolition projects can result in considerable saving, since it saves the costs of
transporting to the land fill and eliminate the cost for disposal. Land fill costs for
demolition and land clearing debris continue to rise and become more heavily regulated,
it makes more economic sense to seek alternative means of disposal from these
operations. Recycling gets strong support from contractor and subcontractor work
crews. This means that they give extra effort to make recycling work, and
enhances the overall tone on the work site, which makes the work go smoother and
quicker. It also creates employment and economic activity that help sustain local
economies.
•It produces usable materials at much less environmental cost from primary sources and
conserves energy, water, as well as reduces the production of greenhouse emissions and
other pollutants. On and off job site, recycling is one of the most significant
commitments that can be made to sustainable building demolition.

•Since the mid-1990s, the word recycling with in the industry has been more of
fashion word in the sense that there has been a lot spoken about it, but very little has
been done. However, there are a number of countries particularly in Europe such as
Netherlands, Germany, Australia and Denmark which are great examples that illustrate
how the recycling of demolition materials has been both profitable and important to the
environment. These European countries understand and take the matter of recycling
demolition debris or wastes seriously. Despite the abundance of natural resource, they
continue to use recycled bricks, concrete, asphalt and other similar materials in new
construction projects. This because the government, environmental organizations and
manufacturers of recycling plant have a developed a successful cooperation which
benefits both the environment as well as professional recycling contractors.
•It also added that a well-functioning recycling sector increase the potential for
developing even more effective recycling technology. In general, the increased
environmental focus and recognition of the cost effective of recycling has seen it
become a major considerations and a big business. Recycling can also form parts of a
certain company‟s long term diversification strategy in the sense that apart from
demolition being one of its core activities. Its source of income can be supplemented
from recycling. Developments for the future of recycling will most probably focus on
the machinery used in terms of incorporating new technology to improve efficiency,
reduce noise emissions, at the time increasingly focusing on environmental
considerations.
• Demolition and Environment Issues
• Demolition operations are often at the highest concerns of environmental
issues. These issues are usually associated with water, dust, noise pollutions
as well as vibration. It also involves the demolition wastes generated from
the demolition of buildings‟ and structures. From an environmental
perspective, it would be useful to quantify the reduction in environmental
impact from diverting wastes from action sites and landfills.

• The demolition waste effects and its management with respect to

environment. This section therefore, focuses on the remaining environmental
matters such as noise, dust, vibration and the contribution of deconstruction
on minimizing negative effects on the surrounding environment.
• The main emphasis here is tackling environmental problems by proper
monitoring and controlling work procedures of the above subject matters
and must compliant each other, otherwise the total effort will be pointless.

• Controlling the considered nuisance factors associated with almost all

demolition is an important aspect of building demolition (AIA, 2006; Port-
Louis,2012,). The demolitions of buildings have the potential impact on
the residents and the local environment in terms of the following factors:
• Dust
•Dust is one of the most frequent problems caused by any demolition project. New
technology has made it possible for equipment to control dust more effectively, preventing
it from becoming a nuisance to neighbors and workers. Dust emissions can also be reduced
by modifying demolition methods. The site of works shall be fenced and screened to
protect site from strong winds and winds contain dust. Large volumes of dust which in
windy, busy or densely populated areas can dangerous to vehicular traffic and a nuisance
as well as health hazard to the general public. The most common form of dust formation is
attributed by the usage of equipment such as hydraulic breakers and processors as well as
other demolition techniques, such as balling and wire rope pulling.

•The movement of heavy vehicles such as excavators and dump tracks within the site also
contributes to a large percentage production of dust. Dust from such sources are normally
controlled by conducting continuous dust suppression spray along the vehicles‟ routes on
affected structural elements and on debris heaps during the demolition works as well as
providing dust screens attached to scaffolding.
• Noise
•Noise pollution from the demolition works arises due the use of powered mechanical
equipment such as pneumatic breakers, excavators and generators, loading and
transportation of debris, etc. affects the workers, and the sensitive receivers in the vicinity
of the demolition site. Noise levels on any demolition project can be mitigated by using
properly equipped sound suppression devices on heavy equipment or silent type
equipment and by scheduling noisy work activities to avoid, or at least reduce, noise levels
during evening hours or special events.

•Demolition activity shall not be performed within the restricted hours established and the
average level of exposure allowed during eight hours per day is 60 decibel (DB). On the
other hand, noises can control through constructing noise barriers such as wall or piles
between noisy activities and noisy sensitive receivers and constructing walled
enclosures around noisy activities, or clusters of noisy equipment. Avoid night time
activities because sensitivity to noise increases during the night time hours especially in
residential neighborhoods.
• Vibration
•Vibration from demolition activities can be annoying to neighboring buildings or
structures to various extents, depending on the method of demolition. Vibration and
vibration related problems should be controlled by suitable monitoring through work
methods and scheduling. Vibration is most seriously caused by implosion or collapse.
Similar to noise control approach, Hanson et al. (2006) states the mitigation of vibration
from demolition requires design consideration, projects layout, sequence of operations as
well as alternative demolition methods.

•Considering the route of heavily loaded trucks away from residential streets, if possible
and operate earthmoving demolition equipment‟s on the demolition lots as far away
from vibration- sensitive sites as much as possible. On the other hand demolition by
explosives caused a huge vibration due to the energy released that is totally hazardous to
public and other structures nearby. Therefore, special design considerations must be
given when conducting demolition by explosives for below ground structures such as
foundations or totally excluded from the alternative demolition methods.
•Sequence of operations is also important to consider during the demolition phases to
execute the work in order. For example earthmoving and ground-impacting operations
should not occur in the same time and avoid nighttime activities. Compare and contrast
alternative demolition methods for Select demolition techniques to mitigate vibrations.
For example, sawing building structural columns into sections that can be loaded onto
• trucks results in lower vibration levels than impact demolition by pavement breakers.

•Generally the effect of demolition dusts, noises and vibrations can cause undesirable
consequences up on the air quality, water quality as well as human environment.
Therefore demolition parties or stakeholders should concern with these significance
issues or consequences and make sure to mitigate each other through the whole
demolition process. However, this is not to mean that, they are totally different with
above factors but to support for further accomplishment.
• Air Quality
•Demolition activities could create adverse effect on the local air quality of the site
and its surroundings. A whole range of demolition and site clearance activities
may generate dust which may constitute a nuisance for local people. Concrete
breaking, handling of debris and hauling process from haul trucks, heavy
demolition machinery are main sources of dust to the surrounding environment.

•Dust mitigation measures, such as water spray, shall be adopted to minimize dust
emissions. Burning of waste shall not be allowed. Diesel fumes generated by
mechanical plant or equipment shall be controlled.
• Water Quality
•Surface water hydrology can be affected during demolition through the generation of
fine materials eroded as a result of clearing surfaces and exposing soils to rainwater
and drainage water. Demolition activities may have significant impacts on groundwater
hydrology and quality. The most likely hazard is from underground storage tanks and
pipelines which contain toxic or hazardous materials. Invariably, residual or even very
large quantities of these materials may remain when a site is abandoned. Groundwater
contamination often occurs when such storage tanks are punctured or when pipelines
are damaged during demolition and ground clearance activities.

•Therefore to mitigate the discharge of waste water from demolition sites shall be
controlled by a license. Effluent or waste sewerage shall be treated to the standards as
stipulated in the licenses before discharge. The Demolition Contractor shall maintain
proper control of temporary water supply and an effective temporary drainage system.
• Human Environment
• The potential impacts of operations on the human environment may take a
variety of forms. They are divided here into sections covering socioeconomic
and health issues; amenity, visual impact, nuisance issues, culture, heritage
and archaeology. The potential for socio-economic and perceived health
impacts arising from demolition works will be site specific.

• Health impacts are likely to arise when hazardous materials on site are
released into the environment, generally as dust. The site itself may have
constituted a hazard, especially to children, as a result of dangerous structures
or features on site. Nuisance and hazard may be associated with the heavy
trucks removing recovered materials and demolition waste off-site.
• To conclude for all the above factors, according to environmental impact
assessment for demolition projects, demolition activities have the potential to
affect the environment in many ways. They can differ widely in terms of their
mode of operation and location, and key issues are likely to vary from site to
site.
• Therefore, it is recommended that expert advice on detailed technical issues
should be obtained. The chief result amongst these factors that need an expert
advice is potential hazard to workers or local residents and the environment
directly and indirectly.
• Deconstruction and Environment
•Deconstruction is the process of systematically dismantling a structure in an
environmentally, economically and socially responsible manner, aiming to maximize
the recovery of materials for reuse and recycling. The process is also sometimes referred
to as „soft demolition‟ which refers to the manual method used to recover materials, as
opposed to „regular demolition‟ which involves mechanically bulldozing a structure,
often using heavy machinery.

•Environmentally, deconstruction reduces demolition waste, reduces air pollution,

reduces carbon dioxide emissions, decreases the need for new landfills and incinerators,
preserves resources and saves energy by decreasing the extraction and processing of raw
materials, and supports sustainable building practices. While selective demolition and
deconstruction are often undertaken to increase the quantity of materials available for
resale, the ability of these procedures to reduce landfilled demolition waste is beginning
to be appreciated.
•The economic competitiveness of selective demolition or full deconstruction in
comparison to traditional demolition is dependent on local labour costs, waste
disposal costs and the productivity of the labour force employed. Higher waste disposal
costs for example, or increased worker efficiency can play a large role in the
profitability of deconstruction. The local value of used building materials will also
impact the cost effectiveness of deconstruction activities. Therefore, to evaluate the cost-
benefit analysis, developed countries like Unites States and United Kingdom use best
practice to implement building demolition and resource recovery which is compatible
with the environment. This is according to institute of civil engineers protocol;
demolition takes through pre-demolition audit, demolition site layout plan and evidence
of material recovery.
•Activities that executed in the pre-demolition audit are desk study for examining
building plans, drawings, and investigation year of construction valuable to determine
potential contamination, quality assessment of materials by experienced contractor who
knows market values and finally completion of bill of quantities (BOQ).
•Under the demolition site layout plan, assessment has been done to make sure space
requirements for segregated demolition materials and use of reprocessed demolition
material onsite. Finally, it is required to establish recovery target and material transfer
notes for the evidence of material recovery from the overall demolition
• structure.

•In general the demolition protocol emphasizes for the potential of recovering
materials from the building in terms of cost benefit associated with land fill,
reclamation and recycling of materials. It is also preferred to material separation
and resulted in assessment of sites to manage segregated materials as well as it
strives to maximize the potential of material for reuse priority and secondly for
recycling.
• DEMOLITION PROJECT STAKEHOLDERS
• Stakeholders are individuals, groups or organizations, institutions and others
that are actively involved in a project and whose interests may be positively or
negatively affected by the project execution. They may also exert influence
over the project and its results.

• To ensure and accomplish the demolition practice safely, knowledge, skill and
experiences are very important for the existence of awareness among the
various stakeholders. This awareness of stakeholders includes considerations to
environment, public, workers safety and others such as cost, time, and client
goals.

• The involvement of stakeholders in the demolition process comprises close

collaboration and interaction between clients, contractors, engineers‟
regulatory agencies and subcontractors.
• Most of these demolition parties are acquired their knowledge and skill from
job training in the demolition sector either as owners of the demolition
firm or as construction field superintendents. Some others also acquired
from experience, as a construction engineers and from university however in
working to add specialization in demolition.

• On the other hand contracting firms like national demolition contractors

association and independent consultants provide assistance for the proper
demolition planning and specifications.
• Clients
• The client, as in the construction industry, is the single most important person on a
demolition project and defines the extent of work through ensuring the principal
contractor has all available descriptions of the building or structure to be demolished.
This includes drawings, site surveys, plans of services and information on the nature
and location of hazardous materials, the nature of building materials and the building
or structure's relationship to surrounding properties.

• It is also informs the location and condition of all underground tanks, wells, voids
and structures to the contractor. Because, the client select contractors that agree with
the objectives, specified constraints, risk assessment, plant the work, communicate
and monitor the plan .

• On the other hand clients impose restrictions on the selection of demolition

technique that has to be used in the demolition projects. This means the contractor
embarking on any type of demolition technique needs to be aware of the restrictions
imposed by the client.
• Clients play a key role in setting the most appropriate health and safety management
strategies. When the Client is involved in the health and safety management of the
work he/she is procuring, and when high health and safety standards are demanded, the
site is safely managed. In addition the engagement of client is crucial in setting and
achieving high standards of health and safety management strategies through: an
overall supervision of contracts setting, Set up time and budgets for demolition
projects, Set up time to allow preliminary structural investigations to be carried out and
pre-qualify and select designers, contractors and specialist demolition subcontractors.

• Beyond, the selection of contractors, role in setting health and safety management,
clients have the highest influence in requiring the demolition contractor to implement
the highest level of material segregation on site. The clients‟ requirement on resource
efficiency can be written in the tender documentation in the form of sub-contractor
clauses for fully aware of the importance of the demolition stage of a project.
• Materials for reuse and separate materials for higher value recycling serves as
a performance target against which the demolition contractor can be assessed.
Therefore, pre-demolition audit is a useful means for the client to understand
the value of the demolition materials and set targets on the demolition
contractor.

• From an environmental perspective, it would be useful to quantify the

reduction in environmental impact from diverting this waste from landfills.
This could be included within pre-demolition audit and Site Waste
Management Plans.
• Planning Supervisor
• As HSE (2004) states a planning supervisor develops the client's health
and safety plan or pre- tender demolition safety plan that indicates health
and safety requirements to be satisfied by contractors while working on
site. He /she ensures co-operation between designers in order to verify the
inclusion of health and safety considerations in design development. Give
adequate advices to Client and contractors in order to make them
comply with health and safety legislation, such as methods used for risk
assessment, identification of safety measures and personal protection
equipment as well as work activity schedules to ensure safety on site.
• Designers
• The designers should ensure that the Client understands the need for an
accurate survey and investigative of the demolition work. Clients
therefore, appoint professionals who will conduct and undertake such
surveys, within a reasonable time before the actual works commences. Before
undertaking any design activity a designer has to take reasonable steps to
ensure that the Client for that project is aware of the duties to which the
Client is subjected.

• Furthermore, designers have to develop design activities to achieve adequate

health and safety considerations through avoiding predictable risks, combat
risks at source, priority given measures that will protect any person at work or
any person who may be affected by site works.
• Adequate information prior to work commences about any aspect of the
project demolition, structure or materials that may affect the health and
safety of any person carrying out works on site or of any person who may be
affected by site works have to ensure by designers.
• To do all this responsibilities, designers co-operate with the planning
supervisor or any other designer who is preparing any other relevant design
in connection with the same project or structure to enable them to comply
with the requirements and prohibitions placed on, in relation to the project
by or under the relevant statutory provisions.
• Structural Engineers
• Structural engineers are actively involved in the demolition process of sophisticated
structures and directly influence the demolition contractor's choice of demolition
technique to be implemented on such demolition projects. Generally, the structural
engineer will take on board the demolition contractor's working method and then identify
those aspects of any temporary works design that are sensitive to the proposed demolition
technique or sequence so that the necessary temporary supports can be evaluated and
designed.

• The structural engineer also assesses the behavior of a structure during collapse, which is
essential to the demolition contractor especially when making decisions on measures to
protect adjacent properties. The structural engineer is expected to know the requirements
and methods available to the demolition engineer so that together they can ensure the safe
and efficient demolition of the structure. Moreover, they are also in charge of the
supervision and control of demolition activities on site and required to update design
documents if any differences from project information should show up on site.
• Principal Contractor
• „Principal contractor‟ means the person who is responsible for the management and
control of the site where demolition work is being carried out. The principal contractor
may also be the demolition contractor. Principal contractor ensures, the demolition
contractor has all available descriptions of the building or structure to be demolished,
including drawings, site surveys, plans of services and information on the nature and
location of hazardous materials, the nature of building materials and the building or
structure's relationship to surrounding properties. He/she approves all relevant
authorities and utility service providers are notified before work commences. Notify
the owners of adjoining properties of the proposed demolition work where appropriate,
ensure buildings are inspected and any existing defects recorded. It is also verify that
the location and condition of all utility services and underground tanks to ensure that
any chemicals, volatile fuels and gases contained in them are completely removed and
the workplace is secured.
• Principal contractors also have an influence on ensuring that demolition
contractors improve resource efficiency on site by ensuring that the waste
targets set by the client are met by the demolition contractors and demolition
information is inputted into the site waste management plan( SWMP). The
SWMP is essential for contractors to monitor by principal contractors
through type and amount of waste being generated, Waste management
routes as well as diversion from landfill target.
• Demolition Contractors
• „Demolition contractor‟ means, in relation to any demolition work, the person who
directly carries out that work and who is licensed to carry out such specialist building
work under the Building Act‟s 1972. The demolition contractor is required to be a
competent contractor or sub-contractor who is in charge of the execution of demolition
works. He/she has to provide selected and qualified workforce and equipment after
assessing the quality of the structures to be demolished and the surrounding
environment. The principal contractor provides for the demolition contractor, all the
information available from the Client organization including structural design
documents and results from site surveys and inspections. Then, the demolition
contractor is strongly suggested to carry out further investigations on the demolition
that may have been omitted or left aside. Any unexpected finding needs to be reported
to the Client and to the design team to allow relevant modifications to be brought to the
project before demolition works start.
• The demolition contractor produces a specific risk assessment for the demolition
activities and develops method statements to be handed to the principal contractor. The
principal contractor will revise them, in co-operation with the Planning Supervisor, and
include them in the health and safety plan. The approved method statements have to be
communicated to the workers including health and safety instructions and procedures.

• The responsibility for safety lies both on the contractor and the client, but the
contractor is responsible for managing the health and safety risks on site. In general,
the demolition technique selected should not at any time pose any threat to the health
and safety of site personnel and members of the public. Therefore, before selecting any
type of demolition technique, the demolition contractor needs to consider a set of
criteria and assess their relevance to the demolition work to be undertaken, in order to
succeed at the most appropriate demolition technique. Contractors ensure workers are
consulted and provided with all the information, instructions, training and supervision
they need to perform their work safely based on the chosen technique as well as with
providing appropriate amenities for workers.
•
• On the other hand contractors also concerned with reuse and recycling of
building waste wherever possible and the disposal of all other refuse and debris which
is compatible with the environment. Traditionally, much of the demolition contractors‟
income was from the sale of salvaged and recycled materials. Today income is mostly
generated from the contract fee demolishing as quickly and as safely as possible.
Nevertheless, substantial amounts of materials and components are recovered or
reclaimed but not used to its fullest potential.

• Finally, in qualify contractors to take all the above mentioned responsibilities, both
private and public clients frequently use a prequalification process to select a contractor
for demolition work. If the demolition consultant is part of the project team, it may
assist in this process by reviewing information provided by prospective contractor.
• The typical process in qualifying the contractor includes but not limited to; company‟s
experience on similar projects, experience of personnel designated for the project,
safety record, financial strength, insurance coverage and statement of approach. In
reviewing the qualifying criteria‟s and subsequent submittals, the architect and the
client have the opportunity to understand the contractor‟s approach for performing the
work safely and effectively. Carrying out this review before demolition starts makes it
possible to identify misunderstandings and potential problems when they can still be
corrected or otherwise addressed .
• Temporary Works Coordinator
• In demolition activities the temporary works coordinator supervises the design
activity developed by structural engineers appointed by the principal contractor or by
the demolition contractor. He/she will has to supervise the construction of temporary
works on site and control constantly any modification or instability that may occur
during demolition phases. When unexpected finding has been occurred such as modify
the knowledge of the structure to be demolished, the temporary works coordinator has
to be supervising the changes to the temporary works design and assess their
compliance with the new structural behavior of the structure itself.
• Workers
• Workers have a duty to take reasonable care for their own health and safety and that
they do not adversely affect the health and safety of other persons. Workers must
comply with any reasonable instruction and co-operate with any reasonable policy or
procedure relating to health and safety at the workplace. They carry out their work in
accordance with the demolition safety plan and using equipment in accordance with the
instruction and training provided.
• Consulting bodies
• Prior to carrying out the works, and at relevant stages throughout the works, the
following should be contacted, as appropriate, in order to discuss the effects of
the proposed demolition works or its progress and also the working spaces or
exclusion zones where they are planned to extend beyond the site boundary,
including\
• The overall demolition practice therefore, must account for local regulations regarding
required permits, disposal sites, recycling requirements, and so on. Whenever possible, a
demolition site is isolated from public access. Especially in downtown areas, public
protection is frequently afforded by covered pedestrian walkways and fabric-
covered scaffolding. For the accomplishment of this, Considerations are also given to
contacting other organizations, as appropriate, such as the regulatory policies,
Environment Agency as well as the Health and Safety Executives.

• Contractors, managers and supervisors consult with workers and consulting bodies
regarding the methods, how to manage wastes as well as health and safety
representatives working on the demolition project. The principal contractor is
responsible for ensuring for the existence adequate consultation between all parties at
the workplace. The regulations and procedures adopted should allow adequate time
for workers and their representatives to consider the implications of the information
provided and discuss issues with the demolition contractor before decisions are made on
matters affecting the whole practice..
• Furthermore, it could be added important considerations before winding up this
section to assess some experiences of countries on the demolition practice relating to
the responsibility of various stakeholders and their contribution to the methods
selection, ensuring health and safety as well as environments as provided below.
However, this emphasizes on demolition contractors most importantly participated.

• In Malaysia, demolition projects are primarily executed based on the consultants‟

advice as well as contractors‟ proposal. This shows that both parties are equally
important, where by the consultants technical input and contractors know how are very
much essential in ensuring the proper planning and executions. Contractors maintain
and ensure a safe working environment by keeping the site neat and tidy and free from
all hazards and debris as well as materials stocked up safely. The consulting engineer
also conducts a detailed building survey to determine the structural framing of the
building. Tests conducted through cores on the concrete structures to determine its
strength.
• On the other hand in Gaza Palestine, demolition decisions are usually made primarily
with consultants‟ advice followed by the contractors as well as based on the owners‟
desire. However, the overall demolition practice is performed through professionals
like contractors, sub- contractors, site engineers /supervisors, project engineers and
upper managements. Their emphasis are on reducing demolition risks and achieving
the health and safety, then as a second option to recover materials and waste
management to keep the environment safe (Nassar, 2014).
•
• Unlikely of developed countries like united kingdom and Australia, in Malaysia and
Gaza demolition workers are highly exposed to risks because of unsafe attitudes, not
wearing proper protective gear, and lake of experiences. Therefore, their effort on the
selection of methods and techniques are the need to improve the awareness of workers
in demolition sites and trained before work begins. Safety meetings held continuously
and the need for the safety engineer permanently in the site to make sure that all
workers commitment, the safety procedures at the work site, and conduct continuous
monitoring and enforcement in health and safety implementation.
• This is done to create a good relationship between all the levels in the project that can
minimize accidents and the need for increasing cooperation between the workers and
upper management.

• In United Kingdom, Contractors and other engineers are mostly focused on the
selection of most appropriate demolition technique for a specified project based on
their experience. The engineers‟ experience is very important to decide the demolition
technique and plan. In order to ensure the demolition works follow the plan and
precautions, monitoring and supervision are needed.

• However, the main emphases of stakeholders here in selecting the demolition methods
and techniques are for resource recovery through reclaim and recycling system.
Because of in such a country injuries and accidents are less occurred, especially
as compared to developing countries in Asia and Africa.

• In Egypt, like other countries in Far East, waste generating from demolition site is one
of the most irritating problems. Contractors emphasize on waste management and
particularly site supervision and environment.
• Contractors are collecting, segregating, sorting and then dumping the non-recyclable
waste in the nearest legal dumpsite. However, they are faced with problems related to
absence or inaccuracy of data such as quantities, cost and environmental impact. On the
other hand countries like Zimbabwe and Ivory Coast, demolitions were a part of a plan
to clear cities of unsafe buildings. Demolitions had been sub contracted to private
construction firms due to absence of professional demolition contractors. As a result
many accidents took place when workers demolition that had been condemned
as unsafe collapse.

• In general, this section implies the role of demolition parties or stakeholders on the
execution of building demolition and affects the sector whether negatively or
positively. It depends based on level of awareness, experience and knowledge. Much
effort was still needed with respect to; selection of suitable techniques, safety
precautions and waste management. It was also sad to note that the industry had little
regard toward sustainable growth especially in the developing countries.
•
 Safety requirements during demolition
The following demolition safety check list should generally be employed for
demolition work.

A survey of the physical characteristics of the buildings should be mandatory

and a written record of the survey should be kept available for inspection.
• A duty should be laid on the client when inviting tenders for a contract to
supply the contractor with all the information available to the client about
potential hazards involving the property to be demolished.

• A contractor should be under a duty not to start work until he has a certificate
from the gas and electricity authorities that all known supplies have been cut
off from the site except those required for the execution of the work.
• The department of the environment should issue advice to local authorities
having control over space around demolition sites, urging them to separate
the public from the demolition work to the maximum possible extent.

• A formal training scheme on a regional basis should be established for the

demolition industry.
• The requirements relating to supervision and competency in regulations
should be strengthened by requiring a higher standard of supervision of the
demolition of structures, particularly where there is a risk of a collapse that
might endanger life, and by requiring that those exercising supervision shall
have received training in the correct techniques of demolition, the
prevention of accidents and the precautions against risks to health.
• Greater thought should be given to the planning of each phase of demolition
work, and employers, when choosing a method of work at the planning
stage, should keep to the order of preference listed in the report.

• Safety helmets should be worn by everyone on a demolition site.

• The person responsible for carrying out the statutory weekly inspection of a
lifting appliance used for balling should be trained to identify defects
resulting from balling.

• When ‘hot work’ is to be undertaken in the demolition or dismantling or

plant containing explosive or flammable substances the demolition
contractor should invariably institute a written permit.

• Close control over the competency of men responsible for the storage and
use of explosive in demolition work should be exercised by means of
certificates of competence associated with defined standards of cleaning.
• A suitable procedure should be instituted so that new buildings which
are either:

 Post-tensioned structures, or

 Unbounded stressed structures; or

 Structures which are progressively stressed as construction proceeds

and further dead load added; could be readily identified. The plans
of such buildings deposited with local authorities should be used to
provide information in connection with the appraisal of the
building’s structural characteristics prior to demolition.
• In any revision of the law relating to the inspection of scaffolding used
in demolition work, suitably stringent inspection requirements should
be applied.
• Men whose work exposes them to lead fumes should be medically
supervised, and a man offering himself for employment should only be
accepted after undergoing a pre-employment medical assessment in
relation to lead .

• Private clients should follow the directions given by the government by

letting contracts only to firms who are competent and registered.
Identification Of Key Health And Safety
Factors During Demolition Process

DEMOLITION KEY FACTORS

PHASE
• Structural knowledge of the structure
• Structural knowledge of any adjacent construction
DESIGN • Demolishing equipment and method of selection
• Site Knowledge
• Health and safety risk assessment
• Development of safe sequence of demolishing activity
PLANNING • Limitation of the level of subcontracting
• Prequalification and selection of specialist contractors
• Work force supervision
• Control of method statement implementation
EXECUTION • Communication of unplanned discoveries
• Safety information and training selection
Building Demolition Practices In The
Ethiopian Construction Industry

 The demolishing practice in Ethiopian construction industry is at an infant

stage in which demolishing of structure of high rise building or sophisticated
structure were not yet exercised except in a few places in Addis Ababa where
the main roads expansion projects are undergoing
 Most of the demolishing and dismantling activities are predominantly carried
out by construction contractors and by individuals of the owner of the property
 Demolishing and dismantling work does not fully comply with the requirement
of safety precaution, statutory obligations and waste management system
Demolition Practice In A.A
• During the last few years, A.A has constructed new roads, including ring
roads, and upgrading the existing ones due to this demolition of existing
buildings and structures, were exercised
• Demolishing planning, management of waste and safety precautions in
most cases does not practiced except by few
• Therefore it is hard to say demolishing practice in the city is carried safely
and managed properly

Scattered and unplanned demolishing practice observed around Ginf

DEMOLISHING TECHNIQUE
The demolishing techniques used in most cases are:
• Hand demolition

• Demolition using excavators, loaders and bulldozers

• It is quite common to observe walls and floors being demolished
by chiseling
• Excavators, loaders and bulldozers have also been involved in
demolition of walls and floors
Demolishing of the building by hand chiseling the concrete
 Safety during demolishing
• Demolition practices in the city is unsafe and dangerous to human life and
property.

• Most demolition works are not procedural and not planned properly

• Proper protection for pedestrians and traffic is not provided. There is no formal
permission from local authority for storing the demolished waste material over
road blocking users free movement.

• Protection to under ground utilities such as telephone cables, water lines, sewer
lines and foundation of constructed buildings are taking care of.

• There is no protective clothing and equipment available during the work such as
helmets, goggles, shoes, etc.
 Cables are exposed to be damaged
Demolished sewer line which cause health problem

Pile of waste material on the top of the roof

Foundation of the building exposed for differential settlement

 Scattered demolished material

No protective clothing and equipment available

Pulling by rope

Demolishing practice under unsafe conditions by pulling the demolished column

Demolition in Bahirdar (2014)
Demolition in Addis Ababa, Teklehaimanot area (2014)
Unsafe deep excavation