FOUNDATIONAL THEORISTS OF CITIZENSHIP

Political Key Themes and Main Topics from Reading Material Weaknesses Strengths Examples References Video Material
Thinker Assumptions Proposed and
Purpose
Aristotle The “good” is a ● States are for the good of men and the The reality of The citizens are ● Aristotle. ● For the
concept is necessary as good of men are the good of the state. equality is those swayed from apathetic Roman Republic (later (1999). (B. example of
the good of one is the ● Citizenship is only possible when those who were in tendencies that give on Roman Empire) Jowett , the Roman
good of many; the ruler citizens are in an agreement with their opposition by rise to the increasing Trans.). Republic:
and their subjects. This statesmen. striving for the best chances of incompetent Batoche How did
results into virtue that ● Participation in the state is necessary in were marred with rulers to take power Books. people prove
will assure citizens accordance to their role within the state. self-interest by and become aware to ● Carcopino, J., citizenship in
from falling into ● Citizens must be native to the land as continuously the political landscape Rowell, H. T., Ancient Rome?
excess or deficiencies. much as possible in order to preserve raising the bar to they inhabit. &
Achieving this creates the high-spirit and intellect of the impossibility and as Lorimer, E. O.
temperance and ( (Hellenic) race (in the context of they did in ancient (1943). Daily
rationality which are Greece.) Greece, be exiled life in Ancient
regarded as the highest ● Citizen’s duty is to participate in state by popular vote in a Rome: The
ideal of all. functions as their existence deems it process known as people and the
such. ostracism. city at the
● Citizenship as an essential aspect of a height of the
fulfilling life, where individuals empire.
cultivate virtue through social George
interactions within the polis. Routledge And
Sons Ltd
London.

Niccolo He did not provide a ● When citizens trust their old ruler than In the Citizens who follow Venetian Republic ● Penguin
Machiave comprehensive or the new one, they will revolt in their Machiavellian lens, the Machiavellian route Random House
lli systematic theory of name. being a citizen are to benefit the UK . (2015,
citizenship in the same ● People are always self-interested to means that they are centralized authority of May 21).
way that some other those who hold power and will kowtow under the will of their ruler making it Machiavelli,
philosophers have. The to those who offer more. their ruler and simple to enact changes Niccolo - the
patron-client ● A citizen who is willing to defend their would have no for the benefit of the prince (1513) :
relationship is what ruler and partake in citizen-armies for safeguards to the people. Free download,
such cause display the power and proof
guides the citizen in wrath of those that Borrow, and
of reputation more than mercenaries and
order to survive in the auxiliaries. rule them, despite streaming.
 cutthroat world of ● Citizens can become rulers but are the luxuries that the Internet
Italian city-states. This heavily dependent on their own skills ruler will offer are Archive.
means the citizen is and are at a disadvantage. However, nothing but https://archive.
under the whim of their examples like Francesco Sforza and deception to keep org/details/Ma
ruler. Casare Borgia are a few of such. them happy and a chiavelliNiccol
● Citizens have to understand and accept projection of oThePrinceEN
pragmatic, sometimes amoral decisions power. 1513239P.
made by the ruler to benefit the state.
● Norwich , J. J.
● Citizen should maintain their support to
(2003). A
a strong ruler capable of promoting
History of
order and security within the state.
Venice .
Penguin Books
Ltd.
● Hale, J. R (ed),
(1973)
Renaissance
Venice,
London: Faber
John of God has bestowed the ● The monarch is an authority above the The so-called The qualifications of Kingdom of Jerusalem ● John of
Salisbury monarchs and Church priest as they exercise the power of commonwealth being a citizen apart of Salisbury.
with the authority of God’s righteousness through will, under the rule of being a God-fearing (1970, January
rule in his stead with office, and decree. monarchs share Catholic monarchist are 1). The
backing from the ● Men must be reserved as their women as power with the vague notions to statesman’s
Church. God intended to say and act in excess is akin to death. Church which book of john
both to bestow order ● Citizens must be understanding of their would beocme a of salisbury :
rulers as despite their whims and flaws
and instill virtue to source of political Being the
as their duties as rulers never
man in the conflict. fourth, fifth,
disappeared and must be shown respect.
commonwealth as if it ● Citizens are granted liberty in and sixth
was His kingdom in accordance to their virtue and their chase books, and
heaven. to attain virtue. selections from
the seventh
and eighth
books, of the
policraticus :
John, of
Salisbury,
Bishop of
Chartres, -
 1180 : Free
download,
Borrow, and
streaming.
Internet
Archive.
https://archive.
org/details/stat
esmansbookof
0000unse/page
/n5/mode/2up
● Archer, T. A.,
&
Kingsford, C.
L. (1894). The
crusades: The
story of the
latin kingdom
of Jerusalem.
T. Fisher
Unwin.

John John Locke and Jean- ● Man is born free, the right to exist, and Collectivist The social contract Revolutionary France ● Locke, J. ● A recap and
Locke Jacques Rousseau: to own property in the state of nature. tendencies of the safeguarding the (1832). Two further
and Jean- Liberty is essential to ● Through the social compact, the citizen social contract will liberties of the people treatises - york explain the
Jacques the existence of gains sovereignty through consent of undermine their would create an attitude university. involvement
Rousseau citizens as through being under a sovereign which guards rulers in the long- of self-governance https://www.y of the Social
their sovereignty their equality in a civil society. run and would in further enhancing their orku.ca/comni Contract
supported by their ● Citizens when participating in elections turn switch to those participation in their nel/courses/30 Theory into
are expect to have a good sense of against the mob form of government 25pdf/Locke.p citizenship:
commonwealths and
justice and integrity. sacrificing the especially improving df Do We Need
general will uphold the
● The citizen has the right to dissolve the individual for the democracies into more ● Rousseau , J.- Government?
social contract. This many. participative ones. J., &
government when it does not benefit (The Social
social contract is of him anymore, acts as a hindrance, and Bennett, J. Contract) – 8-
mutual benefit of men betrays the social contract. (2017). The Bit Philosophy
saving them from their ● Citizenship emphasises participation in social contract
brutish, barbaric, government as the cornerstone for the -
solitary, and poor promotion of the civic good. earlymodernte
xts.com. Early
 environment they exist Modern Texts.
in. https://www.ea
rlymoderntexts
.com/assets/pd
fs/rousseau176
2.pdf
● Archer, T. A.,
&
Kingsford, C.
L. (1894). The
crusades: The
story of the
latin kingdom
of Jerusalem.
T. Fisher
Unwin.

THEORIES OF CITIZENSHIP
 Theory Political Thinker Key Points Criticism Examples References Video Material Proposed
and Purpose

● According to this theory, civil rights constitute the ● Critics point out Post-World War Two Citizenship and social To explain the British
foundation of citizenship and it revolves around the that this theory is United Kingdom class, and other essays : example: Post WWII
idea of individualism. so optimistic and Marshall, T. H. (Thomas United Kingdom - Cold War
● Marshall used the modern England as an example nothing comes Humphrey) : Free
Liberal Thomas Humphrey DOCUMENTARY
where giving them civil rights led to the sprout of free, if someone Download, Borrow, and
Theory of Marshall political and social rights, as a result, individuals rely
Citizenship has it for free, Streaming : Internet
less on the market system someone is paying Archive. (1950). Internet
● It places a strong emphasis on individual autonomy, for it. If the goal is Archive.
equality before the law, and protection of civil
liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, and to maintain https://archive.org/details
assembly. harmony within /citizenshipsocia00mars/p
● Marshall divided citizenship in three elements; civil, people it is not age/n7/mode/2up
political, and social. Rights important for freedom needed to give
belong to civil, political encompasses the rights to others burden for
take part in politics while social rights cover the right the comfort of
to economic welfare and security.
others.

● Libertarians believe that citizenship is the product of ● Critics of this

free choice and contract among individuals. It theory argued that ● New Zealand’s Anarchy, State And To expand on the
considers market society as its basis and a suitable free-market based Free Market Utopia : Robert Nozick : minimal state and the
model of civic life. individualism does Farming started in Free Download, Borrow, place of the citizen:
Libertarian ● According to the libertarian theory of citizenship, not provide for mid 1980s and Streaming : Internet Essential Nozick: The
Theory of Robert Nozick individuals are the ultimate sovereigns and should be adequate ● The Archive. (1974). Internet Minimal State
Citizenship free to make their own decisions and choices without foundation of decriminalization Archive.
interference from the state or other external social solidarity. of drugs in https://archive.org/details
authorities. This view of Portugal /0001AnarchyStateAndU
● Nozick observed that individuals resort to private citizenship would ● United States Free topia
activity, market exchange and voluntary association result in sharp Trade Agreements
in order to realize their values, beliefs, and disputes and (FTA) in various
preferences. Libertarians prioritize market rights intense conflicts of countries
which is perceived as entrepreneurial freedom. interests within the
● Nozick describes the state as a large enterprise society.
wherein the citizens are its customers or clients. Men
hire protective institutions for the protection of their
right to property.
 The communitarian perspective of citizenship insists on a 5. Critics argue that ● In the 1960s, there
strong bond of affinity between individual and the state. This this model of was a Civil Rights ● Immigrants in the ● To introduce
Communita 1. Hannah concept of citizenship regards the citizen as someone who citizenship is only Movement in the Progressive Hannah Arendt
rian Theory Arendt plays an active role in shaping the future direction of his or applicable to small, US. In order to Era  :&nb and her
of 2. Michael her society via political debate and decision-making. homogenous mobilize sp; Progressive perspective:
Citizenship Walzer 4. The main tenet of this theory is that an individual societies with communities and Era to New Era, Hannah Arendt on
3. Benjamin should identify him/herself with the community common traditions fight structural 1900- Modernity (1964)
Barber where he/she belongs to, and take part in its political and customs. injustice, activists 1929  :&n ● To introduce
life and contribute to the realization of civic virtues 6. The concept of for civil rights and bsp; U.S. history Michael Walzer’s
including respect for other people and importance of general will of the social justice primary source theory: Michael
public service. entire population is referenced timeline  : Walzer: What is
not feasible in the Arendt's ideas of   classroom justice?
complex landscape active citizenship materials at the ● To simplify
of society in the and civic Library of Benjamin
contemporary engagement. Congress  Barber’s Strong
setting. ● Indian Caste :  library Democracy:
system of Congress. The Benjamin Barber:
● Mass immigration Library of «We need citizens
of Europeans in Congress. (n.d.).
without frontiers»
New York https://www.loc.g
● Public Healthcare ov/classroom-
in Europe materials/united-
states-history-
primary-source-
timeline/progressi
ve-era-to-new-
era-1900-
1929/immigrants-
in-progressive-
era/
● Sleepyclasses.
(2023b, May 22).
Discuss the idea of
“complex
equality”. Sleepy
Classes IAS.
https://sleepyclass
es.com/discuss-
the-idea-of-
complex-equality/
● Health Insurance
in Germany for
foreigners. Health
insurance in
Germany for
foreigners. (2023,
July 12).
https://www.acad
emics.com/guide/
health-insurance-
germany#subnav
_public_health_c
overage_in_germ
any_-
_how_to_get_it
● NHS England.
(n.d.). NHS
History. NHS
choices.
https://www.engl
and.nhs.uk/nhsbi
rthday/about-the-
nhs-birthday/nhs-
history/
● Britannica.
“Switzerland -
Government and
Society.”
Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2019,
www.britannica.c
om/place/Switzerl
and/Government-
and-society.
● Lucchi, Micol.
“This Is How
Switzerland’s
Direct Democracy
Works.” World
Economic Forum,
 31 July 2017,
www.weforum.or
g/agenda/2017/07/
switzerland-
direct-
democracy-
explained/
● "Political
System.”
Admin.ch, 2021,
www.eda.admin.c
h/aboutswitzerlan
d/en/home/politik
-
geschichte/politisc
hes-
system.html#:~:te
xt=Switzerland%
20is%20a%20dir
ect%20democrac
y
● "Switzerland:
Swiss Direct
Democracy —.”
Aceproject.org,
aceproject.org/re
gions-
en/countries-and-
territories/CH/cas
e-
studies/esy_ch02
● Arendt Hannah
The Human
Condition 2nd
1998 : Free
Download,
Borrow, and
Streaming :
Internet Archive.
(2017, March 8).
 Internet Archive.
https://archive.or
g/details/ArendtH
annahTheHuman
Condition2nd199
8_201703
● Spheres of
justice : a defense
of pluralism and
equality : Walzer,
Michael : Free
Download,
Borrow, and
Streaming :
Internet Archive.
(1983). Internet
Archive.
https://archive.or
g/details/sphereso
fjustice00walz
● Strong
democracy :
participatory
politics for a new
age : Barber,
Benjamin R.,
1939- : Free
Download,
Borrow, and
Streaming :
Internet Archive.
(1984). Internet
Archive.
https://archive.or
g/details/strongde
mocracy00benj
 ● According to the Marxist theory, rights associated ● Marxist’s ● Ukrainian Famine ● A contemporary Collectivisation and
with citizenship is the by-product of class conflict. perspective overly 1932-1933 critique of the Ukrainian
Thus, citizenship is founded on those rights which a emphasizes ● The Great Leap historical Famine - History
class happens to win for itself after suppressing the economic Forward 1958- materialism : Matters (Short
rights of its antagonistic class. determinism, 1962 Giddens, Animated
● Giddens raised three major issues to contradict disregarding the Anthony : Free Documentary)
Marshall’s perspective. importance of Download,
1. He argues that underprivileged have attained their other social and Borrow, and The Great Leap
Marxist Anthony Giddens citizenship in substantial degree only through political factors Streaming :
Forward (1958-62)
Theory of struggle; they succeeded to tilt the balance of that influence and Internet Archive.
Citizenship power in their favor. affect the dynamics (1981). Internet
2. According to Giddens, development of of citizenship. Archive.
citizenship is a product of various social https://archive.org/
movements. The varying strength of these details/contempora
movements resulted in variations in the benefits rycrit0001gidd
conceded to the least advantaged. ● Giddens, A.
3. He identifies two types of citizenship rights (1987). The
which belong to different categories: Nation-State and
a. Individual freedom and equality before the Violence: Volume
law signify those civil rights which were two of a
largely won by the emergent bourgeoisie via Contemporary
their struggle against the feudal privileges. Critique of
b. Economic civil rights signify those rights for Historical
which working-class and trade-union Materialism.
activists fought against bourgeois system of https://www.sema
power. nticscholar.org/pap
er/The-Nation-
state-and-
Violence%3A-
Volume-Two-of-a-
of-
Giddens/9fa489ed
cab27e8188bb3cff
acfd96a99c9a9128
● This theory treats the development of citizenship as a ● The pluralist view ● Political theory and
multi-dimensional and complex process and ascribes of citizenship tends the modern state :
Pluralist the evolution of the concept of citizenship to a diverse to oversimplify the essays on state,
Theory of David Held set of factors. complex political power, and
Citizenship ● Pluralist citizenship values open and inclusive dynamics by democracy : Held,
political processes that allow for the participation of assuming a level of David : Free
 various groups, ensuring that different voices are playing field for all Download,
heard and considered in the formation of policies and interest groups, Borrow, and
decisions. which may not be Streaming :
● Pluralist view of citizenship insists on inquiring into accurately reflect Internet Archive.
all types of discrimination against people, whether on the reality of power (1989b). Internet
grounds of gender, race, religion, property, education, imbalances and Archive.
occupation, or age. asymmetries. https://archive.org/
details/politicalthe
orym00held/page/
n9/mode/2up
Modern Iseult Honohan ● Honohan emphasizes the need for inclusive ● Some critics argue ● Recognition of ● Honohan, Iseult. To explain the exampl
Theory of citizenship that accommodates diversity and ensure that Honohans Indigenous Rights “Republicanism in given: Indigenous
Citizenship equal rights and opportunities for all individuals. theory might the Modern recognition vote
● She highlights the importance of active democratic struggle with World.” causes division in
participation where citizens engage in Political practical Contemporary Australia | Al
processes, voice their opinions, and contribute to implementation, Political Theory, Jazeera Newsfeed
shaping policies and decisions. especially in vol. 4, no. 1, Feb.
● Honohan discusses the role of identity and cultural contexts where 2005, pp. 90–92,
recognition in citizenship, emphasizing the deeply entrenched https://doi.org/10.1
importance of recognizing diverse identities and prejudices and 057/palgrave.cpt.9
providing a sense of belonging. discriminatory 300158.
● Highlights citizenship as a complex field of study. practices. There ● Povinelli, E. A.
● Cited different ways of acquiring citizenship and how may be challenges (1998). The State
the concept of citizenship can cause the people to in defining and of Shame:
become stateless. managing identity Australian
without a diverse Multiculturalism
society. and the Crisis of
Indigenous
Citizenship.
Critical Inquiry,
24(2), 575–610.
http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/1344180
● Pitty, R. (2009).
The unfinished
business of
Indigenous
citizenship in
Australia and New
Zealand. In K.
 Neumann & G.
Tavan (Eds.), Does
History Matter?:
Making and
debating
citizenship,
immigration and
refugee policy in
Australia and New
Zealand (pp. 25–
46). ANU Press.
http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/j.ctt24h2v
9.9
● Holm, S. (2008).
The “Lie” of the
Land: Native
Sovereignty,
Indian Literary
Nationalism, and
Early Indigenism
in Leslie Marmon
Silko’s
“Ceremony.”
American Indian
Quarterly, 32(3),
243–274.
http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/25487879
● Baruah, S. (2008).
Territoriality,
Indigeneity and
Rights in the
North-East India.
Economic and
Political Weekly,
43(12/13), 15–19.
http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/40277273

CRITIQUES OF CITIZENSHIP
 Critique Key Points
Foundational ● Aristotle, Niccolo
Theories Machiavelli, John of
Salisbury, and John Locke
and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
are rigid in their theories of
the purposes of citizenship.
● Their ideas would be
scattered in the other
perspectives of citizenship.
● The foundational theories
form only the foundation of
the idea of citizenship
References
Aristotle. (1999). (B. Jowett ,
Trans.). Batoche Books.
Carcopino, J., Rowell, H. T.,
& Lorimer, E. O.
(1943). Daily life in Ancient
Rome: The people and the
city at the height of the
empire. George Routledge
And Sons Ltd London.
John of Salisbury. (1970,
January 1). The statesman’s
book of john of salisbury :
Being the fourth, fifth, and
sixth books, and selections
from the seventh and eighth
books, of the policraticus :
John, of Salisbury, Bishop
of Chartres, -1180 : Free
download, Borrow, and
streaming. Internet Archive.
https://archive.org/details/st
atesmansbookof0000unse/p
age/n5/mode/2up
Archer, T. A., &
Kingsford, C. L. (1894).
The crusades: The story of
the latin kingdom of
Jerusalem. T. Fisher Unwin.
Locke, J. (1832). Two treatises -
york university.
https://www.yorku.ca/comn
inel/courses/3025pdf/Locke
.pdf
Strengths
Political Interactivity: The
citizens are swayed from
apathetic tendencies that
give rise to the increasing
chances of incompetent
rulers to take power and
become aware to the
political landscape they
inhabit.
Centralized Authority: Citizens
benefit the centralized
authority of their ruler
making it simple to enact
changes for the benefit of
the people.
Autonomy: The social contract
safeguarding the liberties of
the people would create an
attitude of self-governance
further enhancing their
participation in their form of
government especially
improving democracies into
more participative ones
Weaknesses
Perversion of Justice: The
reality of equality is those
who were in opposition by
striving for the best were
marred with self-interest by
continuously raising the bar
to impossibility and as they
did in ancient Greece, be
exiled by popular vote in a
process known as ostracism.
Church and State Conflict: The
so-called commonwealth
under the rule of monarchs
share power with the
Church; this historically had
been the case for Henry the
8th wherein Henry and the
Catholic Church had too
much conflicting interests
to the point of Henry the 8th
was excommunicated.
Puppets and Dolls: In the
Machiavellian lens, being a
citizen means that they are
under the will of their ruler
and would have no
safeguards to the wrath of
those that rule them, despite
the luxuries that the ruler
will offer are nothing but
deception to keep them
 Rousseau , J.-J., & Bennett, happy and a projection of
J. (2017). The social power.
contract -
earlymoderntexts.com.
Early Modern Texts. Mobocracy: Collectivist
https://www.earlymodernte tendencies of the social
xts.com/assets/pdfs/roussea contract will undermine
u1762.pdf their rulers in the long-run
Archer, T. A., & and would in turn switch to
Kingsford, C. L. (1894). those against the mob
The crusades: The story of sacrificing the individual
the latin kingdom of for the many.
Jerusalem. T. Fisher Unwin.

Liberal Theory ● T.H. Marshall's citizenship Citizenship and social class, and Historical Perspective: Simplified Model:
theory offers valuable other essays : Marshall, T. Marshall's theory provides a Critics argue that Marshall's
insights into the historical H. (Thomas Humphrey) : valuable historical model oversimplifies the
development and expansion Free Download, Borrow, perspective on the evolution complexities of citizenship
of citizenship rights and Streaming : Internet of citizenship rights. By in modern societies. In
● Its strengths lie in its Archive. (1950). Internet tracing the development of reality, the boundaries
historical perspective, Archive. civil, political, and social between civil, political, and
analytical framework, https://archive.org/details/ci rights, he offers a coherent social rights are often
emphasis on equality, and tizenshipsocia00mars/page/ narrative of how citizenship blurred, and the experiences
continued relevance. n7/mode/2up has expanded over time. of citizens can vary
However, it also has This historical approach significantly. The model's
weaknesses, including its helps us understand the neat categorization may not
simplification of citizenship, context in which citizenship fully capture these
lack of attention to rights have evolved. complexities.
intersectionality,
Eurocentrism, neglect of Analytical Framework: Inadequate Attention to
globalization, and static Marshall's division of Intersectionality:
nature. Researchers and citizenship into three Marshall's theory primarily
policymakers continue to components—civil, focuses on class-based
engage with Marshall's political, and social— inequalities and does not
theory while recognizing its provides a clear and adequately address other
limitations and the need to comprehensive analytical forms of social
framework. This division stratification, such as race,
 adapt it to contemporary
realities.
Libertarian Theory ● Nozick’s view on
libertarianism as a lens to
understand citizenship theory
highlighted the role of
allows for a nuanced
analysis of the different
dimensions of citizenship
and their interplay in
modern societies.
Emphasis on Equality:
Marshall's theory emphasizes
the importance of equality
and social justice in
citizenship. He argues that
citizenship rights should be
extended to all members of
society, regardless of their
social class. This emphasis
on equality aligns with the
ideals of liberal
democracies and has
influenced policies aimed at
reducing social inequalities.
Relevance:
Marshall's theory remains
relevant today as it
continues to inform
discussions about
citizenship, social rights,
and welfare policies in
modern democracies. It
offers a foundation for
understanding the
relationship between the
state and its citizens in
contemporary contexts.
1. Protection of Property
Rights
2. Freedom
3. Less Violence
gender, and ethnicity. This
limitation can hinder a
comprehensive
understanding of citizenship
and its impact on diverse
populations.
Eurocentric Perspective:
Marshall's theory is often
criticized for its Eurocentric
perspective, as it is based on
the historical development
of citizenship in Western
European societies. This
focus may not fully account
for variations in citizenship
experiences and practices in
other parts of the world.
Neglect of Globalization:
Marshall's theory was
developed in an era when
the nation-state played a
central role in citizenship
rights. In today's globalized
world, where transnational
issues and global
citizenship are increasingly
relevant, Marshall's
framework may need to be
adapted to account for these
changes.
1. No Safety Nets
2. Income Inequality
3. Expensive Cost of Living
4. Emphasis on Individualism
 minimal state intervention
especially in economic affairs
of people and the protection
of their rights as an
individual.
Communitarian ● Hannah Arendt’s vision of
Theories citizenship goes beyond the
ordinary, breathing life into
the mind, emphasizing the
living, human nature. In her
seminal work, "The
Condition of Man," several
underlying concepts form the
cornerstone of his profound
views on citizenship in
democratic societies
4. Moral Responsibility
5. Low Taxes
1. Philosophical Depth: Arendt's
exploration of human
activities and political
engagement exhibits
remarkable philosophical
depth. Her insights into
labor, work, and action
provide a nuanced
understanding of human
existence, appealing to
scholars and thinkers across
disciplines. The
philosophical richness of
her analysis remains one of
the book's enduring
strengths.
2. Conceptual Innovation:
Arendt introduces novel
concepts like the public and
private spheres, plurality,
and the right to have rights.
These innovative ideas have
influenced subsequent
political thought and have
become foundational in
discussions about
democracy, freedom, and
human rights. Arendt's
conceptual contributions
continue to shape academic
discourse.
5. Environmental concerns
1. Complexity and
Accessibility: One of the
primary weaknesses of "The
Human Condition" is its
complexity. Arendt's dense
prose and intricate
philosophical concepts can
be challenging for general
readers to comprehend
fully. The abstract nature of
her ideas might alienate
those without a strong
background in philosophy,
limiting the book's
accessibility.
2. Historical Specificity:
Arendt's analysis is rooted
in the historical context of
her time, particularly her
observations on
totalitarianism and the
challenges of the mid-20th
century. While these
insights remain valuable,
they might not directly
apply to contemporary
political landscapes. The
book's historical specificity
necessitates careful
contextualization in today's
contexts.

• For Walzer, the idea of
distributing goods that would be
defined as having a general
characteristic, universal and
therefore valid in any cultural
3. Multidisciplinary Approach:
"The Human Condition"
employs a multidisciplinary
approach, drawing from
philosophy, political theory,
and social sciences. This
interdisciplinary
perspective enriches the
book, offering readers a
comprehensive
understanding of the topics
discussed. Arendt's ability
to synthesize diverse
intellectual traditions is a
testament to her scholarly
prowess.
4. Emphasis on Political
Engagement: Arendt's
emphasis on the importance
of political action and active
citizenship resonates
strongly. By highlighting
the significance of public
discourse and democratic
participation, she inspires
readers to engage
meaningfully in political
processes. This emphasis on
political engagement
remains a rallying point for
individuals advocating for
civic responsibility.
1. Community Emphasis:
Walzer emphasizes the
importance of considering
the values, norms and
3. Lack of Intersectionality:
Arendt's work has been
critiqued for its limited
exploration of
intersectionality,
overlooking the experiences
of marginalized groups such
as women, racial minorities,
and LGBTQ+ individuals.
The book's focus on
universal human conditions
might neglect the unique
challenges faced by these
communities, leading to a
partial perspective on
human existence.
4. Optimism and Prescriptive
Approach: Arendt's
optimism about the
potential of political
engagement, while
inspiring, might be seen as
overly idealistic. Her
prescriptive approach to
political action might not
fully account for the
complexities of real-world
political systems, where
barriers to meaningful
engagement exist, including
systemic inequalities and
political apathy.
1. Potential for
marginalization and
discrimination: Walzer's
focus on community values
context, does not make it practices of a particular
possible to grasp the specific community when deciding
interpretations and meanings that what is fair. This approach
these different goods have in a recognizes that different
particular society. communities can have
different understandings of
justice and allows a more
nuanced understanding of
social justice.
2. Contextual Approach: By
focusing on specific
communities, Walzer
understands that justice is
not an abstract or universal
concept. Instead, he argues
that justice should be
understood within the
specific context of a
community, taking into
account its history, culture
and shared values.
3. Solidarity and common
good: Walzer emphasizes
the importance of solidarity
and the search for common
good in a community. He
argues that justice should be
understood as the fair
distribution of and access to
these common goods, such
as education, health and
employment. This
perspective promotes social
cohesion and the well-being
of the entire community.
and practices can
potentially lead to
marginalization or
discrimination against those
who do not conform to these
norms. Such an approach
may not sufficiently protect
the rights of marginalized
groups or individuals who
fall outside the general
norms of the community.
2. Lack of universal standards:
The community perspective
recommended by Walzer
raises questions about the
existence of universal
standards of justice. Critics
argue that this approach can
lead to relativism, where
each community defines
justice on its own terms,
which can undermine
human rights and the pursuit
of social justice more
broadly. Limited
consideration of global
justice: Walzer's concept
focuses primarily on justice
within a given community,
but may ignore broader
issues of global justice and
inequality between different
communities. Critics argue
that this approach does not
adequately address the
global distribution of
resources and power, which
 can have important
implications for justice.

1. Community Emphasis: Walzer 1. Potential for marginalization and

emphasizes the importance of discrimination: Walzer's focus on
considering the values, norms and community values and practices can
practices of a particular community potentially lead to marginalization
when deciding what is fair. This or discrimination against those who
approach recognizes that different do not conform to these norms. Such
communities can have different an approach may not sufficiently
understandings of justice and allows protect the rights of marginalized
a more nuanced understanding of groups or individuals who fall
social justice. outside the general norms of the
community.
Contextual Approach: By focusing
on specific communities, Walzer 2.Lack of universal standards: The
understands that justice is not an community perspective
abstract or universal concept. recommended by Walzer raises
Instead, he argues that justice should questions about the existence of
be understood within the specific universal standards of justice.
context of a community, taking into Critics argue that this approach can
account its history, culture and lead to relativism, where each
shared values. community defines justice on its
own terms, which can undermine
Solidarity and common good: human rights and the pursuit of
Walzer emphasizes the importance social justice more broadly.
of solidarity and the search for
common good in a community. He 3.Limited consideration of global
argues that justice should be justice: Walzer's concept focuses
understood as the fair distribution of primarily on justice within a given
community, but may ignore broader
and access to these common goods,
issues of global justice and
such as education, health and inequality between different
employment. This perspective communities. Critics argue that this
promotes social cohesion and the approach does not adequately
well-being of the entire community. address the global distribution of
resources and power, which can
have important implications for
justice.

• For Walzer, the idea of
distributing goods that would
be defined as having a general
characteristic, universal and
therefore valid in any cultural
context, does not make it
possible to grasp the specific
interpretations and meanings
that these different goods have
in a particular society.
1. Community Emphasis: Walzer
emphasizes the importance of 1. Potential for marginalization and
considering the values, norms and discrimination: Walzer's focus on
practices of a particular community community values and practices can
when deciding what is fair. This potentially lead to marginalization
approach recognizes that different or discrimination against those who
communities can have different do not conform to these norms. Such
understandings of justice and allows an approach may not sufficiently
a more nuanced understanding of protect the rights of marginalized
social justice. groups or individuals who fall
outside the general norms of the
2. Contextual Approach: By community.
focusing on specific communities,
Walzer understands that justice is 2.Lack of universal standards: The
not an abstract or universal concept. community perspective
Instead, he argues that justice should recommended by Walzer raises
be understood within the specific questions about the existence of
context of a community, taking into universal standards of justice.
account its history, culture and Critics argue that this approach can
shared values. lead to relativism, where each
community defines justice on its
3. Solidarity and common good: own terms, which can undermine
Walzer emphasizes the importance human rights and the pursuit of
of solidarity and the search for social justice more broadly.
common good in a community. He
argues that justice should be 3.Limited consideration of global
understood as the fair distribution of justice: Walzer's concept focuses
primarily on justice within a given
and access to these common goods,
community, but may ignore broader
such as education, health and
issues of global justice and
employment. This perspective inequality between different
promotes social cohesion and the communities. Critics argue that this
well-being of the entire community. approach does not adequately
address the global distribution of
resources and power, which can
have important implications for
justice.
Marxist Perspective ● Anthony Giddens offers the
Marxist perspective of
citizenship as a form of
material equality and class
struggle for the citizen.
● Unlike Antonio Gramsci his
Marxist critique is hinged in
Karl Marx’ ideals rather than
Gramsci’s experiences in
Italy.
1. Holistic Understanding: 1.Overemphasis on Economic
Historical materialism provides a Factors:
comprehensive and holistic Critics argue that historical
understanding of societal materialism overly
development. By emphasizing prioritizes economic
economic, social, and political factors, neglecting the
factors, it offers a broad perspective importance of cultural,
on historical events and social psychological, and
changes. individual factors in
2.Focus on Material Conditions: shaping human behavior
The theory emphasizes the and historical events. Not all
importance of material conditions aspects of human life can be
and economic factors. This focus on reduced to economic
the means of production provides determinants.
valuable insights into the practical 2.Simplistic Class Analysis:
realities that influence human Some critics contend that
behavior and societal structures. historical materialism's
3.Class Analysis: class analysis is overly
Historical materialism's emphasis simplistic. In contemporary
on class struggle offers a powerful societies, class structures
tool for analyzing power dynamics are often complex and
and societal inequalities. It multifaceted, including
highlights the conflicts between factors like education and
different social classes, shedding occupation. Historical
light on historical and contemporary materialism's traditional
social issues. focus on bourgeoisie-
4.Historical Context: proletariat relations might
Historical materialism encourages not capture these
the analysis of historical events complexities adequately.
within their economic and social 3.Historical Determinism:
contexts. This approach helps in The deterministic nature of
understanding the root causes of historical materialism has
historical phenomena, leading to been criticized. The theory
more nuanced interpretations of implies an inevitable
historical events. progression from one
historical stage to another,
which might not always
align with the complexities
and uncertainties of
historical realities. History

Pluralist ● David Held’s pluralist
Perspective perspective combines active
citizenship and deliberative
democracy along the lines of
pluralism and international
involvement.
● This perspective highlights
the current problems and
strengths of multicultural
societies esp. First World
Nation-states where identity
and culture are as much as a
battleground as the political
sphere.
1. Inclusivity
Held's perspective promotes
inclusivity by recognizing and
respecting the diverse identities and
affiliations of individuals. This
approach can contribute to social
harmony and reduce conflicts
arising from identity differences.
2. Global Citizenship:
It addresses the challenges of the
modern, interconnected world by
advocating for global citizenship,
which encourages individuals to
take responsibility for global issues
such as climate change, poverty, and
human rights.
3. Active Civic Engagement:
Held's emphasis on active
citizenship encourages individuals
to participate in political processes,
is influenced by a myriad of
contingent events and
choices.
4. Neglect of Non-Class
Identities:
Historical materialism
traditionally focuses on
class struggle, often
neglecting other forms of
social identity such as
gender, race, ethnicity, and
sexuality. Issues related to
these identities might not be
fully addressed within the
confines of historical
materialism, leading to gaps
in the analysis of social
struggles.
1. Feasibility:
Critics argue that the idea of
cosmopolitan democracy and
global citizenship is difficult to
implement in practice, as it
requires the cooperation of
multiple actors, including
nation-states, international
organizations, and non-state
actors.
2. Cultural Concerns:
Some critics assert that
embracing diversity to the
extent advocated by Held may
lead to cultural relativism or
dilution of national identities,
which can be a contentious issue
in many societies.
3. Practicality:
 fostering a sense of empowerment
and accountability among citizens.
4. Cosmopolitan Democracy:
The concept of cosmopolitan
democracy offers a framework for
addressing global problems through
democratic means, which may help
in creating more equitable and just
global governance.
The practicality of
implementing pluralist
citizenship principles in
societies with deeply ingrained
social, cultural, or political
hierarchies and inequalities is
often questioned.
4. Potential for Fragmentation:
Critics worry that too much
emphasis on diverse identities
and affiliations might lead to
fragmentation and undermine
social cohesion, potentially
hindering collective decision-
making processes.

5. Lack of a Clear Path:

● Feminist critics of citizenship
argue that even after getting
Feminist Critique full citizenship in law,
women continue to suffer
from subjection in their social
life.
● The present status of women
is chiefly the product of social
arrangements. Women often
spend most of their time in
domestic work and in rearing
the children. Most women do
not get an opportunity to
Some argue that Held's
perspective doesn't provide a
clear path for realizing its
vision, lacking a detailed
roadmap for transitioning from
current nation-state-centered
citizenship to a more pluralist
and cosmopolitan approach.
1949 Simone De Beauvoir The
Second Sex : simone de
beauvoir : Free Download,
Borrow, and Streaming :
Internet Archive. (2015,
May 7). Internet Archive.
https://archive.org/details/1
949SimoneDeBeauvoirThe
SecondSex
 cultivate their own
personality. They are made to
believe that the proper sphere
of their activity is within
home and that they need not
take interest and get involve
in public life.
● Feminists postulate that until
the condition of equal
participation of women in
public life is fulfilled, the
concept of citizenship cannot
be brought to its logical
conclusion.

● The term 'subaltern' means Antonio Gramsci Selections

someone 'of inferior rank'. In From The Prison
Subaltern Critique social life superior and Notebooks : Antonio
inferior ranks are quite Gramsci : Free Download,
common. Problem would Borrow, and Streaming :
arise when people are Internet Archive. (2015,
supposed to be equal as April 4). Internet Archive.
citizens in the legal-formal https://archive.org/details/A
sense, but they are treated as ntonioGramsciSelectionsFr
superior and in actual omThePrisonNotebooks
practice.
● The concept of Subaltern
signified the ability of the
ruling class to convince the
subject classes that their rule
represented the common
interest. The subject classes
were made to believe that
they were being ruled with
their consent.
● Under capitalist system
apparently equal rights were
granted to all citizens. But in
actual practice capitalists
performed the function of
ruling class. Peasants,
workers and other
subordinate groups who were
denied access to 'hegemonic'
power were described by
Gramsci as 'subaltern' classes.