Electrical Networks

COEE 102 S1
Dr. Rajasekharareddy Chilipi
Assistant Professor
EE Department
SVNIT
 Capacitor and Inductors
Unlike resistors, which dissipate energy
irreversibly, capacitors and inductors do not
dissipate but store energy, which can be
retrieved at a later time. For this reason,
capacitors and inductors are called storage
elements.
 Capacitors
• A capacitor is a passive element designed to store
energy in its electric field.
• Capacitors are used extensively in electronics,
communications, computers, and power systems.
• A capacitor is typically constructed as depicted in
Fig.1.
A capacitor consists of two
conducting plates separated
by an insulator (or dielectric).

Figure 1 A typical capacitor.

 Capacitors
In many practical applications, the plates may be
aluminum foil while the dielectric may be air, ceramic,
paper, or mica.

When a voltage source 𝑣 is

connected to the capacitor, as
in Fig.2, the source deposits a
positive charge 𝑞 on one plate
and a negative – 𝑞 charge on
the other.
Fig.2 A capacitor with applied voltage 𝒗.
 Capacitors
The amount of charge stored, represented by 𝑞, is
directly proportional to the applied voltage 𝑣 so that
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 −− −(1)
where 𝐶, the constant of proportionality, is known as
the capacitance of the capacitor. The unit of
capacitance is the farad (F).
Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a
capacitor to the voltage difference between the two
plates, measured in farads (F).
 Capacitors
Although the capacitance 𝐶 of a capacitor is the ratio of
the charge 𝑞 per plate to the applied voltage it does
not depend on 𝒒 or 𝒗.
It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor.
For the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig. 1, the
capacitance is given by
𝜖𝐴
𝐶= −−− −(2)
𝑑
where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the
distance between the plates, and 𝜖is the permittivity of
the dielectric material between the plates.
 Capacitors
In general, three factors determine the value of the
capacitance:
1. The surface area of the plates—the larger the area, the
greater the capacitance.
2. The spacing between the plates—the smaller the
spacing, the greater the capacitance.
3. The permittivity of the material—the higher the
permittivity, the greater the capacitance.
Capacitors are commercially available in different values
and types. Typically, capacitors have values in the
picofarad (pF) to microfarad (𝜇𝐹) range.
 Capacitors
Capacitors are described by the dielectric material they
are made of and by whether they are of fixed or
variable type.
Figure.3 shows the circuit symbols for fixed and
variable capacitors.
According to the passive sign
convention, if 𝒗 > 𝟎 and 𝒊 >
𝟎 or if 𝒗 < 𝟎 and 𝒊 < 𝟎 the
capacitor is being charged,
and if 𝒗. 𝒊 < 𝟎, the capacitor
is discharging. Figure .3 Circuit symbols for capacitors:
(a) fixed capacitor, (b) variable
capacitor.
 Capacitors
Figure .4 shows common types of fixed-value
capacitors.

Figure. 4 Fixed capacitors: (a) polyester capacitor, (b) ceramic capacitor, (c)
electrolytic capacitor.
 Capacitors
Variable capacitors are used in radio receivers allowing
one to tune to various stations.
In addition, capacitors are used to block dc, pass ac, shift
phase, store energy, start motors, and suppress noise.
To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the
capacitor, we take the derivative of both sides of Eq. (1).
𝑑𝑞
Since 𝑖 = , differentiating both sides of Eq. (1) gives
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶 −−− − 3
𝑑𝑡
According to Eq. (3), for a capacitor to carry current, its
voltage must vary with time. Hence, for constant
voltage, 𝑖 = 0.
 Capacitors
Capacitors that satisfy Eq. (3) are said to be linear. The
current-voltage relationship of a linear capacitor is
shown in Fig. 5.
For a nonlinear capacitor, the
plot of the current-voltage
relationship is not a straight
line.

The voltage-current relation

of the capacitor can be
obtained by integrating both Figure 5 Current-voltage
relationship of a capacitor.
sides of Eq. (3).
 Capacitors
𝑡
1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 −− −(4)
𝐶 −∞
Or
𝑡
1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡0 ) −− −(5)
𝐶 𝑡0
𝑞 𝑡0
where 𝑣 𝑡0 = , is the voltage across the capacitor
𝐶
at time 𝑡0 .
Equation (5) shows that capacitor voltage depends on
the past history of the capacitor current. Hence, the
capacitor has memory—a property that is often
exploited.
 Capacitors
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is
𝑑𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣 −− −(6)
𝑑𝑡
The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore
𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑣
𝑤 = 𝑡 𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑡 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝜏
0 0 𝑑𝜏
𝑣(𝑡) 1 2 2
= 𝑣 𝑡0
𝐶𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑣 𝑡0 ----(7)
2
1 2 1 2
𝑤 𝑡 − 𝑤 𝑡0 = C v t − C v t0 ----(8)
2 2
where the stored energy is 𝑤 𝑡0 in joules (J) and the
voltage at 𝑡0 is 𝑣 𝑡0 .
 Capacitors
If we select a zero-energy reference at 𝑡0 , implying that
the capacitor voltage is also zero at that instant, then
1 2
𝑤= C v t ----(9)
2
𝑞2
Or 𝑤= ---(10)
2𝐶
Equation (9) or (10) represents the energy stored in the
electric field that exists between the plates of the
capacitor. This energy can be retrieved, since an ideal
capacitor cannot dissipate energy.
 Capacitor
Important properties of a capacitor:
1. Note from Eq. (3) that when the voltage across a
capacitor is not changing with time (i.e., dc voltage),
the current through the capacitor is zero. Thus,
A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.
2. The voltage on the capacitor must be continuous.
The voltage on a capacitor cannot change abruptly.
The capacitor resists an abrupt change in the voltage
across it. According to Eq. (3), a discontinuous change in
voltage requires an infinite current, which is physically
impossible.
 Capacitors
3. The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes
power from the circuit when storing energy in its field
and returns previously stored energy when delivering
power to the circuit.
4. A real, nonideal capacitor
has a parallel-model leakage
resistance, as shown in Fig. 6.
The leakage resistance may be
as high as 100 Mohm, and can
Figure 6. Circuit model of a nonideal
be neglected for most capacitor.
practical applications.
 Example
Obtain the energy stored in each capacitor
under dc conditions.
 Examples
1. The voltage across a 5𝜇𝐹 capacitor is 𝑣 𝑡 =
10𝑐𝑜𝑠6000𝑡 𝑉 . Calculate the current
through it.
2. The current through a 100-mF capacitor is
𝑖 𝑡 = 50𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝜋𝑡 𝑉 Calculate the voltage
across it at t=1 ms and t=5 ms and Take v(0) =
0
 Parallel Capacitors
Consider the circuit in Fig. 7 (a) with N capacitors in parallel,
the equivalent circuit is illustrated in Fig 7(b.)
Applying KCL to Fig. 7(a)
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡
where 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁

The equivalent capacitance of N parallel

Figure 7 (a) Parallel-connected N
connected capacitors is the sum of the individual
capacitors, (b) equivalent circuit
capacitances.
for the parallel capacitors.
 Series Capacitors
In order to find a capacitor that is equivalent to N
capacitors in series, we use the circuit of Fig. 8a and its
equivalent in Fig. 8b

FIGURE 8 (a) A circuit containing N capacitors in series. (b) The desired equivalent
circuit.
 Series Capacitors
Applying KVL to Fig. 8(a)
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁
1 𝑡 1 𝑡
= 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣1 (𝑡0 ) + 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣2 (𝑡0 )
𝐶1 𝑡0 𝐶2 𝑡0
1 𝑡 1 𝑡
+ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣3 (𝑡0 ) + ⋯ + 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣𝑁 (𝑡0 )
𝐶3 𝑡0 𝐶𝑁 𝑡0
1 𝑡
𝑣= 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡0 )
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑡0
1 1 1 1 1
Where = + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁

And 𝑣 𝑡0 = 𝑣1 𝑡0 + 𝑣2 𝑡0 + 𝑣3 𝑡0 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁 (𝑡0 )
 Series Capacitors
The equivalent capacitance of series-connected
capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
 Example
Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the
terminals of the circuit
 Inductors
An inductor is a passive element designed to store
energy in its magnetic field.
They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios,
TVs, radars, and electric motors.
Any conductor of electric
current has inductive properties
and may be regarded as an
inductor.
To enhance the inductive effect,
a practical inductor is usually Figure: Typical form of an inductor.

formed into a cylindrical coil An inductor consists of

with many turns of conducting a coil of conducting
wire. wire.
 Inductors
If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is
found that the voltage across the inductor is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of the current.
𝒅𝒊
𝒗𝑳 = 𝑳
𝒅𝒕
where L is the constant of proportionality called the
slef-inductance (just inductance) of the inductor. The
unit of inductance is the henry (H)
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor
exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing
through it.
 Inductance
The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical
dimension and construction. The inductance of a coil
varies directly with the magnetic properties of the coil.
𝑁2 𝜇𝐴
For a solenoid type inductor 𝐿 =
𝑙
where 𝑁 is the number of turns, 𝑙 is the length, 𝐴 is the
cross-sectional area, and 𝜇 is the permeability of the core.
Inductance can be increased by increasing the number of
turns of coil, using material with higher permeability as
the core, increasing the cross-sectional area, or reducing
the length of the coil.
 Inductance
Inductors may be fixed or variable. The core may
be made of iron, steel, plastic, or air. The terms
coil and choke are also used for inductors.

Figure. Circuit symbols for

inductors: (a) air-core, (b) iron-core,
(c) variable iron-core.
 Fixed Inductors

Figure: Various types of inductors: (a) solenoidal wound inductor, (b) toroidal inductor, (c)
chip inductor.
 Linear and Nonlinear Inductors
• An inductor whose inductance is independent of
current is known as a linear inductor.
• The voltage-current relationship for a linear inductor
is shown here.

• For a nonlinear inductor,

the plot shown here will not
be a straight line because its
inductance varies with
current.
Figure: Voltage-current relationship of an
inductor.
 Inductor
The current-voltage relationship of an inductor is
1 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐿 −∞
1 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(𝑡0 )
𝐿 𝑡0
where 𝑖(𝑡0 ) is the total current for −∞ < 𝑡 < 𝑡0 and
𝑖 −∞ = 0.
The idea of making 𝑖 −∞ = 0 is practical and
reasonable, because there must be a time in the past
when there was no current in the inductor.
 Energy Stored
The inductor is designed to store energy in its magnetic
field. The power delivered to the inductor is
𝑑𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖𝐿
𝑑𝑡
The energy stored in the inductor is therefore
𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑖
𝑤= −∞
𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = −∞
𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝜏
𝑖(𝑡) 1 2 2
=𝐿 𝑖 −∞
𝑖𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑖 −∞
2
Since 𝑖 −∞ = 0,
1 2
𝑤= Li t
2
 Inductor
Important properties of a inductor:
1. When the current through an inductor is not changing
with time (i.e., dc current), the voltage across the
inductor is zero. Thus,
A inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.
2. The current through a inductor the inductor must be
continuous.
The current through a inductor cannot change
instantaneously.
The inductor resists an abrupt change in the current
flowing through it. A discontinuous change in current
requires an infinite voltage, which is physically impossible.
 Inductor
3. An ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. It takes
power from the circuit when storing energy in its field
and returns previously stored energy when delivering
power to the circuit.
4. A practical, nonideal inductor has a significant resistive
component, as shown in Fig.
The inductor is made of a
conducting material such as
copper, which has some
resistance. This resistance is Figure. Circuit model of a nonideal
inductor.
called the winding resistance.
 Series Inductors
Consider the circuit in Fig (a) with N Inductors in series, the
equivalent circuit is illustrated in Fig (b.)
Applying KVL to Fig. (a)
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡
where 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁

The equivalent inductance of N series connected

Figure (a) Series-connected N
Inductors is the sum of the individual
inductors, (b) equivalent circuit for
Inductances.
the series inductors.
 Parallel Inductors
In order to find a inductor that is equivalent to N
inductors in parallel, we use the circuit of Fig. a and its
equivalent in Fig. b

FIGURE (a) A circuit containing N inductors in parallel. (b) The desired equivalent
circuit.
 Parallel Inductors
Applying KCL
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁
1 𝑡 1 𝑡
= 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖1 (𝑡0 ) + 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖2 (𝑡0 )
𝐿1 𝑡0 𝐿2 𝑡0
1 𝑡 1 𝑡
+ 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖3 (𝑡0 ) + ⋯ + 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖𝑁 (𝑡0 )
𝐿3 𝑡0 𝐿𝑁 𝑡0
1 𝑡
𝑖= 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(𝑡0 )
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝑡0
1 1 1 1 1
Where = + + + ⋯+
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁

And 𝑖 𝑡0 = 𝑖1 𝑡0 + 𝑖2 𝑡0 + 𝑖3 𝑡0 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁 (𝑡0 )
 Practice Problems
Consider the circuit in Fig. Under dc conditions,
find:
(a) 𝑖, 𝑣𝑐 and 𝑖𝐿
(b) the energy stored in the capacitor and
inductor.
 Practice Problem
Find the current through a 5-H inductor if the
voltage across it is
30𝑡 2 , 𝑡 > 0
𝑣 𝑡 =
0, 𝑡<0
Also, find the energy stored at t=5 s. Assume
𝑖(0) = 0.
 Electricity and Magnetism
 In 1820, for the first time it was demonstrated that
electricity and magnetism were related, the Danish
physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that the
needle of a compass would deflect if brought near a
current-carrying conductor.
 A magnetic field is present around every wire that
carries an electric current.
 The direction of the magnetic flux lines can be found
by placing the thumb of the right hand in the
direction of current flow and noting the direction of
the fingers.
 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig: Magnetic flux lines around

a current-carrying conductor

If the conductor is wound in a single-turn coil, the

resulting flux will flow in a common direction through
the centre of the coil.

Fig: Flux distribution of a single-turn coil. Fig: Flux distribution of a current-carrying coil.
 FARADAY’S LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field so
that it cuts magnetic lines of flux, a voltage will be
induced across the conductor.
 The greater the number of flux lines cut per unit time
(or) the stronger the magnetic field strength, the
greater will be the induced voltage across the
conductor.

Fig: Generating an induced

voltage by moving a conductor
through a magnetic field.
 FARADAY’S LAW
If the conductor is held fixed and the magnetic field is
moved so that its flux lines cut the conductor, the same
effect will be produced.
If a coil of N turns is placed in the region of a changing
flux, as in Fig., a voltage will be induced across the coil
as determined by Faraday’s law:

Fig: Demonstrating Faraday’s law

 FARADAY’S LAW
If the flux linking the coil ceases to change, such
as when the coil simply sits still in a magnetic
field of fixed strength, (dϕ/dt)=0, and the
induced voltage e= N(dϕ/dt)= 0 volts.
 LENZ’S LAW
Statement: An induced effect is always such as to
oppose the cause that produced it.

 If the current flowing through the

coil changes, the flux linking the
coil also changes. That a changing
flux linking a coil induces a voltage
across the coil.
 The polarity of this induced
voltage tends to establish a
current in the coil that produces a Fig: Demonstrating the
flux that will oppose any change in effect of Lenz’s law
the original flux.
 Induced Voltage
The inductance of a coil is also a measure of the change
in flux linking a coil due to a change in current through
𝑑𝜙
the coil; that is, 𝐿 = 𝑁
𝑑𝑖
N is the number of turns,ϕ is the flux in webers, and i is
the current through the coil.
The larger the inductance of a coil (with N fixed), the
larger will be the instantaneous change in flux linking
the coil due to an instantaneous change in current
through the coil.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑒𝐿 = 𝑁 = 𝑁 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Practice Problem
Find the waveform for the average voltage
across the coil if the current through a 4-mH coil
is as shown in Fig.