SOLID, LIQUID AND GAS

What is Matter?
• Anything that has mass and occupies space and has interia
• A matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
STATES OF MATTER: SOLID, LIQUID, GAS.
All objects on earth can be classified in one of three physical forms or states such as solid, liquid and gas.
Solid is a state of matter that has definite shape and definite volume. It keeps its own size.
Examples
• Marbles
• Ping-pong
• Rock
• empty bottle
• bag
• Pen
• Book
• Jewelleries
Solids have other special properties. Some solids are hard and others are soft.
Hardness is the ability of solids to resist breaking and scraping.
Solids have distinctive properties like metals (Metallic Solid)
Examples:
Jewelries such as rings, bracelets and necklaces are made up of metals, gold, silver, or platinum.
These metals can be designed and formed into beautiful accessories because they are malleable.
The ability of metals to be hammered into different shapes is called malleability.
Ductability -the ability to be drawn into wire like copper, aluminum and steel. Copper is the metal used for electrical
wiring. It can also be formed into strips or shavings.
Brittleness is the property that makes solids easy to break when a force is applied to it.
Liquid is a state of matter that keeps its size but takes the shape of its container.
A liquid can also flow as it is transferred or poured from one container to another.
Examples:
 Juice
 Water
 our body's sweat
 Milk
 rubbing alcohol
Gas is a state of matter that can freely change its shape and size.
 It spreads out to fill its container.
 Gasses flow like liquids.
 They are very light and often they cannot be seen.
Example:
 Air which is a mixture of gases.
 helium inside an inflated birthday balloon
 water vapor
 perfume in the air
 fumes from cars and factories
 oxygen gas that we breathe in
 and carbon dioxide that we expel out.

In other words:
Solids – relatively rigid, definite volume and shape. In a solid, the atoms and molecules are attached to each other. They
vibrate in place but don’t move around.
Liquids – definite volume but able to change shape by flowing. In a liquid, the atoms and molecules are loosely bonded.
They move around but stay close together.
Gases – no definite volume or shape. The atoms and molecules move freely and spread apart from one another.

GROUPING MATERIALS BASED ON PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. Buoyancy
- Ability of the material to float in water.
Ex. Putting a plastic bottle cap into the water. We can see that the bottle cap floats in the water.
Density
- Measure of the amount of the matter in a given volume of liquid.
- If the density of the object is less than the density of the liquid, the object will float. If the density of the object is more
than the density of the liquid, the object will sink.
Ex. When we put the stone into the water, we can see that the stone sink into the water which means the density of the
stone is more than the density of the water.
D=M/V
2. Porosity
- Property of material that allows to absorb water and other liquid.
- Absorbent materials are materials that absorb water
Ex. cotton, dishwashing sponge, tissue paper
- Non-absorbent materials are materials that do not absorb water.
Ex. plastic bag, cans, mug
3. Decomposition
- Property of materials to break down into simpler or smaller form of matter.
- All materials that decay is also referred to as Biodegradable.

FACTORS AFFECTING DECOMPOSITION

1. Presence of organisms or decomposer that cause decay
- Decomposers can be detritivores, fungi and bacteria. Detritivores like earthworms breakdown plant and animal
materials and feed on these. Fungi, like mushroom and ear fungi breakdown plant materials and cause decay at the
same time feeding on the decayed materials. Bacteria are microorganisms that we cannot see but their action can be
observed on dead animal bodies when these are undergoing decay. Usually, the process is accompanied by foul or bad
smell. Spoiled food has a foul odor because of decay that is going on.
2. Temperature
- The warmer the temperature the faster the decay process. So when the days are very warm leaving spaghetti on the
table and other carbohydrate rich food will easily spoil. Placing food in the refrigerator slows down the growth of
decomposers.
3. Moisture
- Have you noticed a pile of leaves during summer in the school yard but during the rainy season, the leaves disappear
fast and blend with the soil? With water available, the plant parts easily crumble and decompose. Decomposers are also
present in moist places so the decay process is fast. Dry materials like leaves are not good habitats for decomposers.
Drying fish prevents bacteria from feeding on the flesh of the fish.
4. Exposure to elements
- Our mother would remind us to cover the food left after a meal. Air may contain bacteria and will hit the food.
Covering the food prevents bacteria from growing on the food and starts the decay process.
5. Salt content of the material
- A salty food usually decays slowly. This is because decomposers cannot grow well in a salty environment. Have you
noticed that fish, squid and meat do not decay immediately when salted? Salting is a way of delaying or stopping
decomposition, thus preserving food for some time.
EFFECTS OF DECAY ON OUR HEALTH
● Tooth decay
- Food particles left in the mouth and teeth are food for bacteria when you don’t brush your teeth regularly. It will
release acid that can dissolve the enamel of your teeth creating tooth cavities.
● Loose Bowel Movement
- Eating left over food that has started to decay may cause loose bowel movement. It is advisable not to eat food that
has started to emit foul odor.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Materials around us have properties that are important for their purpose. These materials undergo changes through
technology for various important applications in our everyday lives, at home, at in school. However, accompanying these
positive transformations are harmful effects as well.
A. Useful or Harmful Materials
Multiple materials products are beneficial to man because of technology. Because of technology, raw materials
transformed to different products that have improved man’s way of life. However, some products which are useful to
man maybe harmful to animals and plants and the environment or the other way around. Sometimes, it is the incorrect
use of the useful materials that make these harmful. Hence, it is imperative to really identify characteristics of
households and consumer materials. Here are the important concept that can help future teacher understand the topic.
• Household materials and consumer products can be grouped as (1) those used for cleaning; (2) for food
preparation; (3) beautification; (4) building construction: and (5) and household products. Materials found in
products like metal container, ceramic, rubber, glass or plastic have specific properties.
• Humans have learned to manipulate the different properties of matter to create other uses.
• Materials are enhanced or upgraded by technology. Technology has continuously improved the quality of
products such as detergents, household cleaners, food seasoning, medicine, plastic, paints, stainless metals and
many more making human life convenient. In fact technology has enhanced beauty products and health
products which are very popular among consumers today.
• Materials have beneficial effects at home and in the environment. They can make work and life easier like
cooking faster; preserving food, keeping homes and clothes clean, smells good and disinfected.
• However, materials can sometimes do harm. They may contain hazardous substance, an ingredient that may
cause skin irritation, injury, or illness during or after handling or use or if accidentally taken.
• Chemicals can contaminate food and when properly disposed of or even used, they can cause death. Hence,
there is need to exercise care and caution when using them.
• Before buying or using any consumer product-such as food, clothing, medicine, cleaning product, soap and
shampoo, insect repellent or pesticides, always find out if it is the best for the purpose you need.
All matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are characteristics that scientists can measure
without changing the composition of the sample under study, such as mass, color, and volume (the amount of space
occupied by a sample). Chemical properties describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react to form new
substances; they include its flammability and susceptibility to corrosion. All samples of a pure substance have the same
chemical and physical properties. For example, pure copper is always a reddish-brown solid (a physical property) and
always dissolves in dilute nitric acid to produce a blue solution and a brown gas (a chemical property).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of
the substance. Silver is a shiny metal that conducts electricity very well. It can be molded into thin sheets, a property
called malleability. Salt is dull and brittle and conducts electricity when it has been dissolved into water, which it does
quite easily. Physical properties of matter include color, hardness, malleability, solubility, electrical conductivity, density,
melting point, and boiling point.
For the elements, color does not vary much from one element to the next. The vast majority of elements are colorless,
silver, or gray. Some elements do have distinctive colors: sulfur and chlorine are yellow, copper is (of course) copper-
colored, and elemental bromine is red. However, density can be a very useful parameter for identifying an element. Of
the materials that exist as solids at room temperature, iodine has a very low density compared to zinc, chromium, and
tin. Gold has a very high density, as does platinum.
1. State of matter
2. Density
3. Volume
4. Boiling point
5. Melting point
6. Mass
7. Color
8. Temperature
 9. Solubility
10. Electric charge
11. Malleability
12. Hardness
13. Length
14. Electrical resistivity and conductivity
15. Electricity
16. Thermal conductivity
17. Permeabilty
18. Luminance
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical properties of matter describe its potential to undergo some chemical change or reaction by virtue of its
composition. The elements, electrons, and bonds that are present give the matter potential for chemical change. It is
quite difficult to define a chemical property without using the word "change". Eventually, after studying chemistry for
some time, you should be able to look at the formula of a compound and state some chemical property. For example,
hydrogen has the potential to ignite and explode given the right conditions—this is a chemical property. Metals in
general have the chemical property of reacting with an acid. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas
—this is a chemical property.
A chemical property of iron is its capability of combining with oxygen to form iron oxide, the chemical name of rust
(Figure 3.5.23.5.2). The more general term for rusting and other similar processes is corrosion. Other terms that are
commonly used in descriptions of chemical changes are burn, rot, explode, decompose, and ferment. Chemical
properties are very useful in identifying substances. However, unlike physical properties, chemical properties can only be
observed as the substance is in the process of being changed into a different substance.
1. Flammability
2. Boiling point
3. Melting point
4. Reactivity
5. Toxicity
6. Standard enthalpy of formation
7. Chemical stability
8. Extidation state
9. Acidity
10. Heat of combustion
Summary
A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of
the substance. Physical properties include color, density, hardness, and melting and boiling points. A chemical property
describes the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change. To identify a chemical property, we look for a
chemical change. A chemical change always produces one or more types of matter that differ from the matter present
before the change. The formation of rust is a chemical change because rust is a different kind of matter than the iron,
oxygen, and water present before the rust formed.

MIXTURE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

MIXTURE
 made up of two or more materials or substances that are put together by physical means.
 no new substances are formed since it does not change the physical properties of substances or materials.

3 Basic characteristics of mixture

1. The composition of the mixture is variable.
 For example, the components of the mixture of marbles, paper clips and buttons in the experiment can differ or
vary.
2. The components retain their original characteristics.
 Marbles. paper clips, buttons, sugar and saw dust do not lose their appearance, texture, color and shape after
they are mixed together.
3. The components are easily separated by physical methods.
 Since no chemical reaction has taken place when mixing marbles, paper clips, and buttons, as well as mixing with
saw dust, it is possible for these materials to be separated.
TWO TYPES OF MIXTURES
1. Homogeneous Mixture

✓ HOMO means same

✓ well mixed E.g ( Coffee and soft drinks )
- The composition of homogenous when components are combined together it does mix well since it does blend
throughout and becomes uniformly distributed.
✓ it's single phased
- since only one phase is only seen that is either solid, liquid or gas form after mixing the different components.
✓ components are too small to be seen by the unaided eyes.
✓ it appears to be clear or transparent and has the same color.

2. Heterogeneous mixture

✓ HETERO means different

✓ unevenly mixed - since the mixture is not uniformly distributed and it differs from one another. E.g ( Salad)
✓ 1 or more components can still be differentiated and identified - the composition of heterogeneous when combined
together it doesn't mix well since it doesn't blend throughout.
✓ two or more phases of matter can be observed.
E.g - Milk and cereal

CHANGES IN MATERIAL THAT UINDERGO: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

MATTER
anything that takes up any object, occupies space, has mass and composed of atoms.
PHYSICAL CHANGE
a change in physical appearance of matter
PHASES OF PHYSICAL CHANGE
 Melting
 Freezing
 Vaporization
 Condensation
 Sublimation
 Deposition

CHEMICAL CHANGE
involved chemical reaction that causes new substance or product to be formed.
Physical changes are changes that affect the form of a substance but do not alter its chemical composition. These
changes can be reversible, meaning that the original substance can be recovered. There are several phases of physical
changes, including:
1. Melting: The phase change from a solid to a liquid, which occurs when a substance is heated to its melting point.
2. Freezing: The phase change from a liquid to a solid, which occurs when a substance is cooled to its freezing point.
3. Sublimation: The phase change from a solid to a gas, or from a gas to a solid, without passing through the liquid
phase. An example of sublimation is the direct conversion of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) to carbon dioxide gas.
4. Deposition: The reverse process of sublimation, where a gas changes directly into a solid without passing through the
liquid phase. An example is the formation of frost on a cold surface.
5. Condensation: The phase change from a gas to a liquid, which occurs when a gas is cooled to its condensation point.
6. Vaporization: The phase change from a liquid to a gas, which includes both boiling (occurs at the boiling point) and
evaporation (occurs at the surface of a liquid at temperatures below the boiling point).

These phases of physical change are essential to understanding the behavior of different substances under various
conditions and are fundamental concepts in fields such as chemistry and physics.
What is useful and harmful materials?
Useful - Useful is to be able to use for a practical purpose; good effect; beneficial.
 Materials are considered useful when it serves a purpose. These materials may have properties such as
durability, resistance to water, heat or acid, flexibility, elasticity and hardness Some useful materials can also be
reused. Materials made of metals, ceramics, wood, textiles as well as plastics and rubbers are considered useful
materials.
Harmful - Harmful materials like to cause harm/ injury or damage; dangerous.
 harmful materials are when they are made for a certain purpose only and can cause injury when not used
properly. Harmful materials may have these properties: corrosive, flammable explosive, or poisonous or
reactive.
Example of Useful Materials
 Raindrop on the plant leaves
 planting fruit bearing trees
 Books
 Fruit peeling
Example of Harmful Materials
 Cutting trees
 Burning Tires
 Bleach
 Car battery

Understanding Changes in Matter: Presence or Absence of Oxygen

 Understanding changes in matter, particularly those caused by the presence or absence of oxygen, entails
understanding how various substances transform as a result of their interaction with oxygen. This understanding
is essential for explaining phenomena like metal rusting or oxidation, as well as fruit enzymatic browning.
Oxygen frequently initiates chemical reactions that result in visible changes in the properties and appearance of
various materials. Where oxygen is scarce or absent, such as in a controlled environment, these changes may be
mitigated or slowed. This fundamental knowledge is applicable in a wide range of fields, from chemistry to
environmental science.
1. Rusting/Oxidation:
 Rusting, also known as oxidation, is a chemical process in which metals, such as iron, react with oxygen and
moisture in the air to form rust, a new substance that weakens the metal's structural integrity and appears as a
reddish-brown color. This process involves the modification of the chemical makeup of the metal as a result of
the combination of oxygen, resulting in visible changes on the metal surface and potential consequences such as
weakening and aesthetic alterations. To reduce the impact of rusting on metal structures, preventive measures
include protective coatings and minimizing exposure to moisture.
 Metals, like iron, exposed to air react with oxygen and moisture.
 Result: Formation of a new substance known as "rust."
2. Fruit Oxidation:
 Fruit oxidation is a natural chemical reaction that occurs when fruits, such as apples, are exposed to air, resulting
in enzymatic browning as enzymes react with oxygen, altering the fruit's color and potentially impacting taste
and texture.
 Cutting an apple release enzyme.
 Enzymes, in contact with oxygen, trigger a chemical reaction.
 Outcome: Apple turns brown.
 Process: Oxidation.

3. Burning:
 Burning is a combustion process in which a substance, typically fuel, undergoes a chemical reaction with oxygen,
releasing heat and producing gases that further react with oxygen to sustain a continuous flame, necessitating
the presence of three major elements: fuel, heat, and oxygen.
 Fire requires three main elements to sustain: fuel, heat, and oxygen.
 As fuel heats up, it releases gases that mix with air.
 Reaction with oxygen produces more heat, perpetuating the fire.

4. Aeration:
 Aeration is the process by which air comes into contact with water, allowing the water to absorb more oxygen.
Water movement in natural settings, such as splashing or streaming in a river, improves aeration, allowing
aquatic organisms like fish to obtain the necessary oxygen for respiration via their gills.
 Fish in water require oxygen, not adequately provided by water alone.
 Fish obtain air from above the water surface.
 Aeration: Water movement introduces oxygen, aiding fish respiration.
  By understanding these processes, we gain insights into how matter undergoes changes, either through
exposure to oxygen (as in rusting and fruit oxidation) or by harnessing oxygen to sustain processes like burning
and aeration.

Separating Mixtures
Mixtures
In chemistry, a mixture is a material made up of two or more different chemical substances which are not chemically
bonded. A mixture is the physical combination of two or more substances in which the identities are retained and are
mixed in the form of solutions, suspensions and colloids.

There are different ways of separating the components of mixtures:

1. Manual separation is done to mixtures which components differ in size. Pebbles can be separated manually from
sugar with the use of fingers or tweezers. But this is very tiresome and will take a longer time. A fine screen can also be
used to separate sugar from pebbles.
2. Magnetic separation is a process that uses magnet to separate the magnetic component from a nonmagnetic one.
Iron filings are magnetic, thus can be used to separate them from the nonmagnetic sand.
3. Filtration is a process that can separate suspended particles from the liquid. Water can be separated from starch to
some extent using filtration. An ultra filter can totally separate components of colloidal mixture.
4. Decantation is a process of separating a mixture of liquids that differ in density. The less dense liquid usually stays on
top. The denser liquid such as water tiles at the bottom. In this mixture, oil can be gently poured out of the glass and
retain water. A stirring rod can be used to guide the less dense liquid to the other container.
5. Evaporation process is used to separate a solute that has been dissolved in water. A small amount of mixture of salt
and water can be heated, and when water evaporates, salt remains on the evaporating dish.
6. Freezing or cooling is a process of separating mixture used for mixtures composed of two liquid components of
different freezing points. In the mixture of oil and water, oil has lower freezing point thus solidifies first. It is then
separated easily from the water component that is still in liquid state.

Humans know of their surrounding because of the sense organs. Each organ has distinct parts and function. Let us begin
studying the five sense organs of the human body that enable us to respond to stimuli making us more aware of our
body and environment.

SENSE ORGANS OF THE HUMAN BODY

Sense organs provide the required data for interpretation through various organs and a network of nerves in response
to a particular physical phenomenon. These senses govern our association and our interaction with the environment.
These five sense organs contain receptors that relay information through the sensory neurons to the appropriate places
within the nervous system. (The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of nerves. This
system sends messages back and forth between the brain and the body. The brain is what controls all the body's
functions. )
The nervous system must receive and process information about the world outside in order to react, communicate, and
keep the body healthy and safe. Much of this information comes through the sensory organs: the eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, and skin. Specialized cells and tissues within these organs receive raw stimuli and translate them into signals the
nervous system can use. Nerves relay the signals to the brain, which interprets them as sight (vision), sound (hearing),
smell (olfaction), taste (gustation), and touch (tactile perception).
SENSE ORGANS OF THE HUMAN BODY
1. The Eye
Our eyes are situated in the front of our head, in two sturdy sockets. Eyes are very similar to cameras. Like cameras, eyes
take pictures of the world around you. With the help of our eyes, we perceive the color, size, and movement of the
objects around us. It has the receptors that receive light as stimulus from our surroundings.
  The sclera is the white part of the eye. It is made of a tough material that protects the inside of the eye.It covers
the entire outside of your eyeball, except the cornea.
 The choroid is the middle layer of the wall of the eye, lying between the retina and the sclera. It is filled with
blood vessels that bring oxygen and nutrients to the eye.
 The pupil is a sort of hole in the middle of your iris or black dot at the center of the eye, is an opening through
which light can enter the eye. The pupil changes its size to control the amount of light that enters the eye. Size
of the pupil decreasing or increasing depending upon the intensity of light entering the eye. Size increasing in
low light and size decreasing in high intensity light.
 The iris is the colored part in front of the eye. It helps screen and control the amount of light that enters the eye.
Behind the cornea is a ring of muscle, the iris which expands or contracts in response to light.
 The cornea is the transparent film-like part that enables the eye to focus on images so they do not look blurred.
Light enters the cornea of the eye
 The lens is located behind the pupil, acts like a camera lens that focuses light rays onto the retina .It then
bounces off this light to the back of the eye. It can also become thicker for close objects or thinner for far away
objects to make the picture as clear as possible. It is made up of a transparent jelly like substance which is made
up of proteins.
 The retina is the sensory membrance, lying at the back of our eye. It composed of several layers of cells called
photoreceptor. Two types of photo receptor cells in the eye- rods and cones. Rods: These sensors function in
low light and are found at the edges of the retina. They also aid in peripheral vision. Cones: These types of
retinal cells work best in bright light, detecting fine details and colour. There are three types of cones for
detecting three primary colours of light, namely: blue, red and green. Typically, colourblindness occurs when any
one of these types of cones are not present. The rods and cones are parts of the sensory neuron that is from the
optic nerve.
 The optic nerve transmits electrical impulses or nerve messages from the eye to the brain. The optic nerve
connects to the brain. When light stimulates the retina, the message is sent to the brain by the optic nerve. The
brain interprets and forms an image that you see.
 Vitreous Body is a clear, jelly-like substance that fills the space between lens and the retina. It helps to preserve
eye’s shape.

2. The Nose
It plays an important role in daily experiences, from enjoying the aroma of food to detecting potential danger from
smoke or gas leaks. There are receptors in the nose that are stimulated by perfume, coffee brew, decaying trash,
burning paper or chicken stew.

Parts of the nose

 The nasal vestibule is the space inside the nostril (nose opening).The nostrils and the nasal passages are
separated by a wall called the septum (The septum separates the two chambers of the nose. It is a thin bone and
cartilage wall) . Inside the nostrils are tiny hair called cilia. It is lined with tissue that has short hair. The hair
strands help filter dust and allergens to keep them from entering the lungs.
 The nasal cavity is the empty, hollow space through which air flows. It is divided into two parts known as nasal
passages. While breathing, air passes through these passages. The nasal cavity consists of all the bones, tissues,
blood vessels, and nerves that make up the inside of the nose. It contains special cells that are involved in the
sense of smell. The frontal sinus has a lining made up of cells that make mucus. Mucus keeps the lining of the
nose moist and traps dust, dirt, and pollen.
 The frontal sinus has a lining made up of cells that make mucus. Mucus keeps the lining of the nose moist and
traps dust, dirt, and pollen.
 The sphenoidal sinus is an air cavity within the body of the sphenoid bone. It is a midline structure located
anterior to the clivus, posterior to the superior meatus of the nasal cavity
 Sinuses are hollow, air-filled chambers in the bone surrounding the nose. The sinuses send mucus into the nasal
cavity.
 The superior turbinate is a narrow air passageway on the side wall of the nose.
 The middle turbinate is in the central nasal cavity.
 The inferior turbinate is a narrow air passageway inside the nose.
These three turbinates are made of a tissue that warms, purifies, and moistens the air.
During a cold, the body produces mucus which blocks the sense of smell; this is the reason why the food which we eat
tastes bland. They are also vital for nasal drainage.
 The olfactory receptors are located in both the cilia and synapses of the olfactory sensory neurons and in the
epithelium of the human airway. A structure in the brain that receives signals from the olfactory receptor
neurons.
 The active opening of the Eustachian tube to relieve positive or negative pressure in the middle ear commonly is
called “clearing the ear.” The Eustachian tube is located in the para-pharyngeal space and is closely linked to
the infratemporal fossa.

3. The Tongue
Taste is usually associated with smell. It is also responsible for sensing temperature, texture, and other sensations in
food.

Parts of the Tongue

 The body of the tongue helps facilitate the movement of food and assists in swallowing. It is also responsible for
detecting tastes.
 The apex of the tongue is the part at the end that makes contact with the teeth. The fibers in the apex allow you
to pull the tip of your tongue.
 The sulcus terminalis is a V-shaped groove that separates the tongue into symmetrical halves.
 The lingual tonsil is located on the back surface of the tongue. It helps protect the throat from harmful bacteria
and viruses.
 The palatine tonsil is located at the back of the throat. It helps stimulate the immune response to fight off
infection.
 The epiglottis is an elastic cartilage flap behind the tongue. Its main function is to close over the windpipe while
you are eating, to prevent food entering the airways.
HOW DO WE TASTE?
On the surface of the tongues are wart like bumps that are called papillae, there four types namely fungiform,
circumvallate foliate and filiform(most numerous but have no taste buds) Taste buds are located in the walls and
grooves of these papillae and most adults have between 2000-4000 buds in total. They consists mainly of a taste pore,
sensory cells, taste hairs and nerve fibers. So a flavour enters a taste pore, the sensory cells analyze the flavour, and
send the information to never fibres. The nerve fibers then send the data to the brain and we call already know the
flavour that we’re tasting. There five main flavours namely sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami/ savoury.
When you have stuffy nose, you say that the food is of bad taste. The taste receptors can detect chemicals in substances
just like the smell receptors. According to an article, the sensation of taste and smell are correlated, and the sensation
of smell is also perceived by the mouth- called olfactory referral. The senses of smell and taste tend to work together. If
one could not smell something, they could not taste it either. The sense of taste is also known as gustaoception.

4. The Ear
The ear makes us identify sounds around us. It is the body organ that makes us hear. The sense of hearing allows you to
perceive sound waves in your environment and interpret them as different sounds. It involves the ears and the brain
working together to process and understand the auditory information you receive..
We hear because the outer ear collects sound waves that travel in the ear to the ear canal. The eardrum vibrates and
moves the three small bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) of the middle ear. From there, the sound receptors in the fluid
filled cochlea produce vibration as the sound waves travel into the inner ear.The nerve transmits the stimulus to the
brain and is interpreted. Then we can distinguish what we hear. The ear also helps us maintain balance.

Parts of the Ears

  The ear canal is a passage way and amplifier for sound waves. It is a tube that runs from the outer ear to the
middle ear. It is lined with hairs and glands that secrete wax. The wax traps dusts and bacteria.
 The eardrum, also called the tymphanic membrane, is a thin layer of tissue that separates the outer ear from
the middle ear. The eardrum vibrates when sound waves hit it. These vibrations move the bones in the middle
ear.
 The middle ear contains three ossicles, which are tiny bones that transfer the sound from the eardrum to the
inner ear.
 The inner ear, also called the labyrinth, is responsible for the body's sense of hearing and balance. It is called a
labyrinth because of its complex shape.
 The Eustachian tube equalizes the air pressure between the inner and outer surfaces of the ear drum.
 The cochlea is a snail-shaped hearing organ. It is made up of three chambers that spiral around a bony core. The
hair cells inside the cochlea detect sound and send the information through the cochlear nerve.
 The auditory nerve or cochlear nerve runs from the cochlea to the brain stem. It transforms the sound
vibrations into electrical impulses sent to the brain.

5. The Skin
The skin is the largest organ of the human body that provides a protective barrier between the external environment
and the internal organs. It helps regulate body temperature. Skins thickness varies from 0.5 millimeters at its thinnest
and up to four millimetres at its thickest.
It protects the inner body parts from exposure to harmful substances and even germs. The skin enables us to detect
sensation, temperature, pressure and pain. There are receptors in the skin that detect stimuli. For example, when you
are wounded, you fell pain because the pain receptors react to the injury and feeling the pain will tell us that something
has to be done with the wound. Hot and cold air or water can be detected by temperature receptors. Our skin is also
sensitive to touch. A light comforting touch by your mother makes you smile even when you are sick. The skin contains
general receptors which can detect touch, pain, pressure and temperature. They are present throughout the skin. Skin
receptors generate an impulse, and when activated, is carried to the spinal cord and then to the brain.

Parts of Skin
 The epidermis is the outer layer that you can see or feel. It protects the body from damage and helps regulate
body temperature. Skin sheds its dead skin cells on a daily basis creating a new layer of skin every 28 days. It
provides a waterproof barrier. It creates our skin tone the skin’s color is created by special cells known as
melanocytes that produce a pigment melanin.
 The dermis is the layer under the epidermis. It contains nerve endings, blood vessels, oil glands, and sweat
glands. Hair grows from follicles found in the dermis. Even before an object touches the skin, the hair makes it
possible to feel that object. The skin send messages to the brain about all the things you touch. Then the brain
decides how to responds towards it.
 The sweat is generated in the sweat glands and it comes out of a hole known as pores, it controls the body
temperature. The sweat gland makes sweat. Its main function is to control body temperature. Sweat is mainly
water, but it also contains some salts.
  The vein is a blood vessel that returns blood from the skin to the heart. It works together with other blood
vessels to keep the blood moving.
 The artery is a blood vessel that carries blood from the heart. The blood carries oxygen and nutrients.
 The hypodermis is the deepest layer of the skin. It connects the dermis layer to the muscles and bones. It
contains a layer of adipose tissue. This fat pads your bones and muscles and protects them from bumps and
falls. It also helps our body from getting too cold and or too warm.
 The hair bulb forms the base of the hair follicle. In the hair bulb, cells divide to build and grow the hair.
 The adipose tissue is also known as body fat. It acts as a layer of insulation and protects the internal organs and
muscles.

HUMAN MAJOR ORGANS

STOMACH

Location:
The stomach is in our tummy, just below the ribcage.
It's part of the digestive system.
Job of the Stomach:
Receives the food we eat.
Helps break down the food into smaller pieces.
How it Works:
Acts like a mixing bowl: food gets mixed with special juices. These juices help turn food into a kind of soupy mixture.
Importance:
Prepares food for the next step in the digestive system. Extracts good stuff (nutrients) from the food.
Feeling Hungry:
When the stomach is empty, it tells us we're hungry. Eating fills up the stomach and makes us feel satisfied. Not Always
Empty:
Stomach can expand when we eat a lot, but it goes back to its normal size.
Digestive Teamwork:
Works with other organs like the intestines to help our body get energy. It's like a team inside our body!
Remember, the stomach is like a special kitchen that helps our body get the energy it needs from the food we eat.

Parts of the Stomach and Their Functions:

Cardia
Location: Near the connection to the esophagus.
Function: Receives food from the esophagus and starts the digestive process.
Fundus
Location: Upper part of the stomach. Function: Stores food temporarily.
Body
Location: Main central region of the stomach.
Function: Mixes food with digestive juices, turning it into a soupy mixture.
Pylorus
Location: Lower part of the stomach.
Function: Acts like a gate, controlling the release of the soupy mixture (now called chyme) into the small intestine.
Antrum
Location: Lower part of the stomach, near the pylorus.
Function: Helps grind and mix food with digestive juices.
Remember, these parts work together to mix, store, and prepare food for further digestion in the intestines. It's like a
team effort inside your stomach to make sure your body gets the energy and nutrients it needs from the food you eat

SMALL INTESTINE

Location
The small intestine is in our tummy, right after the stomach. It's a long, twisty tube inside our body.
Job of the Small Intestine
Takes the soupy mixture (chyme) from the stomach. Finishes breaking down the food into tiny pieces.
How it Works
Uses special juices to help with digestion.
Absorbs the good stuff (nutrients) from the tiny pieces of food.

THREE PARTS
1. Duodenum
Function: The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine, right after the stomach. Its main job is to receive the
soupy mixture (chyme) from the stomach. In the duodenum, digestive juices from the pancreas and gallbladder mix with
the chyme to break down the food into smaller pieces. This is where a lot of digestion happens.
2. Jejunum
Function: The jejunum is the middle part of the small intestine. After the chyme leaves the duodenum, the jejunum
continues the process of breaking down food into even smaller pieces. It also plays a crucial role in absorbing nutrients—
like a sponge, it soaks up the good stuff from the tiny pieces of food.
3. Ileum
Function: The ileum is the last part of the small intestine, connecting to the large intestine. Here, the remaining nutrients
are absorbed, and any last bits of digestion happen. The ileum works to make sure our body gets all the important
nutrients from the food we eat before whatever is left moves on to the next part of the digestive system.

Absorption
Like a sponge, the small intestine soaks up the nutrients from the food. Nutrients go into the blood to give energy to our
whole body.
Teamwork with Stomach:
Works with the stomach to make sure our body gets what it needs. It's like a relay race where the baton is the chyme!
Final Stretch
Whatever's left after the small intestine goes to the large intestine. The small intestine is like the superhero of digestion!
Remember, the small intestine is like a smart tube that helps turn our food into energy and nutrients for our body.

KIDNEY
Location
Kidneys are inside our body, near the back, one on each side. They're like bean-shaped filters.
Job of the Kidneys
Kidneys help keep our body clean and healthy.
They act like special filters for our blood.
Filtration Magic
Kidneys filter our blood to remove waste and extra stuff our body doesn't need. This waste turns into pee, and the good
stuff stays in our blood.
Pee Power
Pee is the liquid waste that comes out when we go to the bathroom. It's our body's way of getting rid of things it doesn't
need.
Balancing Act
Kidneys help balance important things in our body, like water and salt. They make sure our body has the right amount of
everything.
Like Cleaners
Think of kidneys as super cleaners inside our body, keeping things tidy. They work all the time to make sure we stay
healthy.
Stay Hydrated
Drinking water helps kidneys do their job better.
It's like giving them a special fuel to keep our body in good shape.
Remember, our kidneys are like superheroes inside us, keeping our blood clean and our body in balance.

Kidney Parts and Their Functions

Renal Cortex
Function: The outer layer where blood is filtered. It's like the kidney's "filtering factory."
Renal Medulla
Function: The inner part that helps carry the filtered urine to the renal pelvis. Think of it like the kidney's "transport
system."
Renal Pelvis
Function: Collects urine from the medulla and sends it to the ureter. It's like a funnel that gathers all the urine.
Ureter
Function: Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. They're like highways for urine.
Bladder
Function: A storage bag for urine. When it's full, we feel like we need to go to the bathroom. The bladder holds onto the
urine until we're ready to let it out.
Renal Artery
The renal artery is like the "delivery highway" for the kidneys. It brings the blood, which carries all the
things the kidneys need to filter, to the kidneys. It's like a special road that brings the blood to the kidney so that it can
start its cleaning process.
Renal Vein
The renal vein is like the "cleaned blood highway." After the kidney filters the blood and removes the waste, the clean
blood travels back to the rest of the body through the renal vein. It's like a special road that takes the good, clean blood
to where it's needed.
Remember, kidneys work together with these parts to keep our blood clean and make sure our body stays in balance.
They filter out the waste, and the result is the pee that comes out when we go to the bathroom. It's like our body's way
of staying tidy inside!

BONES

What Are Bones?

Bones are hard parts inside our body that make up our skeleton. They give our body shape and support, like a frame for
a building. How Many Bones?
Adults have 206 bones, and kids have even more!
Babies are born with around 270 bones, but some fuse together as we grow.

Types of Bones:
 Long Bones: Like our arm and leg bones, they help us move.
 Flat Bones: Like the ones in our skull, they protect important parts.
 Short Bones: Like those in our wrists and ankles, they provide stability.

Bones in Our Lower Body

Femur
Location: Thigh bone, the longest and strongest bone in the body. Function: Supports our body weight and helps with
walking and running.
Patella
Location: Knee cap, in front of the knee joint.
Function: Protects the knee joint and helps in movement, especially bending the knee.
Tibia
Location: Shinbone, on the inner side of the lower leg.
Function: Supports body weight and works with the fibula for leg movement.
Fibula
Location: Thinner bone next to the tibia in the lower leg.
Function: Provides support and stability to the leg, works with the tibia for movement.

Our lower body bones work together to support our weight, help us move, and maintain balance. They are essential for
activities like walking, running, and even standing still!
Bone Jobs
 Support: Bones hold our body up and give it structure.
 Protection: They protect important organs, like the skull protects the brain.
 Movement: Muscles attach to bones, helping us walk, run, and jump.
Bone Inside
Bones are not just hard, they're also hollow inside.
The inside has a special substance called bone marrow, which makes blood cells.
Growing Bones
Bones grow with us as we get taller.
Eating healthy foods, like those rich in calcium, helps bones stay strong.
Taking Care of Bones
Exercise helps bones stay strong and healthy.
Wearing helmets and seat belts protects our bones from accidents.

Remember, our bones are like the body's building blocks, and they play a crucial role in helping us move, protecting our
organs, and staying healthy overall.

MUSCLES
What Are Muscles?
Muscles are special parts in our body that help us move.
They're like little helpers that work together to make our body do things.
How Many Muscles?
We have over 600 muscles in our body. Muscles come in different sizes and shapes.
Types of Muscles
 Skeletal Muscles: Attach to our bones and help us move voluntarily, like when we run or play sports.
 Smooth Muscles: Found in organs and work automatically, like in our stomach and intestines.
 Cardiac Muscles: Only in our heart, they pump blood automatically.

Muscle Jobs
 Movement: Muscles help us walk, jump, and play sports.
 Stability: Muscles keep our body strong and balanced.
 Breathing: Muscles help us breathe in and out.

Working in Pairs
Muscles usually work in pairs. When one muscle pulls, the other relaxes. It's like a tug-of-war inside our body, helping us
move smoothly.
Exercise and Muscles
Exercise makes our muscles strong and healthy. Running, jumping, and playing sports are great ways to keep our
muscles fit.
Taking Care of Muscles
Eating healthy food gives our muscles energy.
Stretching helps keep muscles flexible and less likely to get hurt.

Remember, muscles are like our body's movers and shakers. They help us do everything from playing games to simply
breathing!

BRAIN

CEREBRUM -The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is responsible for thinking memory and CONTROLLING
VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS-are actions that we consciously control typically intentional Ex: walking and running, writing,
brushing your teeth.
LONG TERM MEMORY- Cerebral cortex
SHORT TERM MEMORY- hippocampus
LEFT HEMISPHERE - often associated with language skills, analytical thinking logic and mathematics. It is also responsible
for controlling the right side of the body.
RIGHT HEMISPHERE - this hemisphere is linked to creativity, artistic Abilities spatial awareness and emotional
processing. It controls the left side of the body.
CEREBELLUM- part of the brain located at the back of the head. Beneath cerebrum. Its primary functions is to coordinate
and regulate motor movements, balance and posture.
Example: When you actively engage a mountain climbing the cerebellum receives signals that are transmitted to the
cerebrum and direct movements of the arms, hands, legs and other parts of the body.
BRAINSTEM- The brainstem is a vital part of the brain that connects the cerebrum (The largest part of the brain) to the
spinal cord.
-The brainstem plays a crucial role in controlling many basic Functions of the body including breathing, heart rate and
basic reflexes.
Brainstem consist of Three Main regions:
1. MIDBRAIN - Is part of the brainstem that helps with various sensory and motor functions Like controlling eye
movement and processing visual and auditory information.
VISUAL PROCESSING
For example, when an unexpected visual stimulus appears, this structure can initiate reflexive eye movement.
How your eye moves instinctively.
AUDITORY INFORMATION
-used to determine the direction, intensity and other characteristics of sound.
2. PONS - is a region in the brainstem that helps relay signals between different parts of the brain. The Functions
like sleep, facial movement and some BASIC SENSORY ROLES example: our eyes detect light and allow us to see
objects.
3. MEDULLA OBLONGATA- Part of the brain stem that controls essential functions like breathing, heart rate and
blood pressure.

Note: We can keep our brain healthy by EATING BALANCED DIET FOOD to avoid concussion from fall or blow in the
head. concussion is somehow a mild traumatic brain injury such as loss of consciousness, amnesia. Headache.

HEART

HEART- The heart is located at the center of the chest cavity below the bone called STERNUM or
breastbone it is a flat elongated bone that provides protection to the heart and major blood vessels.
-It is a hollow muscular organ about the size of our [Fist] yet a powerful part of our body in the
circulation of blood that carries nutrients from small intestine to body parts. As well as in the transport and exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
-It is an organ covered by a double walled sac called the pericardium.

The heart has 4 chambers or 4 separate section that play or crucial role pumping blood throughout the body;
✔The Ventricles are the LOWER CHAMBER
LEFT VENTRICLE- is the thickest and most powerful chamber of the heart that pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
RIGHT VENTRICLE- Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

✔The Atrium are the UPPER CHAMBER

LEFT ATRIUM- the one who receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
RIGHT ATRIUM- The one who receives deoxygenated blood from the body.
Note: atrium- singular
atria- plural
Oxygenated- something has oxygen in it or has been exposed to oxygen.
Deoxygenated- something has had oxygen removed from it. Making it less oxygen rich.
Aorta- is like the body's major highway for delivering blood and oxygen to all the organs.
Pulmonary Artery -is a blood vessel that carries oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs. It’s like the road that
takes used" blood to the lungs for a refill of oxygen.
Pulmonary vein- a blood vessel that brings oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart. It is a Freshly oxygenated
blood.
Mitral valve - is like a door in the heart that opens and close to control the flow of blood between the left atrium and
left ventricle. It is to ensure that blood mover in the right direction within the heart.
Tricuspid valve- is like a door in the heart that controls the flow of blood between the right atrium and right ventricle. it
is to ensure that blood moves in the right direction.
Superior vena cava- is like a large vein that brings oxygen- poor blood from the upper part of the body back to the heart.
Inferior vena cava- is like a major vein that carries oxygen poor blood from the lower part of the body back to the heart.

Note: We must take care of our heart because one of the major causes of death in modern times is HEART ATTACK.
Avoiding tobacco smoking and Choosing food with good cholesterol can help reduce cases of heart disorders.

LUNGS

LUNGS- are the two organs in your chest that help you breath they take in oxygen when you inhale and release carbon
dioxide when you exhale. In short lungs help you breath.
Trachea(windpipe) -is like a tube in your throat that carries air from your mouth and nose to your lungs. Allowing you to
breath.
Bronchitis or bronchioles- is like a larger airway or tube in your lungs that helps carry air to and from your lungs allow
you to breath and exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Capillaries- are the tiniest blood vessels in our body that connect arteries and veins and allow nutrients and oxygen to
be delivered to cells.
Alveoli- are tiny air sacs in our lungs where oxygen from the area breath enters your bloodstream.
Superior lobe the upper part of the lung.
Middle lobe is situated in the middle.
Inferior lobe is in the lower portion of the lungs.

Always remember that the lungs do not have muscles to support in breathing function.
Note: The lungs may be affected by severe smoking and gems such as those that cause tuberculosis and pneumonia. We
must take care in our lungs by limiting exposure to pollutants in the air by using face mask. Avoiding the area where
there is smoking and exercising regularly to allow the lungs to work efficiently.

LIVER
LIVER- is a large internal by organ. Its principal function is to produce bile that is important in breaking fats into droplets.
Bile is not an enzyme. From the liver the bile is stored in the gallbladder before it is released in the small intestine.
Location: The liver is inside our tummy, on the right side, just under the ribcage. It's one of the largest organs in our
body.
Job of the Liver
The liver is like a superhero that helps keep our body clean and healthy. It has many important jobs!
Filtering Blood
The liver cleans our blood by removing harmful stuff, like toxins and waste. It's like a bodyguard protecting us from bad
things in our blood.
Making Good Stuff
The liver makes important things our body needs, like proteins and chemicals.
It's like a busy factory creating useful things for our body.
Storing Energy
The liver stores extra energy in the form of glycogen.
When our body needs energy, the liver releases it, like a snack supply.
Helping Digestion
The liver makes a special juice called bile that helps our stomach digest food. It's like a chef adding a special ingredient
to make food easier to digest.
Regrowing Power
If the liver gets hurt, it can regrow and heal itself. It's like a magical organ that can fix itself!

Remember, the liver is like a hardworking superhero in our body, doing many important jobs to keep us healthy and
happy.

Liver Functions and Associated Structures

Hepatocytes (Liver Cells)
Function: Hepatocytes are the main cells in the liver that perform various functions.
Job: They help filter harmful substances from the blood, produce important proteins, and store energy.
Bile Ducts
Function: Bile ducts are like tiny tubes that carry bile, a special juice made by the liver.
Job: Bile helps break down fats in our food during digestion, making it easier for the body to absorb nutrients.
Blood Vessels (Hepatic Artery and Portal Vein)
Function: These are like blood highways that bring blood to the liver.
Job: The liver cleans the blood, removing toxins and waste, and then sends the cleaned blood back to the rest of the
body.
Gallbladder
Function: The gallbladder is a small sac-like organ that stores bile produced by the liver.
Job: When needed, the gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine to help with digestion.

Remember, these different parts and functions of the liver work together to perform essential tasks that keep our body
healthy and functioning properly

MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Female Reproductive System
 The female reproductive system is made of of several organs including ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, and
vagina it is very important because it is responsible for producing egg cells and supporting the developing baby
inside a mothers womb.
 Female reproductive cells "egg cell " egg cell is not capable of movement unlike sperm cell when sperm cell and
egg cell unite fertilization happens

1. Ovaries -they are like egg factories, they store and produce your egg and make hormones that control your menstrual
cycle and pregnancy so if the egg gets fertilized it can lead to pregnancy.
2.The fallopian tubes are like tiny tunnels that connect the ovaries to the uterus. They help carry the eggs from the
ovaries to the uterus. If an egg meets a sperm in the fallopian tube, it can lead to pregnancy.
3. Uterus: The uterus is like a special room inside a woman's body where a baby can grow and develop. It's like a cozy
home for the baby before it is born.
4. Cervix: The cervix is like a small door at the bottom of the uterus. It helps protect the uterus and keeps things in place.
It also opens up a little bit during childbirth to let the baby come out.
5. Vagina: The vagina is like a pathway that connects the outside of a woman's body to the uterus. It's where the baby
comes out during childbirth. It's also where menstrual blood comes out during a woman's period.

Male Reproductive System

1. Testis: Produce sperm and testosterone.

2. Epididymis: Stores and matures sperm.
3. Vas deferens: Transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.
4. Urethra: Passage for both urine and semen to exit the body.
5. Prostate gland: Small, walnut-shaped gland that produces seminal fluid.
6. Semen: Fluid that contains sperm and other substances from the male reproductive system.
7. Sperm: Microscopic reproductive cells produced in the testicles that carry genetic material.
8. Scrotum: The external sac holds and protects the testicles.
9. Seminal Vesicle: produce the fluids that will turn into semen.
10. Ejaculatory Duct: Delivers sperm into the urethra

THE HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEM AT WORK

6 General Parts of the Integumentary System
• Hair • Sweat Glands • Epidermis • Dermis. • Fatty Tissue • Blood V G6

• Hair - Hair is the fine threads that grow on your skin. Its purpose is to protect your skin and help regulate body
temperature.
• Sweat Glands -Sweat glands produce sweat, which helps cool your body when it gets too hot and also keep your skin
moist.
• Epidermis - The epidermis is the outermost layer of your skin. It serves as a protective shield against germs and injury
or physical damage.
• Dermis - The dermis is the layer beneath the epidermis. It contains blood vessels, nerves, and structures like hair
follicles and sweat glands. It’s like the control center for your skin.
• Fatty Tissue - Layers of fat beneath the dermis that insulate and protect your body. Its purpose is to provide insulation
to keep your body warm and to protect your body from bumps and injuries.
•Blood Vessels - Blood vessels are like tiny highways in your skin, carrying blood that provides nutrients and oxygen to
your skin cells. They also help regulate your body temperature.

MAIN FUNCTION OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system’s main function is to protect the body. It also helps you feel things, like when you touch
something hot, and it helps control your body’s temperature

5 Parts of The Digestive System

• Stomach • Small Intestine. • Large Intestine • Rectum • Anus

• Stomach -It churns and mixes the food you eat with special juices to break it down.
• Small Intestine - It absorbs the good stuff from your food, like vitamins and minerals, into your body.
• Large Intestine - It soaks up the remaining water and minerals from what’s left of your food after the small intestine is
done with it.
• Rectum - It holds the waste (poop) until your body is ready to get rid of it.
• Anus -When your body is ready, the anus opens, and you can get rid of the waste as poop.

MAIN FUNCTION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system helps your body turn the food you eat into energy and important nutrients. It’s like a food
processor for your body, breaking down food and giving you the good stuff your body needs to work and grow.

9 MAJOR PARTS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Brain vessel • Heart • Bowel vessels • Renal blood vessels • Vessels of lower limp • Vessels of upper limp
• Lung vessels. • Liver vessels. • Capillaries

• Brain Vessel – These are like special highways dedicated to carrying blood to and from your brain, ensuring your brain
gets the oxygen and nutrients it needs to function correctly.
• Heart – The heart is the powerful pump that keeps the circulatory system going. It pushes blood through all the blood
vessels to every part of your body,
• Bowel Vessels – These vessels are responsible for supplying blood to your stomach and intestines, supporting the
digestion process.
• Renal Blood Vessels – They help deliver blood for the filtration process in your kidneys, removing waste from your
blood.
• Vessels of Lower Limb – These are the blood highways that transport blood to and from your legs and feet, providing
them with essential nutrients
• Vessels of Upper Limb – these blood vessels take care of your arms and hands, making sure they receive the blood
they need.
• Lung Vessels – These vessels are like the highways that connect your heart to your lungs. They’re responsible for the
crucial job of oxygen exchange in your body.
• Liver Vessels – The liver vessels deliver blood to your liver to facilitate these functions.
• Capillaries – They are where the blood really gets to work, exchanging nutrients and oxygen for waste with the body’s
cells.

MAIN FUNCTION OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The function of the circulatory system is to pump blood throughout your body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to your
cells and removing waste, helping keep your body healthy and functioning properly.

3 PART OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

• Lymphatic Vessels • Lymph Nodes • Lymphatic Organs

• Lymphatic Vessels -Lymphatic vessels are spread throughout your body. Think of these as tiny tubes that carry a clear
fluid called lymph. Lymph is like a special cleaning solution that travels through your body’s tissues. They help clean up
waste and keep us healthy.
• Lymph Nodes – lymph nodes are found in areas like your neck and armpits and groin. They filter the lymph to catch
any bad stuff like germs and other harmful things, helping to keep us safe and healthy.
• Lymphatic Organs – They include the spleen, tonsils, and thymus, The spleen is located on the left side of the
abdomen, under the ribcage, The tonsils are located in the back of the throat and The thymus is a small organ located
behind the breastbone that work together with lymph nodes to protect us from sickness and help our immune system.
They help your body make immune cells to fight off disease

MAIN FUNCTION OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system helps maintain the body’s fluid balance, cleans out harmful substances, and supports the immune
system. It acts like a drainage system, collecting a clear fluid called lymph from tissues, filtering it to remove harmful
things, and producing infection-fighting cells to keep you healthy.

Parts of the Excretory System

• Right and left kidney. • Ureter • Bladder. • Urethra

• Kidneys – These are your body’s filters. They clean your blood by removing waste and extra substances. For example,
they filter out excess water and turn it into urine.
• Ureter – This is like a tube that carries urine from your kidneys to your bladder, just as a pipeline transports water
from one place to another.
• Bladder – It’s like a storage tank for urine. The bladder holds waste until you’re ready to get rid of it, similar to a
container holding liquid until you’re ready to use it.
• Urethra – This is the exit door. When you need to pee, the urethra opens, allowing the urine to flow out of your body,
like a valve releasing water from a hose.

MAIN FUNCTION OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system’s function in the body is to remove waste and extra substances to keep your body clean and
balanced. This system acts like a filter, with the kidneys cleaning your blood by turning waste into urine.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
  Cranium-It's like a hard shell made up of bones, and it surrounds your brain to keep it safe,helps safeguards your
brain and helps support your face
 Mandible - is your jawbone. It's the bone that moves when you talk, eat, or chew. It's like a hinged bone that lets
you open and close your mouth.
 Spinal column-is like your body's backbone. It's a long row of bones that run down your back, helping you stand
up straight and protecting your spinal cord.
 Cervical vertebrae-are the top part of your spinal column, right in your neck. They let you turn your head and
nod up and down, so you can look around and say "yes." ___ If love baka niya yes or no
 Thoracic Vertebrae——The "thoracic vertebrae" are in the middle of your back. They're attached to your ribs
and help protect your heart and lungs.
 Lumbar Vertebrae—are in your lower back. They're the biggest and strongest, helping you stand, sit, and bend.
So, your spinal column and its vertebrae team up to keep you upright, safe, and flexible!
 Clavicle: It's your collarbone. There are two of them, one on each side of your chest. They connect your shoulder
to your chest and help your arms move.
 Manubrium: This is the top part of your breastbone (sternum). It's shaped like a little handle at the base of your
neck and connects to your collarbones.
 Scapula: These are your shoulder blades, one on each side of your upper back. They help you move your arms
and shoulder joints.
 Sternum: It's your breastbone. It's a long, flat bone in the center of your chest. Your ribs attach to it and help
protect your heart and lungs.
 Ribs: You have 12 pairs of ribs that go around your chest. They protect your vital organs like the heart and lungs
and help you breathe by expanding and contracting when you take a breath.
 Ulna: The ulna is one of the two bones in your forearm, the one on the inner side. It's like the bigger bone that
runs from your elbow to your wrist.
 Radius: The radius is the other bone in your forearm, on the outer side. It's the shorter one that connects your
elbow to your wrist.
 Carpals: These are your wrist bones. You have a bunch of small bones in your wrist that let you move your hand
in different directions.
 Metacarpals: These are the bones in your palm, right below your fingers. They give your hand its shape and
support your fingers.
 Phalanges: These are your finger and thumb bones. You have them in each finger and thumb, and they help you
grip things and point.
 Pelvic Girdle: This is like your hip bone. It's a sturdy ring of bones at the base of your spine, and it supports your
body and helps you sit and stand.
 Sacrum: The sacrum is the large, triangular bone at the base of your spine. It's like the foundation of your spine
and connects to your pelvis.
 Coccyx: This is your tailbone. It's a small, curved bone at the very bottom of your spine, and it helps support your
body when you sit.
 Femur: The femur is your thigh bone. It's the longest bone in your body and helps you walk and run.
 Patella: The patella is your kneecap. It's a small, flat bone in front of your knee joint that helps protect it and
allows your knee to bend.
 Tibia: The tibia is the bigger bone in your lower leg, the one on the inner side. It's the main weight-bearing bone
of your lower leg.
 Fibula: This is the smaller bone in your lower leg, on the outer side. It helps stabilize your ankle and leg muscles.
 Tarsals: Tarsals are your ankle bones. You have several of them, and they provide support and flexibility to your
feet.
 Metatarsals: These are the bones in the middle part of your foot, right below your toes. They help your foot
shape and provide support when you walk or run.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system helps you move and stay upright. It includes muscles in your body that let you walk, run, and do
everyday tasks. These muscles also support your posture, keep you balanced, and help protect important organs. They
generate heat to control your body temperature and assist in vital functions like blood circulation and digestion. Some
muscles work when you want them to (voluntary), like when you raise your hand, while others work automatically
(involuntary), like your heart beating or your stomach digesting food. In your face, muscles let you show emotions and
communicate through expressions. So, the muscular system is what keeps you moving and functioning every day.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Brain: The brain is like the boss of your body. It's the control center for everything you do, think, and feel. It
helps you see, hear, talk, and learn. It's super important!
 Cerebellum: Think of the cerebellum as your body's balance and coordination manager. It helps you walk, dance,
and do activities that need steady movements.
  Cerebrum: The cerebrum is like the thinking part of your brain. It helps you solve problems, remember things,
and be creative. It's where you do your "smart" stuff.
 Brain Stem: The brain stem is like the body's autopilot. It controls automatic functions like breathing, your
heartbeat, and even swallowing. It's a bit like the brain's bodyguard, making sure you keep doing these essential
things without thinking about them.
 Function - The nervous system is like your body's control center. It senses what's happening, thinks about it, and
makes your body react. It helps you move, feel, and respond to the world around you.

ENDOCTRINE SYSTEM
 Pituitary gland - The pituitary gland receives signals from the hypothalamus. This gland has two lobes, the
posterior and anterior lobes. The posterior lobe secretes hormones that are made by the hypothalamus. The
anterior lobe produces its own hormones, several of which act on other endocrine glands.
 Thyroid gland - The thyroid gland is critical to the healthy development and maturation of vertebrates and
regulates metabolism.
 Adrenal glands - The adrenal gland is made up of two glands: the cortex and medulla. These glands produce
hormones in response to stress and regulate blood pressure, glucose metabolism, and the body's salt and water
balance.
 Pancreas - The pancreas is responsible for producing glucagon and insulin. Both hormones help regulate the
concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood.
 Gonads - The male reproductive gonads, or testes, and female reproductive gonads, or ovaries, produce steroids
that affect growth and development and also regulate reproductive cycles and behaviors. The major categories
of gonadal steroids are androgens, estrogens, and progestins, all of which are found in both males and females
but at different levels.
 The endocrine system uses hormones to control and balance important functions in your body, like growth,
metabolism, and reproduction. It's like a manager that ensures everything in your body works well and adapts to
different situations