Fizika: uvod

either a small-scale 1.2 To simplify the analysis of (a) a base-

ticles ofidealizirani
clothing (ormodeli
balluin
fizici
flight, we use (b) an idealized model.
on of a physical sys- (a) A Stvarna loptica
real baseball u letu
in flight
Loptica
Baseball spinsnije
and savršena kugla.
has a complex shape.
of a thrown baseball
ot a perfect sphere (it Otpor zraka iand
Air resistance
nd and air resistance vjetar djeluju
wind exert forces
Direction
silom naball.
on the lopticu. Smjer of
ance from the center motion
gibanja
e things, the analysis
version of theGravitacijska
prob- Gravitational force on ball
sila na lopticu
depends
g it as a point object, ovisi on altitude.
o visini.
ve in a vacuum, and
is simple enough to
(b) Idealizirani
An idealized modelmodel loptice
of the baseball
Chapter 3.
idealized model, but Baseball is treated
Loptica as a point
se tretira object
kao (particle).
točkasti objekt.
he effects of gravity Nema otpora
ball up, it will go in No air resistance.
zraka. Smjer of
Direction
one that simplifies a Gravitacijska sila gibanja
motion
Gravitational force
al features. naball
on lopticu je
is constant.
Young & Freedman University Physics
konstantna.
 Sustav jedinica

fizikalne pojave kvantificiramo pomocu fizikalnih veličina

FIZIKALNA VELIČINA = {A} [A]

mjerni broj fizikalna jedinica

FIZIKALNA OZNAKA MJERNA OZNAKA

VELIČINA JEDINICA
duljina L metar m
masa m kilogram kg
vrijeme t sekunda s
termodinamička T kelvin K
temperatura
električna struja I amper A
jakost svjetlosnog IV candela cd
izvora
količina tvari n mol mol

• “SI” = Système international d'unités

 Sustav jedinica

fizikalne pojave kvantificiramo pomocu fizikalnih veličina

FIZIKALNA VELIČINA = {A} [A]

mjerni broj fizikalna jedinica

DIMENZIJE U MEHANICI:

Osnovne fizikalne veličine:

- masa (m), duljina (L), vrijeme (t)

Dimenzije ostalih fizikalnih veličina su izvedene:

- [brzina] = duljina/vrijeme = L/t
- [sila] = masa x duljina / vrijeme2 = mLt-2
- [bilo koja mehanicka veličina] = maLbtc
 Sustav jedinica quantitatively is called a physical quantit
that describe you are your weight and you
so fundamental that we can define them on
Such a definition is called an operational
1.3 The measurements used to determine ing a distance by using a ruler and meas
(a) the duration of a second and (b) the
length of a meter. These measurements are
watch. In other cases we define a phy
SEKUNDA: useful for setting standards because they calculate it from other quantities that we c
1889 - 1967 jedinica vremenagive
je the
bila definirana
same results no matterkaowherediotheysrednjeg Sunčevog
average speed of a movingdana
object as the di
are made. divided by the time of travel (measured wi
1967: bazirana na atomskom satu When we measure a quantity, we alway
(a) Measuring the second
dard. When we say that a Ferrari 458 Italia
Mikrovalno
Microwave radiationzračenje frekvencije
with a frequency of
4.53 times as long as a meter stick, which
9 192 631 770 Hz..
exactly 9,192,631,770 cycles per second ...
standard defines a unit of the quantity. T
second is a unit of time. When we use a n
Vanjski we must always specify the unit that we
elektron
Outermost
electron
simply “4.53” wouldn’t mean anything.
To make accurate, reliable measuremen
Cesium-133
atom
do not change and that can be duplicated
system of units used by scientists and eng
called “the metric system,” but since 196
International System, or SI (the abbre
…djeluje nathevanjski
... causes elektron
outermost electron of a u Cs-133 International). Appendix A gives a list of
cesium-133 atom to reverse its spin direction.
atomu. most fundamental units.

Cesium-133
atom
An atomic clock uses this phenomenon to tune
microwaves to this exact frequency. It then
Young & Freedman University Physics
counts 1 second for each 9,192,631,770 cycles.
Time
From 1889 until 1967, the unit of time w
mean solar day, the average time between s
est point in the sky. The present standard, a
It is based on an atomic clock, which uses
lowest energy states of the cesium atom. W
cisely the proper frequency, cesium atoms
states to the other. One second (abbreviate
 atom mean solar day, the average time between succes
Sustav jedinica est point in the sky. The present standard, adopte
It is based on an atomic clock, which uses the en
lowest energy states of the cesium atom. When b
An atomic clock uses this phenomenon to tune
METAR microwaves to this exact frequency. It then cisely the proper frequency, cesium atoms under
counts 1 second for each 9,192,631,770 cycles. states to the other. One second (abbreviated s) i
1960: atomski standard za metar korištenjem crvene svjetlosti koju emitiraju
9,192,631,770 cycles of this microwave radiation
atomi kriptona 86Kr
(b) Measuring the meter Length
0:00 s 0:01 s In 1960 an atomic standard for the meter was a
1.3 Standards and Units 5
length of the orange-red light emitted by atoms
finition of the meter (abbreviated m) is the
charge tube. Using this length standard, the
Light
in 1 > 299,792,458 second (Fig. 1.3b). This
source Light travels exactly measured to be 299,792,458 m> s. In Novembe
ard of length than the one based on a wave- Svjetlost
299,792,458putuje
m in 1 s. changed again so that the speed of light in vac
299 792 458 m u 1 s.
KILOGRAM
1 kgkg),=ismasa
abbreviated defined tocilindra
be the mass legure
of 1.4 The platine-iridija
international standardkoja se čuva u International Bureau of
kilogram
dium alloy kept at the International Bureau is the metal object carefully enclosed
Weights
near Paris (Fig. 1.4).and Measures
An atomic standard of u within
Sèvresu, Francuska
these nested glass containers.
ut at present we cannot measure masses on
racy as on a macroscopic scale. The gram
0.001 kilogram.

ntal units, it is easy to introduce larger and

quantities. In the metric system these other
nits (or, in the case of mass, to the gram) by
meter 11 km2 is 1000 meters, and one cen-
1
y express multiples of 10 or 10 in exponential
nd so on. With this notation, 1 km = 10 3 m

are derived
Young by adding
& Freedman a prefix
University to the name
Physics
 Sustav jedinica: prefiksi
1.5 Some typical lengths in the universe. (f ) is a scanning tunneling microscope image of atoms on a crystal surface; (g) is an artist’s
impression.

Young & Freedman University Physics

(a)1026 m
Limit of the (b)1011 m
Limit
observable Distance to (c)107 m
opservabilnog
universe Udaljenost
the sun Diameter of (d)1 m
Svemira do Sunca Dijametar
the earth Human (e)1025 m
Zemlje Ljudske
dimensions Diameter of a
Dijametar (f)10210 m
dimenzije red blood cell Radius of an (g)10214 m
stanica krvi Radijus
atom Radius of an
atoma Radijus
atomic nucleus
naziv simbol faktor atomske jezgre
tera T 1 000 000 000 000
1.6 Many everyday items make use of The newton, abbreviated N, is the SI unit of force. The British unit of time is the
gigaSI and BritishG
both units. An example is 1 000 000defined
second, 000 the same way as in SI. In physics, British units are used only in
this speedometer from a U.S.-built auto- mechanics and thermodynamics; there is no British system of electrical units.
mega
mobile, which showsM the speed in both 1 000 000
kilometers per hour (inner scale) and miles In this book we use SI units for all examples and problems, but we occasion-
kilo
per k
hour (outer scale). 1 000
ally give approximate equivalents in British units. As you do problems using
SI units, you may also wish to convert to the approximate British equivalents if
hecto h 100familiar to you (Fig. 1.6). But you should try to think in SI units as
they are more
deci d 0.1 much as you can.

centi c 0.01
mili m 0.001 1.4 Unit Consistency and Conversions
micro m 0.000 001 We use equations to express relationships among physical quantities, represented
by algebraic symbols. Each algebraic symbol always denotes both a number and
nano n 0.000 000 001
a unit. For example, d might represent a distance of 10 m, t a time of 5 s, and v a
 Vektori

pravac nosioc
smjer
iznos ili veličina

hvatište
 Koordinatni sustav
3.1 Position and
da bismo odredili mjesto nekog fizikalnog događaja, moramo dogovorno
S
3.1
odrediti The od
mjesto position ćemor mjeriti
kojegvector from the sveorigin To describe
udaljenosti u prostoru: theishodište
motion of a p
to pointsustava
koordinatnog P has components x, y, and z. The particle’s position. Consider
path that thesustava
osi koordinatnog particle follows
omogućuju Position and Displacement
throughda space
jednoznačno odredimo položaj
position vector r of the
S u
par
prostoru
is in general a curve (Fig. 3.2).
One general way of locatinggin of athe coordinate
particle system
(or particle-lik
:
y vector r , which is a x,vector
y, andthat extends
z of point fromP areathe re
Position origin)
of uto the particle.vectors
a particle
Pozicija P čestice In the unit-vector notation of M
we introduced in Sec
danom
at trenutku
a given time hasima 24 CHAPTER 1 Units, Physical Quantities, an
:
y koordinate x,y,z.
coordinates x, y, z. r # x î $ y ĵ $ z k̂,
1.31 (a) We will always use a right- S are
where x î , y ĵ , and z k̂ arehanded
thecoordinate
vector system,
components r ! xın :
like this one.of r witan
^ its scalar components.
z kare Jedinični
(b) We vektori: pokazuju
will never use a left-handed
nate system (in which Nı : ≥N ! "k
coordi-
duž
N , and
P osi (x,
The coefficients x , y , Duringy, z) i imaju uvijek iznos 1
so on).
and z give the particle’s loc
r
r
a time interval ¢t
The
axes yand j^ relative to the origin;
S that is, the particle has
(a) A right-handed coordinate system
O is r 1 , to Py 2 , where its positio wit
(x , y , z ). For instance, Fig. 4-1 shows a^ particle with pos
and
x ment) during i $ ^
j this
5 ^
k interval
z xi^ :
r (!3 m)î
^
j^ N j^ $ k 5 i^
(2 m)ĵ $the(5 m
x 1z 2 - z 12k
# .k^ We$
$i5j
^ ^ define a
z way we
and rectangular coordinates (!3
O
didm, in2Chapter
m, 5 m).2Alon
for
k^ i^ x
Position
Vektor vector točke
položaja P3 Pm from the origin, the
of point in zthe
time interval: Along the
!î direction.
ima
has komponente x,y,z:
components x, y, z:origin, in the $ĵ direction. Along the z axis it is 5You
m
r 5 x i^ 1 y j^ 1 z k^.
r
direction. Young & Freedman University Physics
(b) A left-handed coordinate system;S N
S
call
symbol, as in
use the italic and s.b (You
a, b, symbol, ascan use
in a, and ofs.adding
b,order
any (You the can use
vectors.
ith an overhead
a arrow always implies Zbrajanje i oduzimanje vektora C
:
The vector #b is a
dl.) A symbol witha +an
direction. b overhead arrow A always
a+ b
implies
–b displacement
Net A direction (see Fig. 3-5). A
b+c

g, the
magnitude andindirection.
three vectors Fig. 3-2b with the b
is the vector sum Net displac
relation among the three vectors in Fig. 3-2b (a) the
with is the
: vecto

b+c
c c : : Na kraj vektora a
Thus, adding #b has the

(a
a+

Figure 3-5 The vectors b and #b have the (a) between tw

+
To add a
stavljamoand the
b, difference
početak
b+

b)
: same magnitude and opposite directions.

+
draw them
vektora b
c

$ b, (3-1)

c
a b
:
d"aTo:

he three vectors
: a ,:
: : head to tail.
b , and c can be grouped in any way as they are added; see
::
s % : a $ :b , (3-1) that is, we find the
dr
differ
um of vectors a and b . The symbol $ in b
aFigure 3-6 shows how thishe
ave different
: meanings for vectors than : s As in the usual algebr
ector #b is a vector with the same magnitude
: as b but the opposite
:
is the both
sinvolve vector sum of and
magnitude vectors a and
:
direction. b . The symbol (b)$ in Zbroj vektora
This is the oneaside
i b.of a vector equat
see
ddingFig. 3-5). Adding
two-dimensional the two vectors
vectors a and
: in Fig.
:
b 3-5 would yield if we are given Eq. 3-4 and
m” and “add” have different :
meanings :
for vectors than resulting vector, s
r a to some convenient
:
b !scale
(#b and
) " at
0. the :
ra because they involve both magnitude and direction. from tail of a (b)
me scale,
: with its tail at the head of vec- : : Th
procedure
ng #b has
vector sum : sfor
the adding
effect
is the vectortwo-dimensional
of subtracting
that
b
extends
. We use vectors a and b
this :
property to to
define head of b. Remember that, alth
nce between two vectors: let
:
d " :
a #
:
b . Then re
for addition and subtract
er, sketch vector a to some convenient scale and at the
: –b
velocities, accelerations,
Figure 3-2 a(a) AC is the vector sum of the
: frok
ector b dto"the
in this way,
: : same:
has two
:
a # :b " :
scale, with its tail at the head of vec-
important: proper- vectors AB
a ! (#b ) : (vector subtraction);
and BC. b
(b)
(3-4)
The same only
vectors vectors of the same
velocities, but adding atod
matter. Adding a to b gives the same relabeled.
angle. (3) The vector sum s is the vector that extends (a) metic of scalars, that wou
: : :
ad
findofthe
b .difference vector d by adding the vector #b to the vector :
. Figure
Da abismo
Note head-to-tail od3-2 (a) ACb,is the vect
a oduzeli
shows how
dition, this is done
defined geometrically.
in this way, has two important proper- zbrajamo vektor aCheckpoint
arrangement for
sa -b. 1
addition vectors AB and BC. (b) Th
–b
the usual algebra, we can move a term that:includes
: a vector symbol from
dition does not matter. Adding a to b gives the same relabeled.The magnitudes of displac
a vector equation to the other, but we must changedits= asign.
–b For example, Considering various orien
magnitude for :
c and (b) t
ven Eq. 3-4 and need to solve for :
a , we can rearrange the equationa as
: : : :
d ! b " :
a or :
a " d ! b.
Halliday, Resnick & Walker: Fundamentals of Physics (b) Components of Vect
mber that, although we have used displacement vectors here,:the
:
rules:
 ork done by B
pendicular.
the force is positive if the angle betweenToF define
(This is another example of a term that has a
s Sis
andCalculating
special the between
scalar
meaning the
product
in Scalar A # B Product
weS S
A # Bdraw Using
the two
is negative ...Co
Skalarno množenje
S S
90°, negativethe
culating if1.25
this angle
Scalar isProduct
betweenthe
Calculating 90°Using
and 180°,
scalar productand zero
Components
tailsthat of
at the
if F and s are
same point (Fig. 1.25a).
BIf
The
f is between
# angle
(c) A #
S S 90° and
B (the... Gr
# We can calculate the scalar product f directly
S S
sics; in everyday
dicular. (This is f language, “work”
another exampleS S
of isn’t
a term something
that has a can
special be Vector
positive
meaning in addition
or S S develops f
A B is negative naturall
#
S

can
ative.) calculate
In later two
the
chaptersvectors,
scalarwe’ll A
product
use B the=A
S AB S cos f.
B
scalar directly
product directions
if
for wea components
ranges
know
variety the
of from of
purposes,
x-, y-,A
0° and
to
and B
180°.
z-. B Figure
To see how1.25b this isshows done,
s; in everydayS language, S A
S
“work” isn’t somethingSthat can be and
positive
products will
or Sunitprove
of the vectors.useful Thisf is easy, for calcula
If f 5nı ,9
since
m calculating
mponents
In laterof Aelectric
and B potential
. Touse seetheto
how determining
thisproduct
is done,the Beffects
ontofirst
let’s the
thatdirection
ofvarying
work out of
mag-A;scalar
the this projection is Sthe because compo
ve.) cos(a)
Bchaptersf we’ll scalar for
S a varietyand purposes,
areexpress
perpendicularmany to physical
each other. relationsh
Using
B Eq. (1.1
c fields
ducts have
of the
alculating on electric
unit vectors.
electric circuits.
potentialThis is easy, since
to determining ,An≥ ,and
the nıeffects andthat N
iskequal
all to Bmag-
have
varying cos f. (We 1can take components alo
magnitude ... because B cos in
f ,the0. S
dir
A
are perpendicular
elds have on electric circuits.to each
S other. Using Eq. venient,
(1.18), we not
find just ordinary
the x- and numbers,
ı
n #
y-axes.)
ı
n =
... n
≥ #
We
because n
≥ =
so k
B
ordinary
#
define
N N
k
cos =
f
S
A, #
f B
112112
S
0. 5 m
to90cob
B plied by the We willof define
component
S
B # in the two
#direction different
# of
S
A . kin
Exp
culating the Scalar Product Using Components
(c) A # B also equals B(A cos f) NS NS
Place the vectors tail to tail. N
ı ≥ =(c)ı k = ≥ k = 112112 co N
# # #
S S n n n n
nı ı
n = n
≥ f n
≥ = k #k = 112112 cos 0° = 1 scalar product, yields a result t
lating theSScalar
can calculate the scalar Product
product AUsing Components
B directly if we know the x-, y-, and z-S (c)S S S If f 5 90°, A#B5
S S

mponents of A and
(Magnitude
S S
B
of .#B)
To see
times
= nı k =
nı n≥ product N how #
#
S Sthis
(Component
n≥B k N # isof
S
S
A
done,
=A112112 let’s
cos first
90° thework
= use
S S
Now
A # B
out product,
we
0x-, these =express
the AB
scalar
(1.19)
cos Ayields
and=B ƒ in
f A another
ƒterms
ƒ B ƒ cos of f
because vector.
their
B
S (defini
compon
hasS zero
n calculate the scalar A directly A#B5
S if we know y-, and z-
in direction of B) N products of unit vectors:
S
B If fin5the90°,
S
direction of
(d0
ducts
nents of of the
S
A andunitBvectors.
S
. To see This
how isthis
easy, is since ılet’s
done,
n , ≥ , and
n
first kwork
all have
out magnitude
the scalar 1 S

are
wts we perpendicular
express
of the
S to
A and BThis
unit vectors. each
S other.
in terms Using
is easy,ofsince Eq. (1.18),
theirı components,
n n we
N
, ≥ , and k all havefind
Alternatively,
expand we can
the product,
magnitude
S
# S
1A B and define
S
A
B
S
#
= 1Ax ı ! Ay ≥ ! Az k
n
S
B
because B has zeroSco
in
f5
to
the
n be 90°N 2 # of
the
direction mag
1B A.
x nı
A cos f S S
the component Scalar of A in the Product
direction
# of90°B
# , as in
nı # nıS=# Sn≥ # n≥ = k N #k
ethese
perpendicular
productsB to
S
of each
unit other.
vectors: Using Eq. (1.18),
N = 112112 cos 0° = 1 we find f5
= Ax ı Bx ı + Ax ı By n≥ + ASx nı
n n n
(b) A B equals A(B cos f). B1A cos f2 = AB cos f, which is the same as Eq. (1.1
S f
nı # S
ı
nnı #
= #
n≥ n
≥=# n
≥
nı #
= kNk N=# k
Nn≥ #=k
N 112112
= 112112
N cos #
0°
cos =
90° 1The
= 0 scalar The
product
N scalar
(1.19)
is a product
+ quantity,
scalar #
Ay n≥ Bx nı + notof two # vecto
By n≥ +
Ay an≥ vector,
A
A B = 1Ax ı S! Ay ≥S! Az k2 1Bx ı ! By ≥ S! Bz k2
n n n n
# #
(Magnitude
# of A) times (Component ative, of
or Bzero. notation,
(1.19)
When is the+ scalar
between N #B
0° product
and 90°, cos# is
y +7
als
#
N
w we express A and
N
= BAxinnı terms
A
# N
nı S n≥ = nıS k = n≥ k = 112112 cos 90° = 0 N
Bx nı +of A their #
By n≥in + direction
x nı components, Bof
Ax nı expand # S
z kA) the product,
f
vectors,
Az
andthe quantity
k nı
x S S+
A
A
B
z k
is
B
a
fn
≥
sc
S n #
= Ax Bx ı ı + Ax By ı ≥ + AS
n n # n xB
these products
S ofSunit vectors:
we express A and B in+ terms y
#
BA n≥ ofB their
x ı
n + components,
A y n
≥ B y
# n≥ + expand
A y n
≥ Bthe
z
#
N
k product, To
and define
+
the
A B
scalar product
n≥ # nı + Ay By n≥ # n≥ +
A
se productsSof# Sunit vectors: # y x
tails at the same point (Fig. 1.25a)
A B = 1A ı
n !f N# A n≥ ! A kN 2 N 1B
+ x Az k yBx nı + zAz k Bxy n≥ + Ay z k Bzz k#ı
n ! B n≥ N! B kN
N 2# (1.20)+ Az Bx k N # nı + A B k N # n≥ +
#
S S
# # # S
# directions ranges from 0° to 180° z y

x B xnı # nı + xAx Byy nı # n≥ + x Ax Bz z nı # k

A B = 1A = xAı !
n nı BAynı≥ +! AAznık2B 1B
n N n≥Ax+ ı A
n ! nıByB≥ !n k Bz k2
N N S S
=A N B onto A; this
x x From Eqs. (1.19)the
we direction ofthese
see that six of pro
nine term
#
= Ax nı+ BBAxcos # # #
ıy n≥ + f # ## #N S
n BA
xxnı nı+ B A n
yy≥n
≥ + B
+ Ay Bx n≥ nı + Ay By n≥ n≥ + Ay Bz n≥ k
A
yx n
≥ ı
n + B A k
zy n≥# B z kN
N survive
A give
and simply
is equal to B cos f. (We can
+ A+ y n≥AzBk# # # #
N x nıB+x nı A+ y n≥AzBk # #
N y n≥By+ n≥ A+ y n≥AzBk NB k
Nz k N venient,
S S not just the x- and y-axes.
N #
+ Az Bx k nı + Az By k n≥ + Az Bz k k # N # z N N #
(1.20)
A B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz S
(sca
N B#x nB
+ = AAzxk
S S n ky#nıB# yn≥≥ + + AAxzBkz nı# B
ı #x nı + Azx B N n # kz k
N NN plied by the component of B interm
(1.20) th
 ı :: kNı :N : kNTon:ı define
N
k 0
the with vector product
their tails Athe
at : same
B, wepoint again(Fd
ght-
one. with itself is zero, soN
n
≥n
Vektorsko množenje
n !
! n
≥
"k
are perpendicular to each other (Fig. 1.31a). The vector product of any vector n
≥ !n≥ !
with their tails atWe
!
thedefine
(1.24)
same point the vector (Fig. product
1.29a). The to betw
k : nı !that " nıeach : We kN ! n≥
d coordi- The boldface zero is a reminder productdefineis1.10 the
a zero vector toproduct
vector—that
lar
Products this
of Vectorsplane to one
is, be
23 a vector
(that is, quantity
perpendicu S
k, andwith all components equal to zero N N S S S
nı : and nı !an n≥ larundefined
: ≥to!this
n k :planedirection.
k ! 0(that AB S Using
sinis,f. Eqs.
perpendicular
That (1.22)
is, if C to
! both
A : A
B and
, th
You can verify theseSequations by referring to Fig. 1.31a. S S
and (1.23) and the right-hand S rule, we findAB sin f. That is, if C ! A : B, then
Next Swe The express
boldface A and
zero B isin aterms
reminder of their that components
each product and is the
a corresponding
zero vector—that is, one
stem S S S
ounit
vectors A andand
vectors, B, alsoexpand called the cross product, n≥isthe 1.29 The vector product A : B
with allwe components theequalexpression
nı :to n≥ zero
! " forand ıvector
:anndetermined
!k N (a)
undefined product:
by direction.
the C = Using
right-hand ABrule. sinEqs.f (1.22)(magnitude of the
name suggests, the vector product is itself a vector.
to eachS Sand (1.23) and the right-hand rule, we find
other (Fig. 1.31a). The vector N product of any C = S
AB S
sin f S
(magnitude
(b) B : N A ! "A : B; the vector product
vector
S
of the vector (cross) p
hapter A : B ! 1Ax ı # Ay ≥ # Az kn≥2 :: k
10 to describe n torque nand angular 1B!
momentum;
N x ı "k
n # B: N n
y ≥ is Bnzık2
n≥#anticommutative.
! (1.24)
so S
l use itS to describe magnetic fields and forces. We rule measure S angle fSfrom A tow
the
ı
n S: n ≥ ! S "n ≥ N: nı ! Nright-hand
k
S
! A ı
n : B nı # A ı
n :N B n
≥ # A ı
n : B (a)
N k Using the to find the
0 k : ı ! " ıWe
duct A n: Bn, we nagain x draw xN the two
x vectors y n A and x nB : measure k z ! n≥ A toward B and
N ! direction of Athe 3 B angle f from take0
S S
ı : ı ! ≥ : n≥ ! k
point (Fig. 1.29a). The two vectors then lie in
: k
N ! "k
a plane. N : Nn≥ ! nı possible angles,
(1.25) so f ranges from
# Ay ≥ : Bx ı # Ay ≥ : By ≥ # Apossible n
≥ : k ≥ : Bz kangles, S so f ranges S from (1.24)to 180°. Then
S 0°
n n n n y n S
is never negative, as must be the cas
You
ctistoa be can verify
a vector
reminder thatquantity
each these with
product equations
a direction
is a zero by referring
perpendicu-
vector—that tois, Fig.
1onePlace1.31a. A and B tail S to tail. S A 3 B
pendicular
nts equal Next
to to
zeroboth
we #
S
A and
express
andA anN
k B
S S
)A
undefined
: B andı
nand # a A
S
magnitude
B N
in
direction.
k :terms
B kN :
equal
Using
n
≥ of
# ı
n ! is
to
their
Eqs.
A S k"
Nnevernı :
components
(1.22)
: 2 B S
negative,
k
N
k
N
Point ! n
≥
fingers and
ofA asand
the
right
must
hand B be parallel
are
corresponding the caseor forantiparallel,
a vector m
S z x z y z z
:right-hand
Bunit
, thenvectors,
rule, weand find we expand the expression for thealong A and B are
vector
S
parallel product
product:
A, with palm or antiparallel,
S
facing B.of two parallel f = or 0 orantipara
180° a
You can verifythe theseindividual equations by referring product toCurl
Fig.
of two1.31a. parallel or
We can also rewrite terms in Eq. (1.25) as A x nı :product
SB n
y antiparallel
≥ ! of any vector vectors is ita
S
S nı :Sn ≥
Next ! we
" n
≥ : ı
n
express ! kN S
S
A# and S
B
S
in:(1.22)
N)2these terms of
3
their
fingers
components N2 vector
toward B.
and the A
corresponding with
de1Aofx Bthe
tem; y2ıA
n :
vector n
≥B, !
(cross)
and 1Aso x nı
product
on.# A of n
≥
Evaluating
y A and A B
z k 1B by x nı #
using
vector B n
≥
the
4 product
y # B k
multiplication
Thumb pointsz of inany table
vector
f for
with itself is zero.
unit
n≥ : k vectors,
N ! "k and
N : n≥ ! nı we expand the expression for the vectorS product:
S
theS unit vectors in Eqs. (1.24) and then grouping the
(1.24) terms,
direction
N we of get
A 3 B. S
S ! ASx ı : Bx ı # Ax ı : By ≥ # Ax ı : Bz k
n n n n n CAUTION Vector product vs. scalar
B
om A toward B
N : Anı !Sand take it to be the smaller
N !nı n≥# A n≥ # A k of the
N two N2
S Sk :" B nı!: 1A k x y z 2 : CAUTION 1Bx nı # By n≥Vector # BzAB k product
sin f for vs.the scalar
(1.25)
magnitude product of Be vector
the carefu
s from 0° to
A : B ! 1Ay# 180°. Then sin Ú
Bz A-y ≥Az:ByB2ıx ı ##1A
f 0 and C in Eq.
Ayz B≥ x:-BAy x≥B# (1.22) 2 ≥A(b) :3 xABB5
≥ B1A N
k2A- A N
2kvector
n n n n n n # n B(the (1.26)
# S S
S S S S
z y zy yB x product is S S
e the
ese case forby
equations a vector
referring magnitude.
to Fig.ı : Note
1.31a. ı also thatı : when AB sinAfnıfor : the kmagnitude
N 3
for the of the vector
scalar product product
A BA. To: Bsee wi
S
parallel,
ss A and f
S
B in= terms
0 or 180° of
#their
!
Aand kN
A x
C:
n
=
components
S B n
0.
B
ı
x
SThat
zof C !x A : Bz are given #
n #
Aand
S N
k
is,
A x
:
the
n
B
vector
B
n
≥
y
for
corresponding
y #
n
≥ #
A
anticommutative)
the z kN x
:scalar
B
B
z
N
k
z
product
imagine A
S
# S
SB. To see the difference b
that
A we vary
(1.25) the
S angle S between
Thus the components n≥ : InBproduct: nı # Ay n≥ the by
:imagine : Bvary N the angle between A and B while ke
S S
weantiparallel
expand thevectors expression is always
for#the Azero.
yvector xparticular, By n≥ # that Ay n≥ we zkWhen A fand B are parallel, the magnitu
S S
r withWe itselfcan also rewrite the individual terms in Eq. (1.25) as A ı
nS : B n
S
is zero.
N 2 : 1B nı ##BAn≥z k N# :B B N 2x nı # Az k When
N : B n≥ # A k A and B
N : Bk are parallel,
Nproduct will x the
B be S y ≥
magnitude !
maximum. of the
Whenvector A anp
nı # Ay n≥ # Az k k S
x = -
C1A A B A xB yC = zA B - A B y C = zA B -z A B
B
x y 2ıy n z: n
≥ , and
z y so on. y Evaluatingz x these
x z by
product using
z willthe x bey multiplication
maximum. y x
product When
will table
be A forand B are
maximum and perpendic
the scala
N Same magnitude but (1.27)
s.: scalar
Bxthenı #product
AxWe
unit :SBe
nı vectorsB ycareful
n≥S#inAxEqs. nı : toB(1.24)
not zconfuse
k the and the then
S expressionS
grouping S
product the
will terms,
beEq. we
maximum get as and the
Sn scalar
can also rewrite
1components of C individual
! A : B terms
2 in
opposite (1.25)
direction S
B A x
A ı : B y n≥ product
! will be z
he vector product A : B with the similar expression AB cos f (1.25) 3
y n≥To: seeBx nıS#1A
the A xn≥B:
difference
yS y2ınBy:n≥between
#n≥ , Aandy n≥ : soBzon.
these
N Evaluating these by using the multiplication table for
k two expressions,
S S
n n ThereN are always two directions
 a
Continuing to expand Eq. 3-26, you can show that
about this rule. a
Vektorsko množenje
:
a! b " (ab # b a)î $ (ab # b a)ĵ $ (ab # b a)k̂.
:
(3-27)
y z y z z x z x x y x y S S S S (a)
Similarly,
A determinant we determine
(Appendix the direction
E) or a vector-capable calculator can also of
To check whether any xyz coordinate system is a right-handed coordinate
B : A by rotating
be used.
S
BSinto A as in
Fig. 1.29b. The
system, use result
the right-hand is
rule forathe
vector that
cross product is
î ! ĵ " that system. Ifto the vector A :
opposite
k̂ with B. The vector
your fingers sweep î (positive direction of x) into ĵ (positive direction of y) with S S (Mag
producttheis not commutative!
outstretched In
thumb pointing in the positive fact,
direction for any
of z (not negativevectors A and B,
thetwo
direction), then the system is right-handed.
(M
S S
A : B ! "B : A
S S
c! (1.23)
Checkpoint 5
: :
: a
Vectors C and D have magnitudes of 3 units and 4 units, respectively. What is the an-
Just as we did for the scalar product, we can give a geometrical interpretation
: :
gle between the directions of C and D if the magnitude of the vector product C ! D
: S
is (a) zero and (b) 12 units? B
of the magnitude
S
of the vector product. In Fig. 1.30a, B sinSf is the component of
vector B that Sis perpendicular
S
to the directionS of vector A. From Eq. (1.22) the S
magnitude of A : S B equals the magnitude of A multiplied by the component
A of B
(b) S S
perpendicular to AS. Figure 1.30b shows that the magnitude of A : B alsoS equals
the magnitude of B multiplied c ! the component
by :
S
A perpendicular
of fingers B. Note
to right
products. (a) Sweep vector ainto vector b with the
:
of
c your hand.
(b)
: that: Fig. 1.30 shows the case :in which f is between 0° and:90°; :
you should draw a
r c " a!
:
b . (b) Showing that b ! a
:
is the reverse of a ! b .
similar diagram for f between 90° and 180° to show that the same geometrical (Mag
S S
interpretation bofa the magnitude of A : b B still applies. b (Mag

(a)

Calculating the Vector Product Using Components S

S S B
: the components of A and B, we can calculate the components of the
If we know
ainto vector
:
vector
b with the
product using
fingers
a procedure
of your right hand.
similar to that for the scalar product. First we
: :
hat b !work
:
aisout
the
thereverse of a
:
b . the unit
b

multiplication
a ! for
table a N , all
vectors nı , n≥ , and k a three of which

c!

(b)
Halliday, Resnick & Walker: Fundamentals of Physics
:
 av
3.1 The Srednja
origin, in the $ĵ direction. Along the z axis it t
is2 -
5
position vector r from
to point P hasdirection.
i S
trenutna
the origin
components x, y, and z. The
brzina
To describe the motion of a particle in space, we
particle’s position. Consider a particle that is at a
path that the particle follows through space S
position vector r of the particle at this instant is
As3.2).
is in general a curve (Fig. a particle moves, Dividingvector
its position a vector by a
change
gin of the coordinate system to the point P (Fig.
materijalna točka kojoj always
y se koordinate extends to the
mijenjaju particle
x,u y,vremenu
and ∆t:from
zscalar,
of point are thethe
Pdescribed reference
x-, y-, in
and Secti
z-compon
Position P of a particle vectors we introduced: in Section
: S 1.9, we canawric
3.2 The average tion
velocity
at a vector
given time
S
vhas
av
changes—say,
between from
ment r
vector
1 to r
¢ during
2 r multiplie
y coordinates x, y, z. :
points P1 and P2 has the samedisplacement
particle’s direction as " the r during S that time N
x-component
r ! xı
n # y≥n # zk interva
of Eq.
(posi
S
the displacement ¢ r . z k^
just Eq. (2.2), the expres
P : : :
r r During a time" r
interval
# ¢tr the! r
particle. moves fr
is r 1 , to Pfor one-dimensional
its position vector is r 2mot
2 1
yj^ S S
y O Positionuatvremenu
Pozicija time t2 t2 2 , where . The c
S S S
ment) during this interval is ¢ r ! r " r1
z Usingxi
^
the
x
unit-vector
x 1z notation
- z N . We
2k We of now
define Eq.
the define
4-1,
average we instan
2
can vre
velocity
S
P2 S 2 1 av
z S
v
Position vector of point P av 5
Dr way we did limit of
in Chapter the average
2 for straight-line velo
motion
Dt the
: time interval:
has components x, y, z: " r # (xthe
2 î $ y 2 ĵ $ z 2 k̂) !rate
SREDNJA BRZINA
instantaneous (x 1of
î $
r 5 x i^ 1 y j^ 1 z k^.
r
S
S
vav ! r and
SS
position ! instantane
S
r2 S S r 2 " r 1 ¢ r
Dr Displacement
Vektor promjene (averag
or as vector : t2 - t1 ¢t
položaja
Dr
S
" r # (x 2 ! x 1)î $ (y 2 ! y 1)ĵ $
pokazuje
points
S
r1 od PP1 prema
from to P .P2Dividing a vector by a scalar is really a special
¢
P 1 2 S
O3.2 where1 coordinates scalar, (x , described
y , z ) incorrespond
1 v!
Section 1.7;
1 1S limposit
to
the average velo
Position
S
The average velocity vav between
at time t ¢
ment vector ¢ r multiplied by 1> :
(x , y , z ) correspond to position vector r . We can
Pozicija u vremenu t
¢t, ¢t
theS
reciproc
0
points P1 and P2 2has the
S
2 same
2 direction as the1 x-component of Eq. (3.2) is vav-x
1 2 = 1x 2 - x
the displacement ¢ r .
by substituting
x "x for (x 2 ! x 1), "y for (y 2 ! y 1), an
just Eq. (2.2), the expression for average x-veloc
Particle’s
Putpath
y Position at time t2 The
We now define
magnitude
for one-dimensional motion. of the
: instantaneous velocity just a
vec
z "x î direction
" r #velocity $the"ytimeĵ $
P2 S
vav 5
S
Dr
Dt
instant.
limit of the average The as of"z
interva
Young of
the instantaneous rate & Freedman
changeUniversity Physics with
of position
S Sparticle is moving at that S
 Srednja i trenutna brzina
2.2 Instantaneous Velocity 41
za svaki vremenski interval mozemo izračunati srednju brzinu:
2.7 Using an x-t graph to go from (a), (b) average x-velocity to (c) instantaneous x-velocity vx. In (c) we find the slope of the tangent
to the x-t curve by dividing any vertical interval (with distance units) along the tangent by the corresponding horizontal interval (with
time units).
(a) (b) (c)

x (m) x (m) x (m)

400 400 400
Dt 5 2.0 s Dt 5 1.0 s
300 To find the instantaneous300
Dx 5 150 m
velocity of the dragster in Fig.
Dx 5 55 m
300 2.1vxat 5 the point P1 , wete= 5
160 m
4.0 s n t ru
ntgaengensmcjiety
200
move the
vvsr,
av-xx second
/
5 75 m s point We P can
2 closer
200
also vand
vget
sr, x closer
av-x 5Eq.
55 m/s(3.4) to the
by first
taking point
the
200
P 5and
derivative
1 40 m/scompute
of Eq. N
b ofthe
agpi e(3.1).
t a
a xu-vxeloThe unit
-
p2 N Sloa berozuins
average velocity vtors av-x nı ,=n≥ ,¢x>¢t
and k are over constant in magnitudedisplacement
the ever-shorter and direction,tand
i r
nestnso
a tantheir
untn time derivative
p2
100
interval.
p1
Both Dx¢x and zero, ¢tand we
become
100 find p1
very small, but their ratio
100
does
p1
not necessarily 160 m
Dt Dt Dx 4.0 s
become small. In the language t (s) of 1calculus, the4 limit (s) ¢x>¢t as ¢t approaches t (s)
t of
O 1 2 3 4 5 O 2 3 S 5 O 1 2 3 4 5
zero is called the derivative
We can also ofnjena xget withEq. respect
S(3.4) dr
bytotakingdx
t seand the dy
is derivative
written dz ofv Eq.
dx>dt.
N The(3.1). The un
Kako je srednja brzina u x-smjeru
As the average x-velocity vav-x is calculated … ... its
Nvalue komponenta
v av-x 5 v
Dx/Dt! !
∆x/∆t
approaches the ı
N " Trenutna
The n
≥ " brzina
instantaneous k
x-velocityx u bilo
v x at kojoj
any (
instantaneous velocity
over shorter and shorter time
računata na sve kraćim
tors...nı , n≥ , and
i kraćimis thepribližava
intervals limit k are
instantaneous constant
of trenutnoj
the average
x-velocity. in
dt magnitude
brzini. dt točki
velocity and
dt point
as
given direction,
the dt the
time
equals
jednaka je slope soof the
interval
nagibu their tangentderivativ
to the x-t curve at that point.
approaches
vremenskim intervalima… zero, and we find
zero; it equals the instantaneous rate of change of position tangente na x-twith krivulju time. u toj
Stočki.
We use the symbol vx , with no “av” subscript, Sfor the vinstantaneous
This shows again that the components of are dx>dt, dy>dt, velocity and dz>dt.
S
2.8 along the x-axis, or the The magnitude
of ainstantaneous of the
particular particle. Thex-velocity: dr
instantaneous dx
velocity dy vector
S the tangent at any point equals the velocity dz vN—that is, the spee
(a) The x-t graph of the motion
Trenutna brzina: v!
slope of
! Nı " n≥ " k at that point.
dtv , vdt, and vdtby thedtPythagorean relation
given in terms of the components
(b) A motion diagram showing the position and velocity of the particle at each of thextimesy labeled onz the x-t graph.
(a) x-t graph (b) Particle’s motion
¢x dx S 2S 2 2
vxx = lim =This shows
Slope zero: vx 5 0
(instantaneous
again v ƒ v ƒ = v
x-velocity, = 2v
straight-line
+The v v
motion)
+
that the components ofx xv arey dx>dt,
particle is z xdy>dt,
at (2.3)
, 0 and and dz>dt.
moving (
¢t
¢tS0 dtC t A 5 0
in the 1x-direction. S
Slope negative: The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector v—that is, the spe
0
D vx , 0 v
given
Figure in terms of the
3.4 showst components
B the situation
0 vx , vthe
when y , and
FromvtA to
x particle bytBmoves
z Young
itthe Pythagorean
&speeds in the xy-plane. relatio
up, ...University Physics
Freedman I
 Srednja i trenutna akceleracija
Srednja akceleracija u x-smjeru jednaka je
For a displacement along the x-axis, an object’s average x-accele
SREDNJA AKCELERACIJA: vx nagibu linije
equals the koja
slope of aspaja odgovarajuće
line connecting točke u points on
the corresponding
grafu
graph of x-velocity (vx) versus time (t).
promjena u trenutačnoj brzini x-komponente brzine vs. vrijeme
podijeljena sa vremenskim v2 x
p2
intervalom Δt = t2 – t1
on
r ati
l e
jae
cci c
lee a
r a
! cg
arka
e
Dvx 5 v2 x 2 v1 x
! Δv Δv x ˆ (v2 x − v1x ) ˆ
M E NSIONS ae
a≡ = i= i = axiˆ sr
5 e a
d nvj

Δt Δt Δt e
= Nagib tangente na vtox -v t-t c
gip Slope of tangent
b
al o krivulju u danoj točki x
SN 5 instantaneous x-accele
ion and Instantaneous Acceleration v1 x
p1
Dt 5 t2 2 t1
= trenutačna
akceleracija u toj točki
: :
O !t, its taverage
city changes from v 1 to v 2 in a time interval t
1 t2
g !t is
average change in velocity
ima komponente (vx, vy,, vz): CAUTION The signs of x-acceleration and x-velocity By itself, th
Ako brzina "
acceleration time interval
the x-acceleration does not tell you whether a body is speeding up
You must compare the signs of the x-velocity and the x-acceleratio
: :
v2 $ v1 !v: the same sign, the body is speeding up. If both are positive, the bo
:
a avg " " . itive direction(4-15)
with increasing speed. If both are negative, the bod
!t !t tive direction with an x-velocity that is becoming more and more
speed is increasing. When vx and axYoung
have opposite signs, the bod
& Freedman University Physics
: is positive and ax is negative, the body is moving in the positive d
 =
dvy :
a avgaz"=
:
vdv $
2 z
:
v 1 Srednja
"
:
!v
.
of i trenutna akceleracija
(components
(3.10)(4-15)
dt dt!t instantaneous
!t acceleration)

Srednja akceleracija
For a displacement alongu the
x-smjeru jednaka
x-axis, an object’sjeaverage
nagibux-accele
t vectors,
TRENUTNA AKCELERACIJA: : vx linije
equals the slope
zero about some instant, then in the limit a avg approaches koja theofodgovarajuće
spaja a line connecting the corresponding
točke u grafu points on
graph of x-velocity (vx) versus time (t).
a at that instant; that is,x-komponente brzine
leration (or acceleration) :dvy dvz
vs. vrijeme
S dvx N v
p2
a! Nı " ≥N " k 2x (3.11)
dt dt dt n
: o
:v x (t +dΔt)
v − vx (t) dvx at i
ax (t) = lima " . = (4-16) ler
jcae
t of Eqs. (3.10) anddtΔt
Δt→0 (3.11), ax =dtdvx>dt, is the expression e raac
c i

cge e
l
for instantaneous acceleration in one dimension, Eq. (2.5). aearka Dvx 5 v2 x 2 v1 x
nvj
s an example of an acceleration vector that has both x- and 5 reda
s
nges in either magnitude or direction (or both), the particle ogipbe
= Nagib
Slopetangente na vtox -vt -t c
of tangent x
Nal
S krivulju u danoj točki
eration.of velocity is the derivative of the corresponding coordi-
mponent p 5 instantaneous x-accele
= trenutačna akceleracija
v1 x :1S
q. 4-16
ess in unit-vector
the components ax ,form byasubstituting
ay , and Eq. 4-11 for v to obtainDt 5 t
z of the acceleration vector a as 2 t1 u toj točki
2

: d O t1 t2
t
a d" x (v x î # dv2yyĵ # v z k̂) d2z
2
ax = 2 dt ay = 2 az = 2 (3.12)
dt dt dt
dv x dv y dv z
S " î # ĵ # k̂. CAUTION The signs of x-acceleration and x-velocity By itself, th
dt
vector a itself is dt dt
the x-acceleration does not tell you whether a body is speeding up
as You must compare the signs of the x-velocity and the x-acceleratio
S d2x d2y d2z N
a ! 2 Nı " 2 ≥N " 2 k the same(3.13)
sign, the body is speeding up. If both are positive, the bo
:
dt dt dt itive direction with increasing speed. If both are negative, the bod
a " ax î # ay ĵ # az k̂, (4-17)
tive direction with an x-velocity that is becoming more and more
speed is increasing. When vx and ax have opposite signs, the bod
: is positive and ax is negative, the body is moving in the positive d
 is at point P1 , and at time t2 , when the car is at point P2 . The two velocities may
Smjer akceleracije: primjer
differ in both magnitude and direction. During the time interval from t1 to t2 , the
S S S S S S
vector change in velocity is v2 " v1 ! ¢v, so v2 ! v1 # ¢v (Fig. 3.6b). We
S
define the average acceleration a av of the car during this time interval as the
velocity change divided by the time interval t 2 - t 1 = ¢t:

S S S
3.2 The Acceleration Vector 73
S v2 " v1 ¢v
a av ! ! (average acceleration vector) (3.8)
t2 - t1 ¢t S S S
road from P1 to P2 . (b) How to obtain the change in velocity ¢v ! v2 " v1 by vector subtrac-
esents the average acceleration between P1 and P2 . S
Average acceleration is a vector quantity in the same direction as the vector ¢v 3.7 (a) Instantaneous accele
(b) The x-component of Eq. (3.8) is aav-x =(c)
(Fig. 3.6c). (v2x - v1x)> (t 2 - t 1) = point P1 in Fig. 3.6. (b) Insta
¢vx>¢t, which is just Eq. (2.4) for the average acceleration in straight-line acceleration for motion along
S
v2 line.
motion. S
v2
S
As in Chapter 2, we Pdefine the instantaneous acceleration a (a vector
P2 quan- (a) Acceleration: curved trajecto
2
tity) at point PS1 as the limit of the average acceleration vector when point P2 To find the instantaneous S
v1 S S v2
approaches point P1, so ¢v and S¢t both approach zero (Fig. 3.7).
owing v 1 The instanta- acceleration
v S S S P2
Dv 5 v
neous acceleration is also equal to1 the instantaneous
2 2 v1 rate of change of velocity
S
a at P1 ... S
v1
inwith time: ... we tak
S
S Dv as P2 app
P1 S P1 S aav 5
S S
v2 Dv Dt
S ¢v dv P1
a ! lim ! (instantaneous acceleration vector) (3.9)
¢tS0 ¢t dt
To find the car’s average acceleration between The average acceleration has the same direction
P1 and P2 , we first
S S
find the change in velocity S
as the change in velocity, Dv.
S
v1
The velocity
S
vector v, as
Dv by subtracting we have
v1 from
S
seen, isthat
v2 . (Notice tangent to the path of the particle. ... meaning
S S S S
The instantaneous
v1 1 Dv 5 acceleration
v2 .) vector a , however, does not have to be tangent to approach 0
S
the path. Figure 3.7a shows that if the path is curved, a points toward the concave Young & Freedman University Physics
side of the path—that is, toward the inside of any turn that the particle is making. P S Dv
S
Jednoliko pravocrtno gibanje
 Jednoliko pravocrtno gibanje

• Brzina je stalna u vremenu:

vx(t)
t=0: x0, v=vx
t: x(t), v=vx
vx

Δx ≡ x(t) − x0 = vx t = vx t

x(t) = x0 + vx t Δx = S(vx , t) povrsina u v-t grafikonu

Jednoliko ubrzano gibanje
 2.17 A velocity-time 1vx-t2 graph for
v0x + a2.16
=r any xt (constant
2.18x-acceleration
An acceleration-time only)
(ax-t)
(a) Straight-line graph
motion with con- straight-line
(2.8) (a)motion
A race with
car moves in the x-direction (b)
or the for straight-line stantmotion
acceleration.
with (b) Konstantna akceleracija
A position-time (x-t) x-acceleration
constant with aconstant
constant
acceleration.
positive
x . The initial x-velocity v0x
positive graph for thisamotion
x-acceleration . (the same motion as is also positive in this case.
e term
or vx , axt is the product of thein constant
is shown x 2.15,
Figs. rate of and
2.16, change
2.17).ofFor
x
d the time interval t. Therefore it the
this motion equals theposition
initial total change in
x0 , the ini- Constant
Konstantna Promjena
During time brzine
e initial timeatx = 0 to the later time vt.0xThe x-velocity vx at any x-acceleration: vxduž vx0 xza athe
xt
Constanttial velocity , and
ax-t the acceleration ax akceleracija interval
5 1t,vrijeme
x-acceleration: graph vx-t graph is a x intervala
he initial x-velocity v0x (at = positive.
aretall 0) plus the change in x-velocity vx duž x: x-velocityt changes x
is a horizontal line (slope 5 0). straight line. by vx 2 v0x 5 axt.
vx During time interval t,
2.7)says that the change in x-velocity vx - v0x of the particle
also a r at io n the x-velocity changes
ile
j
d any later atime
x t equals the area under the ax-t graph between kxc-
r e
ealecc
a c
by vx 2 v0 x 5 ax t.
= a ax t
ou can verify this from Fig. 2.16: Under this graph is a rectangle pibe 5
g
Nlao v0 x vx x0
v0x S
horizontal side t, and area axt . From Eq. (2.8) this is indeed equal x0
orelocity
the v - v . In Section 2.6 we’ll show that even if the v0x
x 0x t
otThen
constant,Othe change in x-velocity during t a time interval is still O t O
O t
x-t curve,
der the aPovršina although
Areaispod
under ax a- xt-tin that case
graph
krivulje 5 vEq. (2.8) does not apply.
x 2 v0x
ve an equation5for the position as axfrom
function Total area undervvx x--tt graph 5 x 2= xx0 - x0
change
promjena inux-velocity
brzinix duž timeof00time
u vremenu t when
todotime t. the Površina ispod
change in x-coordinate
grafikona
from
onstant. To do this, we 2.19 use two How a constant
(a)different expressions for the =5
promjena
(a) An x-tugraph
x-koordinati od time
for an object
0 to time
vremena
moving with
t. t
0 do (b) Th
vav-x during the interval x-acceleration
from t = 0 to affects
any a body’s
later time t. The first positive constant x-acceleration
Δvx(a) x-t vx (t) − v and (b) vx-t graph. vx
ax = ax =of vav-x=, Eq.graph
from the definition (2.2),x,0which is true whether or The graph with constant x-acceleration:
2.17
n is constant. We call Δt position tat time
the
A velocity-time 1vx-t2t =graph
0 the for
initial posi- x 1
x 5 x0 1 v0 x t 1 2 ax t 2
2.8)
0 . The position
x (t) at
= vthe
x,0 later
vstraight-line x ttime t with
+ amotion is simply x. Thus
constant for the time
positive
is ¢x a=x .x The - x 0initial PhET: Forces in 1 Dimension
0 the displacement
x-acceleration , and Eq. (2.2) gives
x-velocity v0x ActivPhysics 1.1: Analyzing Motion
The effect of
Using
x-acceleration:
ge of is also positive in this case.
Površina: x - x 0 S(v , t) = v t +
1
(vx (t) − vx,0 )t Diagrams 1
2 x
a t2
vav-x = x x,0
2 (2.9) ActivPhysics 1.2: Analyzing Motion Using v0 x
ge in Constantt During time Graphs
v (t) v Grafikon
graphkoji
TheMotion webismo
would dobili
get za
at any x-acceleration:
1 x = x,0 + a x t t, the
interval 1 2 ActivPhysics 1.3: Predicting from
et a second
S(vx , t)expression for visav-x athat visx,0valid only akceleraciju = 0:
with zero x-acceleration:
= vx,0
v t-t+graph
(vx,0 +
a xt − x-velocity x,0 t +when
)t = vchanges ax t the Graphs
x0 O
locity so thatvthe
onstant,
x
2
x x-velocity changes at a constant rate. 2 In this ActivPhysics 1.4: Predicting x0 1 vfrom
x 5Motion 0 xt
straight line. by vx 2 v0x 5 axt. t
-velocity for the time interval from 0 to t is simply the average Equations
O
vx and end of the interval: ActivPhysics 1.5: Problem-Solving Strategies
Young & Freedman University Physics
article
at the beginning ion
ration ax ¢x
acement during
at time t. Ina small timethe
this limit, interval
area under¢t is the equal vav-x is¢t, The change in position x—t
ax-ttocurve
average
x (which x-velocity
is in Brzina
The
general during
a change i
¢t.
function položaj
in
The
of
2.28
thet) x-velocity
total
from
An a x-t t određeni
displacement
graph
1 to t v.xaIfis
for
2
thexwhose
v
body
1x 2is -iz
time
thex 1integracije
integral of
x-velocitythevxx-acceleration
. Graphically, the
t 2 - att 1time
body is given byv2xWe
t 1 and canvelocity
is the carry out
x-acceleration exactly
at time is not the same procedureunder
t 2 ,constant.
then withthethevxcurve
-t curveofbetween
x-velo
sus time. If x 1 is a body’s position at time t andobtained
x is in position
its Section 2.4atfor the
time
Area of this
Površina = ∆vstrip
x =5 Dvx
1 2
If t 1 = 0 and t 2 is any la
Eq.xv2(2.2) the displacement
t2at2 5 Change ¢x
in during
x-velocity a small time interval ¢t is equal to
L L
2x Promjena u x-komponenti

L L
R 2 Motion Along a Straight Line x velocity, respectively, at time
vx2x - v =
2 - x 11x = where dv =
x= is the
dxvav-x a
vx xdtduring
dt
brzine time
za interval
vrijeme
average x-velocity (2.16)∆t Dt (2.15)
during ¢t.as The total displacement
v11x t1 follows:
x t
during the interval t 2 - t 1 is given by
1
tial navigation system lines t 1 and t 2 . (In Section 2.4 we showed this for the special case in w
e
a x-velocity
long-range v is
airliner the time
keeps
osition x—that is, the displacement—is
x integral of the
aav-x
acceleration x-acceleration ax .
the time integral
is constant.) of
x t2

L we timeL
ner’sexactly
out acceleration.
the The procedure
same with the
In the limit curve
that tall of x-velocity
the ¢t’s become
2
ver- very small and their number ver
phically,
airliner’s the
initial displacement
position between times x2 -
1 and t is the
x 1 =t , fromdx =
2 area vx dt
a body’s position at time t and x
1the value is
2 of aits position
forsame at time
the interval
result2from tt to t + ¢t approaches the
ve
ore between
takeoff, andthose
the INStwo times. [This isav-xthe thatx1 t any 1
placement ¢x duringthea small time interval ¢t is equal to vav-x ¢t,this limit, the area under the ax-t
nation
2.4data
for tothe
calculate
special case taneous
in whichx-acceleration
O
vx tis
1 given by ax at
Dt Eq. time tt.2 In
(2.8).]
e average
on and velocityx-velocity
throughout during the¢t. The
integral
The change in position total
of a displacement
(which
x—that x 2 the
is in is,
general- x 1adisplacement—is
function of t) fromthe t 2 . Ifinv
t 1 totime
2 is any later time t, and if x 0 Total v0xunder
andarea x
arethethe position and
al t 2 - t 1 is given byx-velocityx-velocity
v . of the body
Graphically, at time
x-t
the
grapht 1 and
from t
displacement1 v2x
to t2 is the velocity at time t , then
between times t and
2 t 2 is
ely, at time
body whose t = 0, then we canx rewrite
5 Net Eqs.
change in (2.15)
x-velocity and
from t1(2.16)
to t2 1
under the v -t curve between those two times. Here
[This x and is vthe
x aresame
the position
resul a
ant. x2 x t2 v2x t2
ax as a function of time and we

Lx1If t 1 =t 0Lt1and t 2 is any later time t, and L L

x 2 - x 1 = obtaineddx =in Section
vx dt 2.4 for vthe 2x
special = case indvwhich
- v1x(2.16) to
x =find vthexais
x
given by
dt
x-velocity vx
Eq.
at
(
any
5 Dvx v 1x if x and
t1 v are the posi

L
ocity of time.
0 Once 0xwe know this fu
l Dt vx = vvelocity,
0x + The ax dt
respectively, at time t = 0, (2.17) then we can rewrite
Eq. (2.18) Eqs.
to find the(2.15)
positionanx
position x—that is, the change in the the
displacement—is
0 x-velocity
time vx is the of
integral time integral of the x-acceleration a
Ako je t1 = 0, aast2 follows:
bilo koje kasnije vrijeme t (pri tom su v0x i x0 početni brzina i položaj) :
We can carry out exactly the same procedure with the curve of x-veloc
aphically, the displacement between times t 1 and t 2 is the area
urve between those two times.sus time.
[ThisIf xis1 is a body’s
the same position
result at we
that time t 1 and x 2 is its position at time
t Example 2.9 Motion with changingt acceleration

0 if x 0 and v0x are the position and L

on 2.4 for the special case Eq. (2.2) the
vx displacement during a small time interval ¢t is equal to v
¢x(2.8).]
L
in which is given by Eq. vx-velocity
x = x 0 + where vx Sally
dtvav-xis isdriving
the average x = v(2.18)
0x +during a¢t.
x dtThe total displacement
t 2 is any later time t, and along a straight highway in0her 1965 Mustang. At SOLUTI
duringt =the0,interval
when shet 2is -moving
t 1 is given
at 10 by in the positive x-direction,
m>s
ively, at time t = 0, then we can rewrite Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16) Young & Freedman University IDENTIFY
she passes a signpost at x = 50 m. Her x-acceleration as a func- Physics
t
 over over
shorter and shorter
shorter time intervals
and shorter ...
time intervals ... instantaneous x-velocity.
instantaneous x-velocity. given point
givenequp
Razumijevanje to the x-ttocurve
the x

Na slici je dan x-t grafikon gibanja nekog tijela. Što se moze zaključiti o brzini
(a) The x-t graph
tijela u of the motion
točkama A, B,ofC,a particular
D, E na particle. The slope of the tangent at any point equals the
grafikonu?
2.8 (a) The x-t graph of the motion of a particular particle. The slope of the tangent at any point equ
A motion diagram showing the position and velocity of the particle at each of the times labeled on the x-t
b) A motion diagram showing the position and velocity of the particle at each of the times labeled on
(a) x-t graph (b) Particle’s motion
(a) x-t graph (b) Particle’s motion
Slope zero: vx 5 0
x Slope zero: vx 5 0 v The particle
x C t A 5 0 v x The
C t 5 0 0 in thex1x-dir
Slope negative: A
0 in th
D vx , 0Slope negative: v
D vx , 0 tB v x From tA to tB
tB 0 x From
E 0
B E v50 ... and from t
0 t tC x5 0
B v then halts... mo
an
0 t tC 0 x
then
v0 From tC to tD
tD v x
tD 0 x From
2x-direction
A
Slope positive: v 0 2x-d
tE x ... and from t
A vx . Slope
0 v
positive: in the 2x-di
tE 0 x ... an
vx . 0 0 in th
The steeper the slope (positive or negative) of an object’s x-t graph, the
greater
Theis the object’s
steeper speed(positive
the slope in the positive or negative
or negative) of anx-direction.
object’s x-t graph, the
greater is the object’s speed in the positive or negative x-direction.

the x-velocity are negative, and the motion is in the negative x-direction.
Young & Freedman University Physics
 N
B ! - 4.00ın " 2.00 n≥ # 1.00k EXECUTE: We solve Eq. (1.18) for cos f
Zadatak Eq. (1. 21). Our result is
A#B
SOLUTION S S
AxBx + A
IDENTIFY and SET UP: We’re given the x-, y-, and z-components cos f = =
Example 1.11 Finding an angle with the scalar product AB A
of two vectors. Our target variable is the angle f between
Odredi
them kut između
(Fig. 1.28). To find vektora:
this, we’ll solve Eq. (1.18),
S S
A # B = We canSuse this formula to find the angle
S S
#
Find the angle between the vectors
AB cos f, for f in terms of theSscalar product A B and the magni-
S
A and B. A
Here #
S S
B =
we AxBAx x+ =A2.00,
have yBy + AAyzB=z, 3

tudes A and B. We can evaluateA 2.00ın "

! scalar
the 3.00 n≥ using
product " 1.00kN
Eq. and Bx = - 4.00,Eq.
(1.21), By (1.7).
= 2.00, and Bz = - 1.00
A # B = AxBEXECUTE:
S
B ! - 4.00ın " 2.00 n≥ # 1.00k N S S
We solve Eq. (1.18
x + AyBy + AzBz
Eq. (1. 21). Our result is
1.28 Two vectorsSOLUTION
in three dimensions. = 12.0021 - 4.002 + 13.00212.002
A#B
S S

IDENTIFY and SETy UP: We’re given the x-, y-, and z-components = - 3.00 cos f = =
AB
of two vectors. Our Starget variable is the angle f between 2 2 2
S AS = 2Ax + A + A = 212.00
Eq.S(1.18), A # B = S
A extends from origin We can y
use this z
formula to find
them (Fig. 1.28). To find this, we’ll solve S S
cos f, for f in terms of the scalar product A # B and the magni-
S
B extends from ABorigin
to near corner of red box. = 214.00
A and B. Here we have Ax = 2.
to far corner of and B. We can evaluate the scalar product using Eq. (1.21), Bx2 = - 4.00,
blueAbox.
tudes 2
By2 = 2.00, and Bz
B = 2BSx +S B y + B z = 21- 4.002
A # B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
= 221.00
S
1.28BTwo vectors inAthree dimensions.
S = 12.0021- 4.002 + 13.
AxBx + AyBy + AzBz -
cos f = = - 3.00 =
y AB
j^ 214.0
S A = 2Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 =
A extends from origin f = 100°
S
B extends from origin x of red box.
to near corner = 214.00
^ i^
to far cornerkof blue box.
EVALUATE: As a Bcheck
= 2Bon2 this result,
2 2 not
x + By + Bz =
A # B is negative. This means that f is be
S S

= 221.00
z S S Fig. 1.26), which agrees with our answer.
B A AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
cos f =
j^ AB
= 100°University Physics
Young &fFreedman
x
 + z-axis (the direction o
Zadatak
S S S
C ! A : B ! 12k N.
SOLUTION
To use Eqs. (1.27), we
IDENTIFY and SET UP: We’ll find the vector product in two ways, S
and B:
which will provide a check of our calculations. First we’ll use
(1.22)Aand
Eq.Vektor imathe
duljinu 6 i usmjeren
right-hand rule; thenjewe’ll
duž use
x-osi.
Eqs. (1.27)Btoima duljinu
Vektor Ax = 64 i leži u xy
ravnini, podproduct
kutom using o u odnosu na x-os. Nađi vektorski produkt C = A x B.
od 30components.
find the vector Bx = 4 cos 30° = 223
S S S S S Then Eqs. (1.27) yield
1.32 Vectors
S
A and B and their vector product C ! A : B.
The vector B lies in the xy-plane. Cx = 1021
y
Cy = 1021
S Cz = 1621
B
S
O f 5 30° Thus again we have C ! 12
S
A x EVALUATE: Both methods g
situation, one or the other o
convenient one to use.
S
C
z

S
Test Your
S
Understanding of Section 1.10
S
Vector
S
A has magnitude 2 and
Young & Freedman University Physics
 Zadatak

Tijelo se giba u ravnini na način da mu je pozicija kao funkcija vremena dana

sa:
x = -0.31 t2 + 7.2 t +28
y = 0.22 t2 - 9.1 t +30

Odredite vektor pozicije r, te vektore brzine v i akceleracije a, u vremenu

t = 15 s.

Young & Freedman University Physics

 These results show that in Newton’s first law, zero net force is equivalent to no First
Newtonovi zakoni gibanja The dow
force at all. This is just the principle of superposition of forces that we saw in child an
Section 4.1. mal for
When a body is either at rest or moving with constant velocity (in a straight foot exe
backwa
line with
1. Newtonov constant speed), we say that the body is in equilibrium. For a body to there is
aksiom
be in equilibrium, it must be acted on by no forces, or by several
Kada na tijelo - materijalnu točku ne djeluje sila ili je ukupna sila jednaka 0,forces such that they sli
their vector sum—that is, the net force—is zero:
ono ostaje u stanju mirovanja ili jednolikog gibanja po pravcu.

aF ! 0
S
(body in equilibrium) (4.3)

Uzrok promjene
For thisstanja gibanja
to be true, je sila. of the net force must be zero, so
each component
Ako sile nema ili je rezultanta sila jednaka nuli, tijelo ostaje u početnom stanju
a a y
(princip ustrajnosti, tromostiF !ili0inercije)F ! 0 (body in equilibrium) (4.4)
x
Svaki sustav u kojem vrijedi prvi Newtonov zakon jest inercijalni sustav
We are assuming that the body can be represented adequately as a point particle.
When the body has finite size, we also have to consider where on the body the
forces are applied. We will return to this point in Chapter 11.
pty
ce space.
orce. (a) Normal Theforce
Push force
n: Whenbetween
an objecttworests ormagnets is an In the fourth century
S B.C.
n
Sila i itinterakcije
ground because of its large weight.
S
pushes on a surface, the surface exerts a push on
isTheis Fthe
as
ector , we force
need to of gravity
describe (Fig.
the
1 newton = 4.2d);
direction inthe
11 kilogram211
whichearth acts
meter (b)
perFriction
secondforce
S
squared2
it that is directed perpendicular to Pull
the surface. fastertothan
f: In addition light bodies, i
the normal
is in
the quantity
e,even though that
there describes
is no “how much”
direct contact orbetween
“how hard”To understand the relationship
force, a surface may exert aGalileo between
frictional (see onmass1.1)
forceSection anda
arn to or falling body has
an object, an acceleration
directed parallel to theof magnitude
surface. Ne
g.and
ls. The
vitational
, the Sila
SI =
unit
force interakcija
of
S
n the
that the između
magnitude
earth of
exerts dva
force
on tijela
is
yourtheili između
newton,
body tijela i njegove okoline. ation Jedinica:
that is constant
n a precise definition of the newton
give
o the
S that a force 2must act to produce
n in Section 4.3.)# S this acceleration.
Experiment shows If
tha
1 N = 1 kg m>s 2S n
h 4.2 Four
icala force magnitudes. common types of forces. acceleration of 9.8 m>s the required right; allforce
bodies hasat magnit
a partic
by
we need to describe the direction in which it acts (b) Friction force f: In addition to the normal
n S S
regardless of their size or
orce vektorska
(a) Normal force veličina!
n: When an object rests or f
2 = 9.8 kg #
antity
y that We
pushesdescribes will use
on a surface, the this
“how relationship
surfacemuch”
exerts a pushor many
“how
on times
hard” in the next
force, a few
surface chapters,
may exert so
a keep
frictional it in
force on
2with the radius
ar is it Uobičajene sile: an F
object,= ma
directed = 11
parallel compared
kg219.8
to the m>s
surface.
that ismind.
directed perpendicular to the surface.
SI unit of the magnitude of force is the newton, earth’s rotation, the acce
gF
acting Friction We
tsce Magnitudes can
S
alsonewton
use Eqs. (4.5) to compare a mass with the standard mass and
recise
when (b)definition forceof
S
n
f: Inthe
addition to the in
normal Section 4.3.) S S under all of these assump
d”s
rsely
an thus
force, a surface to
may measure masses.
exert a frictional force Suppose
on we The
apply a force
constant
(c) that net
Tension makes
force
force
S
the
T: A body
n
to a
pulling bodyaccelerate
force hav-
exerted ondownwa
ehe magnitudes.
dy.earth
an object, directed parallel to the surface. n
S
3.5 * 10 22 N well as falling motion. (In
n,
earth ing a known mass m 1 and we find an near the surface
accelerationan ofof
object bythe
S earthathat
a rope,
magnitude cord,
1
etc.
(Fig.has4.16a).
include
athe
mass of 1ofkg
motion pro
m
ng
.) launch 10 7 give
3.1to* another
to N it the f
acceleration we observe
ween We then apply S
n the same force body having an unknown Figuremwhen
mass 2,
2.22 isitaisphoto
in f
body
object * body
10 6 N with a2 mass m must Then,have weight
S
ion a1 .
and Swe find an acceleration of 1.9magnitude (Fig. 4.16b). S
T source with
according magnitude
thattoproduces a sew
nitudes
ocomotive Eqs.f (4.5),
S 8.9 * 10 5 N image of the ball at that
acts (b) Friction force f: In addition to the normal S
SILA PODLOGE (“NORMAL FORCE”): kada 3 (c) Tension SILA
force T: TRENJA
A timeforce
pulling intervals
exertedbetween
on fla
ard” force, a surface may exert a frictional force on 1.1 * 10 N
x seobject,
an objektdirected
nalaziparallel
na nekoj
to thepodlozi, 1 a1 *= 10m 2 a
surface.m3.5
podloga 22
N2 anw = mg
object by a rope,(magnitude
cord, etc. cessive of flashes
the weight of a
is propor
wton, djeluje na tijelo S silom koja je okomita na 1N
(c) Tension
4.3.) podlogu force T: A pulling
S
force exerted on
3.1 * 10 7
N The increasing distances
n m 2 2 *a110 -6 N (same net
s an object by a rope, cord, etc.
(d) force)
Weight
S
w: The pull of changing;
gravity on anthe
(4.6) ball is acc
object
4.21
=
1.9 * 10 N 6
and The relationship of mass atomand m 1 8.2 a*2 10 -8Hence the
is a magnitude wTS(aofforce
athebody’s acts weight
velocity overchange is direc
is the
S
e proton the electron
f in a hydrogen N long-range force that
to a
weight. 8.9 * 10 5 m. The weight
N -18 of a body is a force,
a distance). freelyafalling
vectorballquantity,
is const
ium For the same
S
T 1 * 10 N
net force, the ratio of the masses of two bodies is the inverse ofconstant
the
erationFalling body, Hanging body, 3 as-26 a vector equation (Fig. 4.21): The accelerat
ratio of their accelerations. *1.6
In principle
1.1 PhET:
10 * Nwe could use Eq. (4.6) to due
N10 Lander
Lunar measure an and we de
mass
(c)
S
m force T: A pulling force
Tension massexerted
m on to gravity,
N unknown mass m , but it 1isNusually
an object by a rope, cord, etc. 2 8.9 * 10easier
ActivPhysics -301.7:to determine
N Balloonist Dropsmass indirectly
Lemonade
use by
the S
meas-
approximate
S value
uring the body’s weight. We’ll return ActivPhysicsto 1.10:
this Pole-Vaulter
point in Lands
Section 4.4.
S
w w ! mg
Nen the proton and the electron in a hydrogen atom 3.6-6*N10 -47
N
S 2 * 10 S
N
x SWhen two
sila
bodiesT
na objekt
with
kada
masses m 1 and m
(d) 2 are
Weight fastened
w: together,
The pull of gravity we gonfind
= an9.8
object
m>s 2
= 98
(d)SILA
WeightNAPETOSTI:
w: The pull S of gravity on an object S
d theiselectron
aga that
npr.in a the
hydrogen
vučemo
long-range force (a
T atom
mass
uzetom
force of
that the
acts composite
over 8.2 * 10 -8Remember
bodyN is always thatm g1 +is m
is a long-range the
force
2 magnitude
(a force
(Fig. that of
4.16c). acts gover
This, the accelera
N
a distance). Young & Freedman University Physics
Rz2 Zbrajanje sila Rx

Sile na slici imaju iznose F1 = 250 N, F2 = 50 N i F3 = 120 N. Odredi x- i y-

elt. 4.8 (a) Three forces acting on a belt. (b) The net force R ! g F
komponentu rezultantne sile, njen iznos i smjer.
S S

mpion’s belt. 4.8 (a) Three forces acting on a belt. (b) The net force R ! g F
and its components. S S
to
des
r applies to and its components.
(a) y (b) y
and
magnitudes
y y
the x- and (a) (b)
Net force
ude S F S S
s magnitude F1 S
1y
F1y R 5Net
S
force
F S
F1 x- and
i y- komponente
y-componentsod R5 F
S Ry
of F1 x- and S
y-components
Ry
S of F1 u 5 141°
53°
53° F2 S
F2x
u 5 141°
x
xx
in in F1x
S
F has Rx R
addition Fzero
S
F1x 2 2 has zero x
ind to find
want S S y-component.
y-component.
F3 has zero
F3 has zero
S
the
e’ll use x-component.
the F3
x-component.
S
F3
2).
Eqs. (4.2).
magnitude
ude Young & Freedman University Physics
 body. By Newton’s second law, the acceleration of the membranes—an
Newtonovi
that of your zakoni
body as a whole—is gibanja
proportional to this force and has th
direction. In this way, you can sense the magnitude and direction of your
2. Newtonovation even with your eyes closed!
aksiom
Ako postoji vanjska sila koja djeluje na tijelo, ono će ubrzavati. Smjer ubrzanja
In symbols,
Using
(akceleracije) je jednakNewton’s Second
smjeru ukupne sile naLaw
tijelo. Masa tijela pomnožena sa
akceleracijom jednaka je ukupnoj sili.
There are at least four aspects of Newton’s second law that deserve speci

ding componenta
tion. First, Eq. (4.7) is a vector equation. Usually we will use it in com
form, with a separate SequationSfor each component of force and the cor
F ! ma
of acceleration: (Newton’s second law

a Fx ! max a Fy ! may a Fz ! maz law of motion)

(Newton’s second
An alternative statement is that the acceleration of a
tion as the net force acting on the body, and is equal t
This set of component equations is equivalent to the single vector equatio
the body’s mass:
a
Each component of the net force equals the mass times the correspondin
S
ponent of acceleration.
Second, the statement of Newton’s second
F
S law refers to external for
this we mean forces exerted on the body by a = bodies in its environm
other
m
impossible for a body to affect its own motion by exerting a force on its

in the sum g Flaw

were possible, you could lift yourself to the ceiling by pulling up on yo
Newton’s second
That’s why only external law
forces is
are a fundamental
included
S
of(4.7)
in Eqs. natuan
 Consider a particle of constant mass m. (Later in this chapter w
x
If Newtonovi
deal with the particle
situations has
in which velocity
zakoni components
gibanja
the mass of vx , Becau
a body changes.) vy , a
we can nents
write Newton’s and plaw
px , py ,second z (which we also
for this particle as call the
n’s Second Law in Terms of Momentum
gproporcionalna
r quantity; z-momentum)
2. Newtonov aksiom are given
S by
dv
S
d S
rasathe
particle
Vremenska of constant
same promjena količinemass
gibanjam. (Later
tijela F!m indtthis
!je chapter
1mv
sili,
dt
2 we’ll
i zbiva se u se
smjeru djelovanja sile. S
h. situations in which the mass of a body px = changes.)
mvx py = mvya !
Because
ton’s second law says that the net force g F acting on a particle
We can move the mass m inside the derivative because it is const
write Newton’s second law for this particle as S

gF ! m
These three component
rate of change of the combination
S equations
S
mv, the product are ofequivalen
the parti
The
velocity. We’ll S
units
call thisd
of v the d
magnitude
combination of
S momentum,
the momentum or are
linear m
!S 1mv2
the particle.
unitsUsingof momentumdt pdt
the symbol #
for momentum,
are kg m>s. The we have
plural of

ond law says that the net force gF acting on a particle equals
If we now substitute
move the mass m inside the pderivative
S S the
because definition of
it[ momentum)
is m/s] mom
constant. Th
(definition
! mv S količina of
gibanja kg
we get
S
hange of the
The combination
greater the mass mv , the v of a particle,
product of the theparticle’s
greater is itm

g
um vectors m and speed
S
momentum mv. Keep S
We’ll call this combination the d
in mind, phowever, that momentum is a vecto
momentum, or linear mome
the same direction
S as F
the! (Newton’s
particle’s velocity second
(Fig. 8.1). Hence law
a ca
cle. Using the symbol p for momentum,dt
at 20 m>s and an identical car drivingwe
easthave
at 20 m>s have the sam
mobile stops S
momentum 1mv2 but different momentum vectors 1mv2 because
driver’s
S S are different.
S
The net force (vector sum of all forces) actin
 develop more detailed problem-solving strategies.
Zadatak

e Čovjek na slici djeluje horizontalnom silom veličine 20 N na kutiju mase 40 kg koja

leži na podlozi zanemarivog trenja. Koja je akceleracija kutije?
N 4.18 Our sketch for this problem. The tiles under the box are
e freshly waxed, so we assume that friction is negligible.
The box has no vertical acceleration, so the vertical
Kutija nema
components akceleracije
of the net force sumutovertikalnom smjeru,
zero. Nevertheless, for dakle
vertikalna
completeness,komponenta ukupne
we show the vertical forcessile mora
acting on thebiti
box.0.

-
g
-
y
n
e
l
e
t
a
S
F
Young & Freedman University Physics
e The x-component of acceleration is therefore
 “action”), th
Newtonovi zakoni Sgibanja
on B on For example, in Fig. 4.25 F A on B is the force
have theappli
sam
S S
FB on A3. Newtonov
script) on body B (second subscript), and FBdifferent
aksiom on A is bod
the
e and
Ako tijelo(first
A djeluje silom na tijelo
subscript) on B,body
onda ćeAi tijelo B djelovati
(second silom na tijelo
subscript). The m
S A. Ove sile imaju iste iznose, ali su suprotnog smjera.
S Sile djeluju na različita
FB ontijela.
A. 4.25 Ifthird
Newton’s bodylaw is a force FA on
A exerts B on For examp
S
body B, then body B exerts a force FB on A script) on bod
on body A thatS is equal in magnitude
S and (first subscrip
F A on B ! S "F
B on
na A
opposite in direction: FA on B ! "FB on A .
na
S (Newton’s third law
nB Newton’s thir
B
It doesn’t matter whether oneS body is inanimate (likeS
F F
Fig. 4.25) and the other is not (like on B the kicker): They nec
A na

on each other
A that obey Eq. (4.11).
In the statement of Newton’s third law,It“action”
doesn’t maan
S S
opposite forces
S Fig. 4.25)
(in Fig. 4.25, FA on B and FB on A); we so and
FB na
on A on
an action–reaction pair. This is not meant to imply a each other
In
tionship; we can consider either force as the “action” an the stat
opposite forc
tion.” We often say simply that the forces are “equal and
 a F ! FM on R # FB on R ! mrope arope small mass or is in equilibrium.
Newtonovi zakoni
If the block and rope are accelerating (speeding up or slowing
gibanja
S
down), the rope is not in equilibrium, and FM on R must have a

4.27 Identifying the forces that act when a mason pulls on a rope attached to a block.
(a)Masa (M),theuže
The block, rope,(U)
andi the
čovjek
mason(C). (b) The
Sileaction–reaction
akcije i reakcije.
pairs NISU
(c) Not sile akcije ipair
an action–reaction reakcije.(

S S S S
FRUon FMC on FB on R FM on R
naMC naRU M na U C na U

Oveforces
These sile nisu
cannotsile
be Th
anakcije
action–reaction pair
i reakcije, the
because they actna
jer djeluju onisti
the ca
same object (the rope).
S S
FB on R FR on B objekt.
M na U U na M
 get two values of vy because the ball passes through the point values of the initial position, initial veloci
Zadatak
+ 5.00 m twice, once on the way up (so vy is positive) and can easily create these graphs using a g
e on the way down (so vy is negative) (see Figs. 2.24 and online mathematics program.
5a).
Lopta je izbačena vertikalno prema gore sa ruba zgrade brzinom 15 m/s. Nakon
24 Position
što je and velocity
dosegla of a ball thrown
maksimalnu vertically
visinu, upward.
slobodno 2.25 dolje
pada prema (vidi sliku).
(a) Position and (b) velocity as fun
ball thrown upward with an initial speed of
ball actually moves straight up and y
straight down; we show vy 5 0 Odredi:
(a)(a) poziciju
y-t graph lopte
(curvature is i brzinu(b)
u vy-t
-shaped path for clarity. downward
trenutku 1s ibecause
4 s aynakon
5 2g što negative
je
t5? y5? is negative) is consta
t 5 1.00 s, vy 5 ? y5? izbačena; (b) brzinu lopte na visini
5 m i zy n
(ma) d r u b a z g r a d e ; (vcy ()m/s)
Before t 5 1.53 s the
t 5 ?, vy 5 ? y 5 5.00 m maksimalnu
15 visinu koju postiže; 15 (d)
t5? ball moves upward.
vy 5 ? akceleraciju lopte kada se nalazi na
10
/
t 5 0, v0y 5 15.0 m s
y50
10
maksimalnoj visini. After t 5 1.53 s
the ball moves 5
5 downward.
0
0 t ( s)
1 2 3 4 25
ay 5 2g 25
210
/
5 29.80 m s2
210 215
215 220
y5? 220 225
t 5 4.00 s
vy 5 ?

Young & Freedman University Physics

 Rfive
of 5 forces
FORCE AN
act on theDblocks,
M OTION—I
as shown in Fig. 5-13:
Zadatak
The cord pulls to the right on sliding block S with a force
certain time, block S moves 1 mm to the right in that s
time. This means that the blocks move together and t
f magnitude T. Applying Newton’s Laws accelerations have the same magnitude a.
The cordNa pullsslici je prikazana
upward masaH M
on hanging block with= a3.3
forcekg koja se kliže duž horizontalne površine.
The rest of this chapter Q How
consists of do I classify
sample this problem?
problems. You Should it
should suggest
pore overa
f the same
Masamagnitude T. This upward
M spojena force preko
je užetom keeps block
koloture za drugu
ticular masu,
law of physicsmto =
me?2.1 kg. Masa m
H from falling freely. them, learning their procedures for attacking a problem. Especially important is
koja visi padaknowingprema dolje
how
kako
to
se masa
translate a
M Yes.
sketch
ubrzava
of Forces,udesno.
a masses, and
situation into
Odredi
a
(a) ubrzanje
accelerations
free-body are involved,
diagram with
Earth pulls down on block
mase M, (b) ubrzanje S with the gravitational
mase force
m,so(c)that
napetost u
they užetu.
should suggest Newton’s second law of motion, F ne
:
:
appropriate
FgS, which has a magnitude equal to Mg. axes, Newton’s : laws can be applied.
ma . That is our starting key idea.
Earth pulls down on block H with the gravitational force
: Q If I apply Newton’s second law to this problem, to w
FgH, which has a magnitude equal to mg.
:
body should I apply it?
The table pushes up on block S with a normal force FN. We focus on two bodies, the sliding block and the han
m 5.03 Block on table, block hanging block. Although they are extended objects (they are
There is another thing you should note. We assume that
points), we can still treat each block as a particle bec
cord does
block S not
(thestretch,
slidingsoblock)
that if block
with H falls 1 mm in a
mass every partFN of itBlock
movesS in exactly the same way. A second
ock is free to move along a horizontal
Sliding
idea is to apply Newton’s second law separately to each bl
T
nd connected, byS a cord that wraps over
block
Q WhatMabout the pulley?
y, to a second block H (the hanging
We cannot represent the pulley as a particle beca
! 2.1 kg. The Mcord and pulley have neg- different parts of it move in different ways. When we
ared to the blocks (they are “massless”). FgS
cuss rotation,g,Mwe shall deal T with pulleys in de
H falls as the sliding block S accelerates Meanwhile, we eliminate the pulley from consideratio
Površina
Frictionless
the acceleration of block S, (b) the ac- m Block
assuming its mass to be negligible compared with
surface H
H, and (c) thebez trenja
tension in the cord.
m Hanging masses of the two blocks. Its only function is to change
block H cord’s orientation. F gH
: g,m :
blem all about? Q OK. Now how do I apply F net ! ma to the sliding blo
wo bodies — sliding block and hanging Represent block S as a particle of mass M and draw
so consider
e 5-12 S of masswhich
A block Earth, pulls onto both
M is connected a block H of mass the forces that act on it, as in Fig. 5-14a. This is the blo
Figure 5-13 The forces acting on the two blocks of Fig. 5-12.
yrth,
a cord that wraps over a pulley.
nothing would happen here.) A to- free-body diagram. Next, draw a set of axes. It makes s