applied
sciences
Article
Mitigating Risks in Coal Mining: Simulation-Based Strategy for
Oxidation Zone Control Using Inorganic Paste Backfill at the
Working Face Corners
Lei Sun, Chong Li *, Zhijun Xu
Citation: Sun, L.; Li, C.; Xu, Z.; Tai, L.;
Cao, Y.; Zhang, X. Mitigating Risks in
Coal Mining: Simulation-Based
Strategy for Oxidation Zone Control
Using Inorganic Paste Backfill at the
Working Face Corners. Appl. Sci.
2023, 13, 13216. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app132413216
Academic Editor: Leonarda Liotta
Received: 14 November 2023
Revised: 9 December 2023
Accepted: 9 December 2023
Published: 13 December 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132413216
, Lianhai Tai, Yue Cao and Xiaowu Zhang
School of Mining Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China;
tb23020029a41@cumt.edu.cn (L.S.)
* Correspondence: lichongky@163.com
Abstract: Insufficient stability of the top plate at the corner of an easily combustible coal seam
comprehensive mining face may lead to a natural fire within the goaf. While corner sealing is crucial
for minimizing air leakage, current sealing methods struggle to effectively prevent such leakage.
Additionally, the distribution characteristics of the oxidation zone in the goaf after sealing are unclear,
making it difficult to control the extent of the oxidation zone. To address these issues, a new type of
inorganic paste filling material was developed, taking into account the conditions of the Cuncaota II
Mine. Various corner-filling schemes were developed, and numerical simulations were used to study
the effects of different corner-filling strategies and varying filling interval distances on the width of
the oxidation zone in the goaf. Based on these findings, a working face corner-filling technology was
proposed and applied to the 22,122 working face. The research results indicate that the mountain
sand-based paste filling material, using mountain sand as the filling aggregate and cement and fly
ash as the binding materials, not only meets the pumping requirements but also exhibits excellent
self-supporting characteristics, thereby addressing the corner filling needs of the working face. The
width variation in the oxidation zone in the goaf is influenced by the position and interval distance
of the corner filling, showing a pattern of initially decreasing and then increasing with the rise in
the filling interval distance, reaching a minimum at a filling interval of 50 m. Field observation data
demonstrate that, following the application of the aforementioned filling technology, the width of the
oxidation zone in the goaf of the 22,122 working face is reduced by 37.5%, and air leakage decreases
by 66.7% compared to the unfilled condition. This technology effectively narrows the range of the
oxidation zone in the goaf, ensuring the safety of working face production.
Keywords: air leakage at the corner of the working face; inorganic paste filling material; filling and
sealing; oxidation zone
1. Introduction
China possesses substantial coal reserves and has traditionally relied on coal as its
main energy source. The progress of the coal industry is crucial for the nation’s economic
growth [1,2]. Nevertheless, the coal industry faces a range of obstacles, including water,
fire, gas, and roof collapses during mining, limiting its development. Among these chal-
lenges, the spontaneous combustion of residual coal in the goaf, triggered by air leakage
at the working face corners, is a major issue that impacts the safety of coal production in
mines [3–5].
The occurrence of spontaneous combustion disasters in goaf areas is often attributed
to the self-ignition of residual coal upon exposure to oxygen [6]. Through the collapse
pattern of the goaf roof [7–9], a suspended structure forms at the corner of the working face
due to the support provided by the coal wall and hydraulic supports. This region exhibits
a high void ratio, designating the two corners as the primary pathways for air leakage
within the goaf. Effectively addressing air leakage at the corners of the working face has
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 2 of 21

consistently posed a significant challenge in mitigating spontaneous combustion and fires

originating from residual coal in goaf areas [10,11]. Understanding the relationship between
internal airflow and resistance within the goaf area indicates that increasing resistance can
fundamentally diminish air leakage [12]. Filling and sealing the corners of the working
face constitute reliable methods for enhancing resistance. Safely and efficiently sealing
the pathways of air leakage at the corners of the working face to reduce air infiltration
into the goaf has become a critical aspect of ensuring the secure extraction of coal in
mining operations.
The currently prevalent methods for corner sealing mainly consist of building cement
walls and applying high-molecular-weight materials. However, these sealing techniques
face problems, such as an insufficient sealing efficacy, an extensive construction effort, and
high-molecular-weight materials being prone to self-ignition. In this context, the potential
use of inorganic paste materials with proper fluidity, strong self-supporting properties, and
appropriate strength for filling corners in the working area and sealing the main air leak
passages in the goaf should be evaluated.
Research into inorganic paste materials for use as coal mine filling materials was
initiated by scholars in the 1950s [13,14]. Different types of inorganic filling materials,
including fly ash paste, high-sand filling materials, foam cement, inorganic-cured foam
materials, and ultra-high-water materials, were studied and provided a solid foundation
for practical applications [15,16]. Huang Xingli and colleagues [17] utilized inorganic
foaming filling materials to seal ventilation channels in the goaf, using mobile grouting
technology. This refined inorganic filling material significantly reduced the initial setting
time, effectively addressing the issues of spontaneous combustion and fires in coal seams.
Feng Guangming [18] developed ultra-high-water filling materials and successfully applied
them to fill mining working faces, tackling the challenge of high filling costs. Liu Yong [19]
conducted experiments on high-sand filling materials, using water, cement, fly ash, and
wind-blown sand as inorganic filling aggregates, and determined the optimal concentration
ratio suitable for water-preserving mining, significantly impacting water-preserving mining
practices in western mining areas. Zhao Xuefei [20] utilized various fine-tail grains of sand
as filling aggregates, examining the filling performance of cemented paste materials under
different aggregates and additives, and found that substituting cement with high-alumina
clay resulted in minimal changes in the compressive strength of the filling body while
gradually enhancing stability in later stages. Zheng Juanrong [21] and collaborators intro-
duced different types of early-strength agents to tailings cemented paste filling materials
and discovered that Na2 SO4 and NaOH early-strength agents had superior effects. Zhang
Xuebo [22] used advanced Fluent numerical simulation software to conduct research on air
leakage in the goaf. The simulation results led to the application of a custom test scheme
using tracer gas SF6 on the fully mechanized mining face, revealing the air leakage patterns
of the working face.
Inorganic paste filling materials have become the preferred choice for mining oper-
ations and the sealing of working faces. However, practical challenges arise when using
these materials to seal corner leakage paths at working faces, mainly due to their high cost
and low recovery rate. Therefore, there is a continuous need to develop new types of inor-
ganic paste filling materials that consider the geological conditions of mines and the storage
conditions of surrounding materials. The objective of this development is to provide an
efficient and reliable sealing solution for corner leakage paths at working faces [23]. The
sealing of corner leakage paths can significantly impact the pressure field within the goaf.
The effects of filling at different corners and intervals can vary greatly, affecting ventilation
patterns and gas distribution in the goaf, as well as directly influencing the cost of filling
and normal mining operations at the working face [24–26]. Currently, the distribution
characteristics of the oxidation zone in the goaf under different filled corners and intervals
between two corners are not well understood, posing a challenge in establishing rational
and effective corner-filling strategies for working faces.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 3 of 21

In this paper, our focus is on the engineering background of the 22,122 working
face of Cuncaota II Mine. We analyze the surrounding storage materials and the actual
situation of the working face, including performing a particle gradation analysis and an
X-ray diffraction analysis of the filling aggregate. Moreover, we conduct fluidity tests,
quick-setting tests, and expansion tests on mountain sand-based paste filling material.
Through these tests, we successfully develop a new type of mountain sand-based paste
filling material.
Additionally, we employ ANSYS FLUENT 2022 R1 numerical simulation software
to analyze the impact of different corner fillings and different interval distance fillings on
the distribution characteristics of the oxidation zone in the goaf. By applying inorganic
paste filling technology at the corner of the working face, we achieve positive results on
the 22,122 working face. The successful application of this method provides a valuable
reference for other mines with similar conditions.

2. Engineering Background
The Cuncaota II Mine is located in the Yijinhuoluo Banner, Ordos City, within the Inner
Mongolia Autonomous Region. The coal seams extracted from this mine are Type I, which
makes them prone to spontaneous combustion. They have a significant mining height and
long working faces, with relatively fewer collapses in the upper and lower triangular areas.
However, there is a considerable amount of residual coal near the two roadways in the goaf,
posing a significant risk of spontaneous combustion. Classified as a low-gas mine, the risk
of surpassing gas pressure limits is relatively low. The main safety concern affecting mine
production is the spontaneous combustion of residual coal in the goaf due to air leakage.
Therefore, immediate measures are necessary to mitigate the likelihood of spontaneous
combustion in the goaf and ensure the safety of mine production.
The 22,122 working face is located in the No. 1 mining area, spanning 835.5 m in
length and 340.9 m in width, covering a total area of 284,821.95 m2 . The coal seam varies
in thickness from 2.14 m to 4.81 m, with an average thickness of 2.93 m. The roof of the
working face consists mainly of sandy mudstone and siltstone, followed by mudstone
and medium-grained sandstone, with localized occurrences of fine-grained sandstone
and coarse-grained sandstone. The floor primarily consists of siltstone and fine-grained
sandstone. The stratigraphic column of the working face is shown in Figure 1. In the
auxiliary haulage roadway of the 22,122 area, the roof consists mainly of continuous
medium-grained sandstone, with good rock layer integrity and reduced susceptibility to
collapse during mining operations. However, there is a significant issue of air leakage at
the two corners of the working face. Currently, measures such as wind curtains and cement
bag walls are primarily used to mitigate air leakage. The 22 coal seam is characterized
by its overall black coloration with black-brown streaks. The primary constituents of the
coal rock include dark coal, bright coal, and some occurrences of cannel coal and vitrinite.
The coal exhibits an asphalt luster, featuring a uniform and banded structure, blocky
texture, extensive crack development, semi-hardness, and a propensity for spontaneous
combustion. The coal seam has a natural ignition period of 42 days, with flame lengths
exceeding 400 mm, and the coal dust within the seam possesses explosive properties.
To fully grasp the impact of corner filling on changes in the gas concentration in
the goaf, the oxygen concentration in the goaf is monitored using a 260 m long 2-inch
seamless steel pipe. This pipe is positioned in the direction of the main withdrawal
channel, starting from the end position of the inlet and return air lane of the 22,122 working
face. By employing the oxygen concentration method, the approximate range of the
oxidation zone in the goaf is determined. This method relies on measuring the oxygen
concentration at various distances from the goaf to the working face. Areas with an
oxygen concentration greater than 15% are classified as heat dissipation zones. Areas
with an oxygen concentration between 15% and 5% are considered oxidation spontaneous
combustion zones. Lastly, areas with an oxygen concentration below 5% are identified as
asphyxiation zones. Sampling probes are strategically placed at 25 m intervals, starting from
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 4 of 21

the corner of the working face. Each intake and return airway has three probes, labeled as
“Inlet 1,” “Inlet 2,” “Inlet 2,” “Return 1,” “Return 2,” and “Return 3”. To protect the probes
from damage, probe protection devices are utilized, and seamless steel pipes are connected
using flange plates to ensure strong connections. Through sampling and an analysis of gas
concentration data, it is observed that, on the intake side of the 22,122 working face, the
oxygen concentration decreases to below 15% at a distance of 134 m from the working face,
indicating entry into the oxidation zone. At a distance of 229 m, the oxygen concentration
further decreases to below 5%, signifying entry into the asphyxiation zone. The oxidation
zone is approximately 95 m wide. On the return side of the goaf, the oxygen concentration
decreases to below 15% at a distance of 42 m from the working face, entering the oxidation
zone. At a distance of 185 m, the oxygen concentration drops below 5%, indicating entry
into the asphyxiation zone. The oxidation zone on the return side has a width of around
141 m. Figure 2 illustrates the situation of the 22,122 working face and the distribution
diagram of the “three zones” of spontaneous combustion in the goaf.

Figure 1. Stratigraphic column of the 22,122 working face.

Figure 2. Conditions of 22,122 working face and distribution diagram of goaf oxidation zone 3
experimental analysis of mountain sand paste filling material.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 5 of 21

Based on the above analysis, it is evident that there is a significant issue of air leakage
at the corners of the 22,122 working face. The current sealing techniques are not effective,
resulting in a considerable amount of airflow entering the goaf. Additionally, in the goaf of
the 22,122 working face, particularly on the return side, the width of the oxidation zone is
excessively large, leading to a heightened risk of spontaneous combustion in the goaf. It
is essential to implement effective sealing methods at the corners of the working face to
minimize air leakage into the goaf, decrease the width of the oxidation zone, and ensure
safe mining operations.

3. Experimental Analysis of Mountain Sand Paste Filling Material

3.1. Selection and Physicochemical Property Testing of Mountain Sand Paste Filling Material
The area surrounding Cuncaota II Mine is abundant in four types of filling materials:
slag, mountain sand, loess, and fly ash. However, the high viscosity of loess makes it
unsuitable as a filling aggregate. Additionally, there is no coarse slag warehouse in the
mining area. The concrete mixing station in the mining area mainly contains mountain
sand and fly ash, creating a unique situation. Mountain sand and fly ash are chosen as the
primary raw materials for developing a new inorganic paste filling material, and selective
experiments are carried out to determine the optimum ratio for the mountain sand-based
paste filling material.
The dry screening method was used to determine the gradation of mountain sand
and fly ash in the concrete mixing station of the mining area. An X-ray diffraction analysis
was then conducted using a diffractometer. The results show that the particle distribution
of the mountain sand is relatively uniform, although its continuity is poor, making it
suitable for use as a filling aggregate. In contrast, the particle distribution of fly ash is
discontinuous, making it unsuitable as a filling aggregate, but it can serve as a substitute for
cement in filling material. Adding fly ash to slurry can reduce the amount of cement used
and improve the workability and durability of the paste [27]. Table 1 provides detailed
information on the particle size characteristics and primary chemical compositions of the
filling materials. In contrast, the X-ray diffraction analysis results for the filling materials
are depicted in Figure 3.

Table 1. Particle size characteristics of filling materials.

Control Median Particle Size Effective Average Uniformity Curvature

Filling Particle Size Particle Size Particle Size Coefficient Coefficient
Material d60 (µm) d10 (µm) dcp (µm) Cu Cc
d50 (µm) d30 (µm)
Mountain
134.68 114.00 77.17 42.40 146.41 3.18 1.04
sand
Fly ash 24.00 18.60 10.71 4.97 27.26 4.83 0.96

Figure 3. X-ray diffraction analysis results of filling materials: (a) mountain sand; (b) fly ash.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 6 of 21

3.2. Analysis of Performance Testing for Filling Materials

The filling materials used for sealing the corners in working faces should have rea-
sonable flowability to ensure rapid accumulation in the corners and efficient blockage to
prevent air leakage. They also need to exhibit good self-supporting characteristics, short-
term solidification, and a certain degree of expansiveness to reach the roof and prevent
airflow leakage into the goaf. Analyzing the flowability, setting time, and expansiveness of
the mountain sand-based paste filling material through slump tests, viscosity tests, and
quantitative tests for accelerators and expanders aims to determine the optimal ratio for
the filling material applicable to the corners of the 22,122 working face [28–30].
The typical range of slump for a mine filling system paste is 15 to 25 cm. Pastes with
slumps between 16 and 20 cm exhibit good self-supporting properties, but they require
specific capabilities from pumping equipment. Considering that the mine uses an HBMD-
30/9-45S mine filling pump, capable of handling paste within a slump range of 120 to
200 mm, it is recommended to maintain a slump range of 16 to 20 cm for the filling slurry
to ensure the effective pipeline transport of high-concentration pastes.
Based on the physicochemical properties of the mountain sand-based paste filling
material, various mix ratios (cement: fly ash: mountain sand) and mass concentrations of
the mountain sand-based paste were prepared. Slump, slump spread, and viscosity tests
were carried out on slurries with different ratios using a slump cone and an SC145 mortar
viscometer. The test results, depicted in Figure 4, indicate a decrease in the slump, slump
spread, and viscosity values of the mountain sand-based filling slurry with an increase in
the mass concentration. Using a slump range of 16 to 20 cm as the standard, the optimal
concentration for the 1:2:6 mountain sand ratio is 83%, with a slump of 17.8 cm; for the
1:2:10 ratio, the optimal concentration is 84.5%, with a slump of 18.2 cm; for the 1:4:15 ratio,
the optimal concentration is 84%, with a slump of 19.1 cm; and for the 1:4:20 ratio, the
optimal concentration is 84.5%, with a slump of 16.3 cm.
A series of quantitative tests were carried out on a J85 rapid-setting agent by adding
3%, 6%, and 9% to different proportioned slurries. The initial setting time of the sand-based
grout was measured using a Vicat apparatus. The results, presented in Table 2, show that
the initial setting time of the slag-based paste filling material fluctuated with the amount of
the J85 rapid-setting agent, initially decreasing and then increasing, across different mix
ratios and concentrations. The shortest initial setting time occurred when the rapid-setting
agent was added at 9%, with a mix ratio of 1:4:15 and a mass concentration of 84% for the
mountain sand-based paste filling slurry.

Table 2. Quantitative test results of J85 rapid-setting agent.

Cement:Fly Mass Con- Addition Initial Setting

Ash:Mountain Sand centration/% Amount of J85/% Time/min
1:2:6 83 3 145
1:2:6 83 6 139
1:2:6 83 9 150
1:2:10 84.5 3 152
1:2:10 84.5 6 143
Mountain 1:2:10 84.5 9 141
sand-based
filling material 1:4:15 84 3 145
1:4:15 84 6 144
1:4:15 84 9 135
1:4:20 84.5 3 162
1:4:20 84.5 6 148
1:4:20 84.5 9 179

Additionally, a quantitative selection test was conducted on the sand-based paste

filling material using a UEA-type expansion agent at dosages of 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 7 of 21

1%. The expansion rates before and after the test samples were calculated, and the results,
presented in Figure 5, show that the maximum expansion rate initially increased and then
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
decreased with the increase in the UEA expansion agent dosage. Notably, at a dosage7 of 22
of
0.5% of the UEA-type expansion agent, the sand-based paste filling material exhibited the
fastest expansion rate and the most optimal expansion effect.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4. The fluidity test results of mountain sand-based paste: (a) 1:2:6; (b) 1:2:10; (c) 1:4:15; (d)
Figure 4. The fluidity test results of mountain sand-based paste: (a) 1:2:6; (b) 1:2:10; (c) 1:4:15;
1:4:20.
(d) 1:4:20.
A series of quantitative tests were carried out on a J85 rapid-setting agent by adding
3%, 6%, and 9% to different proportioned slurries. The initial setting time of the sand-
based grout was measured using a Vicat apparatus. The results, presented in Table 2, show
that the initial setting time of the slag-based paste filling material fluctuated with the
amount of the J85 rapid-setting agent, initially decreasing and then increasing, across dif-
ferent mix ratios and concentrations. The shortest initial setting time occurred when the
rapid-setting agent was added at 9%, with a mix ratio of 1:4:15 and a mass concentration
of 84% for the mountain sand-based paste filling slurry.
Additionally, a quantitative selection test was conducted on the sand-based paste
filling material using a UEA-type expansion agent at dosages of 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and
1%. The expansion rates before and after the test samples were calculated, and the results,
presented in Figure 5, show that the maximum expansion rate initially increased and then
decreased with the increase in the UEA expansion agent dosage. Notably, at a dosage of
0.5% of the UEA-type expansion agent, the sand-based paste filling material exhibited the
fastest expansion rate and the most optimal expansion effect.
Figure 5. Expansion rate variation with different dosages of UEA-type expansion agent in
test samples.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 8 of 21

3.3. Analysis of Filling Material Strength Test

Based on the aforementioned test results, a strength test was performed on the sand-
based paste filling material using a selected mixing ratio of 1:4:15, a mass concentration
of 84%, a dosage of 9% of the J85 rapid-setting agent, and a dosage of 0.5% of the UEA-
type expansion agent. A total of eight sets of cylindrical filling specimens, measuring
50 mm × 100 mm, were prepared, with three specimens in each set. The compressive
strength and tensile strength of the specimens were measured at curing ages of 3 days,
7 days, 14 days, and 28 days to analyze the variation in the strength characteristics of the
paste filling material [31,32]. The testing process is shown in Figure 6. The test results are
presented in Figure 7.

Figure 6. Laboratory test of inorganic paste filling materials.

Figure 7. Stress-strain curve of sand-based filling material specimens.

The tensile strength of the sand-based filling specimens was notably lower than their
compressive strength. The early strength fulfilled the criteria for filling the corners of the
working face. Even after 28 days of curing, the filling materials demonstrated some residual
strength after failure, ensuring that the sand-based paste filling material does not fully
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 9 of 21

collapse under pressure and can effectively block the airflow movement in the goaf for an
extended period.

4. Flow Field Analysis of Corner-Filled Goaf Area Using ANSYS FLUENT

4.1. Model Establishment
After the implementation of the fully mechanized coal mining face, the voids resulting
from the roof collapse are intricately linked to the lithology of the roof, mining methods,
and the fragmentation coefficient of the coal–rock mass. Researchers view the goaf as a vast
porous medium area. Variations in airflow within the goaf are influenced by factors such as
porosity, permeability, source terms, and ventilation methods within the goaf area. ANSYS
Fluent 2022 R1, numerical simulation software that accommodates multiple variables, is
widely used for simulating gas migration in the goaf area [33]. When simulating airflow in
the goaf using Fluent, aside from the fundamental model establishment and grid division,
it is crucial to optimize the formula for goaf porosity through the utilization of the User-
Defined Function (UDF) based on the collapse and fragmentation coefficient of the goaf
rock mass to accurately capture the simulation results.
According to the research of scholars [34], based on the definition of porosity and the
fragmentation coefficient of fractured rock mass, Formula (1) can be derived:

1
ϕ = 1− (1)
Kp

where Kp is the fragmentation coefficient of the collapsed rock mass, and ϕ is the porosity
of the collapsed rock mass. The porosity of the caved rock mass considering the influence
of gravity satisfies the following equation:

φG = β 1 σ + φG (2)

l  ( )
(1 − φG )γ( 2y − y) sin α

ly
−0.15( 2 −|y|) hd
φG (Y = 0 ) = β 1 + 1+e · 1− x (3)
hd + H − H − hd (K Pb − 1) (1 − e− 2l )
 
σ0

By solving the above equation, we obtain

  ( )
ly
hd
1 + e−0.15( 2 −|y|) · 1− −x
−1
h d + H − [ H − h d ( K p b −1) ] (1− e 2l )
φG ( x, y) = 1 + l
(4)
1 + σ0−1 β 1 γ( 2y − y) sin α

where ΦG (x, y) is the variation curve of porosity in the goaf; β1 is the regression coefficient;
σ is the relative axial stress, Mpa; γ is the bulk density of the caved rock mass, N/m3 ; ly is
the width of the goaf in the strike direction, m; H is the mining height, m; hd is the thickness
of the immediate roof, m; KPh is the residual fragmentation coefficient of the immediate
roof rock mass; l is the distance of roof collapse, m; and α is the inclination angle of the
mining face.
Based on the geological conditions of the 22,122 working face and considering the
distribution law of the fragmentation coefficient, a fitting process was conducted to obtain
a porosity distribution map of the goaf with Z = 1.5 for the 22,122 working face using
Python-3.9.6. The porosity, permeability, gas flow, and dissipation coefficient of the goaf
were then imported into Fluent for solving using UDF functions. The resulting goaf model
is illustrated in Figure 8.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2023,
2023,13,
13,13216
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1110
ofof2221

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Numerical
Numerical simulation
simulation physical
physical model
model of
of 22,122
22,122 working
working face
facein CuncaotaⅡIImine.
inCuncaota mine.

4.2.
4.2. Model Accuracy Verification
Model Accuracy Verification
Before engagingin
Before engaging insimulation
simulationstudies
studiesinvolving
involving different
different corner
corner fillings,
fillings, it isitessential
is essen-
tial to validate the accuracy of the initial model. In the case where both
to validate the accuracy of the initial model. In the case where both corners of the 22,122 corners of the
22,122
working working face remain
face remain unfilledunfilled
(C0), we(C0), we conducted
conducted a simulation
a simulation analysisanalysis
of the of the oxygen
oxygen con-
concentration field in the goaf area. The accuracy of the model and parameters
centration field in the goaf area. The accuracy of the model and parameters was evaluated was evalu-
ated by comparing
by comparing the the distribution
distribution ranges
ranges of the
of the measured
measured andsimulated
and simulatedgoaf goafoxidation
oxidation
zones. Figure 9 presents a visual comparison between the measured
zones. Figure 9 presents a visual comparison between the measured goaf oxidation zone goaf oxidation zone
width
width data and the results obtained from the numerical simulations. As shown in Figure9,
data and the results obtained from the numerical simulations. As shown in Figure
the measured
9, the measured oxidation
oxidationzone on the
zone intake
on the sideside
intake of the goafgoaf
of the spans fromfrom
spans 134 m134tom 229 to m from
229 m
the working face, while on the return side, it ranges from 42 m to 185
from the working face, while on the return side, it ranges from 42 m to 185 m. The simu- m. The simulated
oxidation zone zone
lated oxidation on theonintake side of
the intake sidethe
ofgoaf covers
the goaf the range
covers of 147
the range m to
of 147 m238 m from
to 238 m fromthe
working face, and on the return side, it extends from 28 m to 188 m.
the working face, and on the return side, it extends from 28 m to 188 m. Despite potential Despite potential
sampling
sampling errors,
errors, the comparative analysis
the comparative analysis between
betweenthe themeasured
measuredstructure
structureand andsimulation
simulation
results suggests a rough similarity in the ranges of the measured and
results suggests a rough similarity in the ranges of the measured and simulated oxidation simulated oxidation
zones. This indicates that the model and parameters established in
zones. This indicates that the model and parameters established in the previous section the previous section
effectively capture the distribution pattern of oxygen in the goaf area of
effectively capture the distribution pattern of oxygen in the goaf area of the 22,122 work- the 22,122 working
face, laying a solid foundation for subsequent simulation studies.
ing face, laying a solid foundation for subsequent simulation studies.

Heat dissipation zone

Oxidation zone

Asphyxiation
zone

Figure 9. Schematic comparison between measured and simulated oxidation zones in the goaf.
Figure 9. Schematic comparison between measured and simulated oxidation zones in the goaf.
5. Analysis of the Distribution Characteristics of the Oxidation Zone in the Goaf
under Different
5. Analysis of theCorner-Filling Conditions
Distribution Characteristics of the Oxidation Zone in the Goaf
5.1. Simulation Analysis of Upper and Lower Corner Fillings in the Working Face
under Different Corner-Filling Conditions
To evaluate
5.1. Simulation the impact
Analysis of different
of Upper corner
and Lower fillings
Corner on in
Fillings goaf
theair leakage
Working and the extent of
Face
the oxidation zone, we introduced pre-set filling bodies behind the working face, expanding
To evaluate the impact of different corner fillings on goaf air leakage and the extent
on the model established in the previous section. We examined three distinct scenarios:
of the oxidation zone, we introduced pre-set filling bodies behind the working face,
C1—filling only the upper corner of the working face, C2—filling only the lower corner of
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 11 of 21

the working face, and C3—filling both corners. The pre-set filling bodies were 100 m long,
3 m wide, and 3 m high, with an approximate zero porosity. The ventilation parameters
remained consistent with the conditions outlined in the previous study. The specific layout
is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Diagram of the filling body model.

Figure 11 depicts the pressure distribution in the goaf at a height of z = 1.5 m, showing
continuous changes resulting from various backfilling strategies. The exit pressure on the
return air side of the working face corner is set as the reference point at 0 Pa. The highest
pressure occurs near the lower corner, driving gas flow within the goaf due to pressure
differentials. A comparison between the unfilled condition and filling only in the upper
corner reveals significant alterations in the pressure distribution within the goaf. After
filling in the upper corner, the green pressure zone in the deep part of the goaf substantially
expands, while the light green range of 4~5 Pa experiences a sharp reduction. This indicates
a notable increase in pressure in the deep part of the goaf and a considerable decrease in
the pressure difference between the lower corner and the deep part, ultimately leading to a
reduction in overall air leakage from the goaf.

Figure 11. Distribution of pressure field in the goaf with the different corners of filling bodies.

After comparing the unfilled and only partially filled lower corner areas, it becomes
evident that filling the lower corner leads to the dominance of the deep goaf by pressure
isopleths of 3–4 Pa in the blue area. Furthermore, the high-pressure range significantly
decreases, resulting in a decline in pressure within the deep goaf. Consequently, an in-
creased pressure difference between the lower corner and the deep goaf occurs. Fortunately,
the filling material in the lower corner effectively obstructs the majority of airflow from
infiltrating the goaf. Simultaneously, the reduced pressure difference between the upper
corner and the deep goaf hampers the backflow of harmful gases into the working face,
thereby reducing the accumulation of gas in the upper corner of the goaf.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 12 of 21

Upon comparison of the unfilled area with the region filled with both the upper and
lower corners, it is apparent that filling both the upper and lower corners of the working
face leads to an increase in pressure within the deep goaf. However, the extent of this
pressure increase is slightly lower than when only the upper corner is filled. Furthermore,
the range of the low-pressure area is slightly larger than when only the upper corner is
filled, but it is significantly smaller than when only the lower corner is filled. This indicates
that, when both the upper and lower corners of the working face are simultaneously filled,
the filling material in the upper corner has a greater impact on the overall pressure changes
in the goaf. It effectively reduces the pressure difference between the deep goaf and the
lower corner, thereby minimizing air leakage from its source. Additionally, the majority of
airflow within the goaf is hindered by the filling material in the upper corner, making it
difficult for gases like methane to flow back toward the working face.
Figure 12 depicts a contour map showing the distribution of the oxygen concentration
in the goaf at a height of z = 1.5 m, with both the upper and lower corners filled. The
graph indicates that the oxygen concentration distribution in the goaf roughly follows
an “S” shape. A comparison of the three different filling conditions reveals a significant
reduction in the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf compared to the unfilled condition.
Notably, when both the upper and lower corners are filled, the width of the oxidation zone
experiences the greatest reduction at various positions in the goaf, indicating the most
effective control of the oxidation zone. Specifically, it reduces the width of the oxidation
zone by 14.84% on the intake side, 21.07% in the middle, and 6.23% on the return side of the
goaf. The widths of the oxidation zone in the goaf under different corner-filling conditions
are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Distribution of the oxidation zone in the goaf under different corner-filling conditions.

Location within the Spontaneous Width of the

Scheme
Goaf Combustion Area Oxidation Zone
Inlet air side 146.68~237.8 m 91.12 m
Unfilled Middle 97.62~209.26 m 111.64 m
Return air side 27.53~188.24 m 160.71 m
Inlet air side 159.7~238.3 m 78.6 m
Filling of the upper
Middle 116.65~210.76 m 94.11 m
corner
Return air side 29.54~186.73 m 157.19 m
Inlet air side 158.2~238.8 m 80.6 m
Filling of the lower
Middle 116.65~211.76 m 95.11 m
corner
Return air side 37.05~188.73 m 151.68 m
Inlet air side 155.69~233.29 m 77.6 m
Filled Middle 114.14~202.26 m 88.12 m
Return air side 29.54~180.23 m 150.69 m

Figure 13 presents a comparative schematic diagram illustrating the width of the

oxidation zone on the intake side, in the middle, and on the return side of the goaf under
four different filling conditions. The diagram emphasizes that corner filling, as an effective
measure to reduce the void ratio in the corner areas and seal the airflow leakage from the
working face, significantly alters the internal flow field within the goaf, thereby exerting
a notable impact on the distribution of the oxidation zone. Filling only the lower corner
exhibits a limited inhibitory effect on the width of the oxidation zone on the return side of
the goaf. Similarly, filling only the upper corner demonstrates poor inhibitory effects on
the width of the oxidation zone on the intake side and middle of the goaf. However, the
simultaneous filling of both the upper and lower corners proves to be an effective approach
to shorten the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22

most effective control of the oxidation zone. Specifically, it reduces the width of the oxi-
dation zone by 14.84% on the intake side, 21.07% in the middle, and 6.23% on the return
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 13 of 21
side of the goaf. The widths of the oxidation zone in the goaf under different corner-filling
conditions are summarized in Table 3.

237.8 238.3 238.8 233.3

188.2 186.7 188.7

159.7 158.2 155.7 180.2
146.7

Strike distance(m)
Strike distance(m)

Strike distance(m)

Strike distance(m)
27.5
inlet air return air 29.5 37.1 29.5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEERC0
REVIEW C1 C2 C3 14 of 22

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Contour mapsdepicting
Contour maps depictingthe
the oxidation
oxidation zone
zone in the
in the goafgoaf under
under different
different corner-filling
corner-filling con-
conditions.
ditions.

Table 3. Distribution of the oxidation zone in the goaf under different corner-filling conditions.

Width of the Oxidation

Scheme Location within the Goaf Spontaneous Combustion Area
Zone
Inlet air side 146.68~237.8 m 91.12 m
Unfilled Middle 97.62~209.26 m 111.64 m
Return air side 27.53~188.24 m 160.71 m
Inlet air side 159.7~238.3 m 78.6 m
Filling of the upper corner Middle 116.65~210.76 m 94.11 m
Return air side 29.54~186.73 m 157.19 m
Inlet air side 158.2~238.8 m 80.6 m
Filling of the lower corner Middle 116.65~211.76 m 95.11 m
Return air side 37.05~188.73 m 151.68 m
Inlet air side 155.69~233.29 m 77.6 m
Filled Middle 114.14~202.26 m 88.12 m
Return air side 29.54~180.23 m 150.69 m

Figure 13 presents a comparative schematic diagram illustrating the width of the ox-
idation
Figure
Figure zone
13. Width
13. ofon
Width the
theof theintake
oxidation side,
zone
oxidation in in goaf
the
zone thethe
in middle,
under anddifferent
goafdifferent
under on the return
corner-filling side of
conditions.
corner-filling the goaf
conditions. under
four different filling conditions. The diagram emphasizes that corner filling, as an effective
5.2.measure
Simulation
5.2. toAnalysis
Simulation reduce of
the
Analysis Different
void Filling
ratio
of Different Interval
inFilling Distances
the corner
Intervalareas atand
the seal
Distances Corners ofairflow
the ofleakage
theCorners
at the fromFace
the Working the
Working Face
working face, significantly
A simulation study was alters
carried theoutinternal flow fieldthe
to investigate within
optimal thefilling
goaf, interval
thereby distance,
exerting
A simulation
abuilding
notable impact
upon study was
thecarried
theonanalysis out to
distribution
results investigate
of the
from the optimal
theoxidation
preceding zone.filling
section. interval
Filling
The only distance,
study the lower corner
specifically tar-
building
exhibits upon
geted various the
a limited analysis
filling results
inhibitory from
interval effect
distances the
on thepreceding
forwidth
both the section.
of the
upper The
oxidationstudy
and lower specifically
zone tar-
on theofreturn
corners side of
the working
geted various filling interval distances for both the upper and lower m, corners of the
m,work-
the
face.goaf.
The Similarly,
simulated filling
intervalonly the upper
distances corner demonstrates
encompassed C4—10 poor
C5—30 inhibitory
C6—50 effects on
m, and
ing face. The simulated interval distances encompassed C4—10 m, C5—30 m, C6—50 m,
the
C7—70width m.of Thetheaimoxidation zone on the
was to evaluate the impact
intake side anddiverse
of these middlefilling
of theinterval
goaf. However,
distancesthe
on
and C7—70 m. The aim was to evaluate the impact of these diverse filling interval dis-
simultaneous
the extent of the filling of
oxidation both
zonethe inupper
tances on the extent of the oxidation zone in the goaf.
the goaf.and lower corners proves to be an effective ap-
proach
Figureto14shorten
displaysthe
Figure 14 displays
thewidth of the
the pressure
pressure oxidation inzone
distribution
distribution in the
in
the goaf the
on goaf.
goaf on the z = 1.5 m plane with
the z = 1.5 m plane with
varying intervals between the filling bodies.
varying intervals between the filling bodies. It is evident from Figure It is evident from14Figure
that an14increase
that an increase
in the interval distance between the filling bodies results
in the interval distance between the filling bodies results in a reduction in pressure in in a reduction in pressure
the in the
deeper
deeper parts
parts of theof goaf.
the goaf. Specifically,
Specifically, with interval
with interval distances distances
of 10 m, of 30 10
m,m,and3050m,m,and
the 50 m, the
green range
green of the
range of pressure
the pressurecontour lines (5–6
contour linesPa) gradually
(5–6 diminishes,
Pa) gradually while thewhile
diminishes, blue the blue
range (3–4(3–4
range Pa) progressively
Pa) progressively expands. Additionally,
expands. when thewhen
Additionally, interval distance
the intervalreaches 50 reaches
distance
m, 50
them,twothepressure ranges become
two pressure rangesnearly
become identical,
nearlyindicating
identical,a relatively
indicating balanced pres- balanced
a relatively
sure field in the
pressure fieldgoaf. However,
in the goaf. with an interval
However, withdistance of 70 m,
an interval the expanded
distance of 70 m, interval
the expanded
distance significantly increases the blue pressure zone of 2–3 Pa, amplifying the pressure
difference between the return air side and the lower corner angle of the goaf and resulting
in a greater influx of air leakage into the goaf. Furthermore, the presence of the two filling
bodies on the return air side obstructs the movement of air leakage, causing its accumu-
lation between the two filling bodies and adversely impacting the reduction in the width
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 14 of 21

interval distance significantly increases the blue pressure zone of 2–3 Pa, amplifying the
pressure difference between the return air side and the lower corner angle of the goaf and
resulting in a greater influx of air leakage into the goaf. Furthermore, the presence of the
two filling bodies on the return air side obstructs the movement of air leakage, causing its
accumulation between the two filling bodies and adversely impacting the reduction in the
width of the oxidation zone on the return air side.

Figure 14. Distribution of pressure field in the goaf with different interval distances of filling bodies.

In conclusion, by increasing the spacing between the filling bodies, the pressure differ-
ence between the corner of the working face and the deep part of the goaf is reduced. This
effectively prevents the backflow of internal airflow to the upper corner angle, mitigating
the risk of exceeding the gas limit in that area. Additionally, the secondary filling process
makes it more challenging for air leakage from the lower corner angle to infiltrate the goaf,
leading to a decrease in air leakage and facilitating the management of the spontaneous
combustion zone in the goaf.
Figure 15 presents the oxygen concentration distribution in the goaf at z = 1.5 m with
various interval distances between filling bodies. After the secondary interval filling of
the two corners of the working face, a noticeable reduction in the width of the oxidation
zone within the goaf is observed. This reduction is attributed to the increased resistance
encountered by the airflow from the intake side, hindering its entry into the goaf and
resulting in weakened airflow within the goaf. Consequently, this decrease in airflow
within a certain range contributes to a narrower oxidation zone within the goaf, leading
to improved control over air leakage from the working face and the oxidation zone. More
detailed data on the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf for different interval distances
of filling bodies can be found in Table 4.
Figure 16 presents a schematic diagram demonstrating the extent of the oxidation
zone in the goaf at various interval distances of filling bodies. It is evident from the figure
that an increase in the interval distance, from primary filling to intervals of 10 m, 30 m,
and 50 m, leads to a decrease in the average width of the oxidation zone within the goaf.
Interestingly, at an interval distance of 50 m, the oxidation zone width in different parts
of the goaf is the smallest. However, as the interval distance is further increased to 70 m,
the measured width of the oxidation zone in the goaf exceeds that observed at 10 m, 30 m,
and 50 m distances. In fact, in the central section of the goaf, the width of the oxidation
zone even surpasses that of the primary filling condition. This indicates that excessively
large interval distances between filling bodies have limited effects on reducing the width of
the oxidation zone in the goaf. Therefore, it is important to establish a reasonable interval
distance for filling to effectively control the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf.
 within the goaf is observed. This reduction is attributed to the increased resistance en-
countered by the airflow from the intake side, hindering its entry into the goaf and result-
ing in weakened airflow within the goaf. Consequently, this decrease in airflow within a
certain range contributes to a narrower oxidation zone within the goaf, leading to im-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216
proved control over air leakage from the working face and the oxidation zone. More de-
15 of 21
tailed data on the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf for different interval distances
of filling bodies can be found in Table 4.

218.8 229.8
216.8 217.3

154.2 153.2 153.7 153.2 179.7

143.7 140.7 142.2

Strike distance(m)
Strike distance(m)

Strike distance(m)
Strike distance(m)

25
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR
inlet airPEER REVIEW 30 37.6
16 of 22
return air 34.5
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

C4 C5 C6 C7
Figure
Figure 15. Distribution
Inlet
15. air side ofofthe
Distribution theoxidation
oxidation zone in the
153.69~217.27
zone in the mgoaf
goaf withwith different
different interval
63.58
interval m distances
distances of bodies.
of filling filling
Spacing distance of 50 m bodies. Middle 113.14~186.73 m 73.59 m
Return
Table 4. air side of the oxidation
Distribution 34.54~142.18
zone in themgoaf with different107.64 m distances of filling
interval
Table 4.Inlet
Distribution
air side of the oxidation zone in them
153.19~229.79 goaf with different 76.6
interval
m distances of filling
bodies at
bodies at different
different corners
corners of
of the
the working
working face.
face.
Spacing distance of 70 m Middle 113.14~203.25 m 90.11 m
Scheme Return
Location air side
within the Goaf 37.55~179.72
Spontaneous m
Combustion Area 142.17
Width of m
Width of Oxidation
the the Oxidation
Zone
Scheme Location within the Goaf Spontaneous Combustion Area
Inlet air side 154.19~218.77 m Zone
64.58 m
Figure 16 presents a schematic diagram demonstrating the extent of the oxidation
Spacing distance of 10 m
zone in the
Inlet
Middle
goaf at
air side 154.19~218.77
113.14~187.73 m m 64.58
74.59 mm
Return airvarious
side interval distances of filling bodies.
25.03~143.68 m It is evident from 118.65
the figure
m
Spacing distance of 10 mthat an increase in Middle
the interval distance, from 113.14~187.73
primary fillingm to intervals of 10 m,74.59 m
30 m,
and 50 m, leadsReturn
Inlet air air side in the average
to aside
decrease 25.03~143.68
153.19~216.77
width m
of themoxidation 118.65
zone within 63.58
the mm
goaf.
Spacing distance of 30 m
Interestingly,Middle
Inlet
at an air
interval 112.64~185.73 m
side distance of 50 m,153.19~216.77
the oxidation mzone width in different73.09 m
63.58 m
parts
Return air side 30.04~140.68 m 110.64 m
Spacing distance of 30 mof the goaf is the smallest.
Middle However, as the interval distance
112.64~185.73 m is further increased 73.09m,
to 70 m
the measuredInletwidth of
air side
Return airthe oxidation zone 153.69~217.27
side in the goaf exceeds
30.04~140.68
m
m that observed at 10 110.64
m, 30mm,
63.58
m
Spacing distance of 50 m and 50 m distances.
Middle In fact, in the central 113.14~186.73
section of them goaf, the width of the oxidation
73.59 m
zone evenReturn
surpasses that of the primary filling
air side condition.
34.54~142.18 m This indicates that excessively
107.64 m
large interval distances
Inlet air side between filling bodies have limited
153.19~229.79 m effects on reducing the width
76.6 m
Spacing distance of 70 m of the oxidation zone in the goaf. Therefore,
Middle it is important
113.14~203.25 m to establish a reasonable inter-
90.11 m
val distance for filling
Return to effectively control37.55~179.72
air side the width ofm the oxidation zone in the goaf.m
142.17

Figure 16. Width

Figure of theofoxidation
16. Width zone in
the oxidation the goaf
zone at goaf
in the different interval distances
at different of filling bodies.
interval distances of filling bodies.

5.3. Application of Inorganic Paste Filling Technology at Working Face Corner

(1) Process Flow for Filling Workforce Corners
According to the analysis presented earlier, a filling scheme is chosen for the corner-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 16 of 21

5.3. Application of Inorganic Paste Filling Technology at Working Face Corner

(1) Process Flow for Filling Workforce Corners
According to the analysis presented earlier, a filling scheme is chosen for the corner-
filling operation of the 22,122 comprehensive mining face. This scheme involves filling both
corners at intervals of 50 m. The key steps in the inorganic paste filling technology process
for the 22,122 working face corner include the preparation and transportation of filling
materials, the installation of mobile filling pumps, the laying of pipelines, the pumping of
inorganic paste filling slurry, and other critical steps. Taking into account the actual mine
conditions, the filling operation for the working face corners is carried out using the surface
slurry preparation and tanker transportation method. The specific implementation process
is depicted in Figure 17.

Figure 17. Surface pulping inorganic paste filling system.

(2) Results and Analysis of Corner Filling in Working Face 22,122

Through the processes of preparing ground slurry, transporting it via a mixer truck,
and pumping it through pipelines, the inorganic paste slurry is efficiently pumped to
specified locations at the two corners of the working face for filling. Once the filling
process is concluded, overflow of the filling slurry at the top of the caved rock layer is
observed, and it is depicted in Figure 18. Following two filling sessions, each at a 50 m
interval for the two corners of the working face, air leakage before and after the filling is
assessed using SF6 gas, employing a system of marking and tracking. SF6 tracing gas is
released in the intake airway, and in the presence of air leakage in the working face, the
SF6 concentration at measurement points along the path exhibits a decreasing trend. The
leakage amount ∆Q between two sampling points can be computed using Equation (5) [35].
The distribution of release points and sampling points is visually represented in Figure 19.
Under the measured ventilation rate condition of 1279 m3 ·min−1 in the working face, the
analysis of SF6 concentrations at sampling points 1 and 3 indicates that the air leakage
amount ∆Q before filling is 147 m3 ·min−1 . Post-filling, the leakage amount ∆Q decreases to
49 m3 ·min−1 , marking a notable reduction of 66.7%. The majority of post-filling air leakage
is directed into the goaf behind the hydraulic support, significantly diminishing air leakage
at the two corners of the working face compared to the unfilled state.

q(C1 − C2 )
∆Q = (5)
C1 C2

where q—amount of released SF6 gas, mL/min; C1 —SF6 concentration after analysis in the
intake airway, ppm; and C2 —SF6 concentration after analysis in the return airway, ppm.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 17 of 21

Figure 18. Overflow of paste filling slurry in goaf at the corner of working face.

Figure 19. Distribution of release points and sampling points for the air leakage test on the working face.

After conducting two filling and sealing operations at the corners of the working
face, gas samples were systematically collected from the intake and return airway ducts,
with close monitoring of their compositions. The obtained gas concentrations were then
carefully compared to those measured before the filling process, as detailed in Figure 20. As
shown in Figure 20a, after the filling and sealing procedures at the corners of the working
face, the oxygen concentration on the intake side of the goaf decreased to 15% at a distance
of 145 m from the working face, indicating entry into the oxidation zone. Furthermore, it
decreased to 5% at a distance of 200 m, entering the asphyxiation zone. In comparison to
the pre-filling conditions, the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf significantly reduced
from 95 m to 55 m, reflecting a noteworthy decrease of 42%. Shifting attention to the return
side of the goaf, as depicted in Figure 20b, post-filling, the oxygen concentration within the
goaf declined to 15%, entering the oxidation zone at a distance of 39 m from the working
face, and it further dropped to 5% at a distance of 135 m, entering the asphyxiation zone.
Compared to the unfilled state, the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf was reduced
from 143 m to 96 m, representing a reduction of 33%. The noticeable reduction in the widths
of the oxidation zones on both sides of the goaf, when compared to pre-filling conditions,
highlights the effectiveness of the filling material at the corners of the working face in
preventing the leakage of oxygen into the goaf. This plays a crucial and positive role in
averting the spontaneous combustion of residual coal in the goaf of the 22,122 working
face, thereby further ensuring the safety of mining operations.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 18 of 21

Figure 20. The change in oxygen concentration on both sides of the goaf before and after filling:
(a) inlet side; (b) return side.

6. Discussion
This article intricately presents the geological conditions of the 22,122 working face
in the Cuncaota II Mine, elucidates the dominant factors contributing to spontaneous
combustion in goaf areas, and emphasizes the significance of sealing the corners of the
working face. Through a comprehensive analysis of the physical and chemical properties
of large-volume mountain sand and fly ash in the mining area, a revolutionary mountain
sand-based paste filling material is successfully developed and applied to seal the corners
of the 22,122 working face. The distribution characteristics of the oxidation zone in the
goaf, under various corner-filling and interval-filling scenarios, are simulated and analyzed
using ANSYS FLUENT. This study holds immense significance in mitigating air leakage
in the working face and ensuring safe mining operations. While the existing literature
has extensively explored inorganic paste filling materials [15–22], this article introduces
an innovative approach by using mountain sand as the filling aggregate and fly ash as the
filling auxiliary material, resulting in a novel mountain sand-based paste filling material.
This novel material demonstrates superior self-supporting properties, a quick setting time,
and the ability to fully expand and reach the ceiling, as compared to other inorganic paste
filling materials. These attributes improve corner-filling efficiency, decrease filling costs,
and contribute to the advancement of inorganic paste filling materials.
Numerical simulation studies that examine the division of oxidation zones in goaf
areas offer crucial insights for ensuring the safe production of coal mines [6,24,25,34]. The
variation in the width of the oxidation zone in goaf areas directly affects the advancing
speed of the working face, and an excessively large oxidation zone poses a direct threat
to the safety of coal mine production. While previous research has mainly focused on the
impact of changes in airflow and goaf porosity on the range of oxidation zones, this study
primarily focuses on the influence of filling materials at the corners of the working face
on the distribution characteristics of oxidation zones in goaf areas, aimed at reducing air
leakage into the goaf from the source. The analysis of the pressure field in goaf areas filled
with different corner materials shows that changing corner fillings impacts the pressure
difference between the interior of the goaf and the lower corners of the working face,
thereby influencing airflow movement. The pressure field distribution in the goaf area
becomes more uniform when both corners are filled, leading to a smaller width of the
oxidation zone. Simulated experiments with various interval distances for filling in both
corners indicate that the width of the oxidation zone in the goaf area tends to decrease
initially and then increase with the increase in the filling interval distance. The range of the
oxidation zone within the goaf area is minimized when the interval distance is 50 m.
This research paper proposes the utilization of inorganic paste filling as a solution for
mitigating air leakage at the corners of operational areas within coal mines. This approach
is successfully applied in the 22,122 working face and demonstrates a substantial decrease
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 19 of 21

in air leakage when compared to unfilled conditions. Traditional methods such as cement
bag walls or wind-blocking curtains are ineffective in sealing off the corners and have led to
increased labor intensity for workers. In contrast, the use of inorganic paste filling not only
offers superior sealing effects but also contributes to preventing spontaneous combustion
in goaf areas. This technology introduces novel materials, techniques, and perspectives for
addressing air leakage at the corners of operational areas, providing valuable insights for
other mines encountering similar challenges.

7. Conclusions
This paper successfully developed a novel paste filling material based on mountain
sand by conducting a compositional analysis of mountain sand and fly ash, along with a
numerical simulation analysis of filling in the corners of the working face. Additionally, this
study investigated the distribution characteristics of the oxidation zone in the goaf during
the process. As a result, the use of inorganic paste filling at the corners of the working face
was proposed and effectively implemented in underground field operations. The following
conclusions were drawn:
(1) Through experiments involving the determination of particle size distribution and
X-ray diffraction on commonly used filling aggregates, such as mountain sand and fly
ash, it has been observed that mountain sand is an effective filling aggregate, while fly
ash can be used as a substitute for cement as a filling auxiliary material. Based on this
discovery, a new mountain sand-based paste filling material was developed. Through
rigorous flowability tests, quick-setting tests, and expansibility tests, the optimal
mass ratio for this new mountain sand-based paste filling material was determined
to be 1:4:15 (cement: fly ash: mountain sand), with a solid concentration of 84%.
Additionally, it is recommended to use a 9% dosage of a J85 quick-setting agent and a
0.5% dosage of a UEA expansion agent for optimal results.
(2) Various corner-filling scenarios were simulated and analyzed for the 22,122 working
faces using FLUENT 2022 R1 numerical simulation software. It was observed that
filling significantly impacted the pressure field within the goaf area. The presence
of filling material in the upper corner reduced the pressure difference between the
deep goaf area and the lower corner, effectively mitigating air leakage at its source.
Similarly, the presence of filling material in the lower corner decreased the pressure
difference between the deep goaf area and the upper corner, impeding the flow of
harmful gases back to the working face and reducing the likelihood of gas exceeding
safety limits in the upper corner. Overall, these findings contribute to the prevention
of gas accidents by minimizing the risk of gas accumulation in the working face.
(3) By employing FLUENT numerical simulation software, different interval distances
for filling in the two corners of the 22,122 working face were examined. The findings
indicate that the width of the oxidation zone within the goaf area was impacted by the
interval distance, displaying a trend of an initial reduction followed by an increase.
The minimum extent of the oxidation zone within the goaf area was observed at an
interval distance of 50 m. It was determined that implementing a secondary filling
in the corners of the working face was more effective in controlling the width of the
oxidation zone within the goaf area. However, it is essential to avoid excessively large
interval distances.
(4) The technology of inorganic paste filling was successfully implemented at the two
corners of the 22,122 working face. After conducting two fillings with a 50 m interval
between the upper and lower corners, the air leakage in the goaf area decreased by
66.7% compared to unfilled conditions. Moreover, the width of the oxidation zone
on the intake side of the goaf area was reduced by 42%, while on the return side,
it decreased by 33%. The filling material effectively acted as a barrier, preventing
oxygen from entering the goaf area and reducing the risk of spontaneous combustion
of residual coal. This advancement significantly contributes to the safe extraction of
the working face.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13216 20 of 21

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.S.; Methodology, L.S.; Software, L.S.; Investigation, Z.X.;
Resources, Y.C.; Data curation, L.T.; Writing – original draft, L.S.; Project administration, X.Z.; Funding
acquisition, C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC): 52374140.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data, models, or codes that support the findings of this study are
available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly available
due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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