CHAPTER II.

BASES AND POLICIES OF SPECIAL AND

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
A. 1 PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
1.1 PIAGET COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

● Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a

mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed
trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to
biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
● The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the
infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think
using hypotheses.
● To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental
processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience..

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as

children grow. A child's cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the
child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world.
Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities and
environmental events, and children pass through a series of stages
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions
(moving around and exploring its environment).
● During the sensorimotor stage a range of cognitive abilities develop. These
include: object permanence; self-recognition; deferred imitation; and
representational play.
● They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the
capacity to represent the world mentally
● At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that
they will still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them
when they disappear

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 - 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world
through language and mental imagery.
● During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the
ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other
than itself.
● A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is
not yet capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought.
● Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child
to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a
person’s.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 - 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
● Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that,
although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
● During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of
plasticine returning to its original shape).
● During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Over
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are
carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical
and perceptual constraints.
● During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer
needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division
and fractions).
● They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of
specific examples.
● Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions.
E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time?
they could speculate about many possible consequences.
THE PROCESS OF ADAPTATION
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through assimilation,
accommodation, and equilibration
ASSIMILATION
Piaget defined assimilation as the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing
cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall beliefs and understanding of
the world do not change as a result of the new information.
This means that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this
information by referring to information you already have (information processed and
learned previously) and try to fit the new information into the inf ormation you already have.
For example, a 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long
frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler
et al., 2003).
ACCOMMODATION
Psychologist Jean Piaget defined accommodation as the cognitive process of revising
existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can
be incorporated. This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work,
and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
In order to make sense of some new information, you actual adjust information you
already have (schemas you already have, etc.) to make room for this new information.
For example, a child may have a schema for birds (feathers, flying, etc.) and then they
see a plane, which also flies, but would not fit into their bird schema.
In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown
and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and
wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh.

With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make
this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.
EQUILIBRATION
Piaget believed that all human thought seeks order and is uncomfortable with
contradictions and inconsistencies in knowledge structures. In other words, we seek
'equilibrium' in our cognitive structures.
Equilibrium occurs when a child's schema can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new
information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather
in leaps and bounds. Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we
do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new
challenge (accommodation).
Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema
will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it

PIAGETIAN APPROACH TO SPECIAL EDUCATION

● provides a useful means of understanding and teaching children with exceptional
needs.
● The child’s progression from stage to stage results from adaptation, which
describes the process of interaction between the child’s current maturational level
and environment stimuli

As a result of adaptation, the developing child continually creates new structures out of
previously acquired structures to better interact with the environment. Piaget describes
the development of these structures in terms of a series of stages : sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

1.2 ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

 ● Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance
of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes and emotional
reactions of others.
● Social learning theory considers both environmental and cognitive factors to
interact to influence human learning and behavior.
● Psychologists have always been fascinated with how human beings learn, and
the complexities involved in the process.
● Canadian psychologist came up with the Social Learning Theory to help us
understand how people learn
● Behaviourists proposed that learning is derived from one’s interaction with the
environment.

THREE CORE CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING

INTRINSIC
REINFORCEMENT

LEARNING AND
BEHAVIOUR CHANGE

1. Observational Learning
● Observational learning is a major component of Bandura’s social learning theory.
 ● Observational theory has the potential to teach and reinforce or decrease certain
behaviors based on a variety of factors.
● It describes the way that people imitate certain behaviors (such as violence)
through a process known as modeling.
● The importance of observational learning lies in helping individuals, especially
children, acquire new responses by observing others behavior.
● Observational learning occurs through observing negative and positive
behaviors.
● Example, one of the best known experiments in the history of psychology
involved a doll named Bobo ( Bobo Doll Experiment).
● Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have
observed in other people.
● Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
1. A LIVE MODEL, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or
acting out a behavior.
2. A SYMBOLIC MODEL, which involves real or fictional characters
displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs or online media.
3. A VERBAL INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL, which involves descriptions and
explanation of a behavior.

2. Intrinsic Reinforcement
● Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor
to influence learning and behavior.
● Bandura described Intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as
pride, satisfaction and a sense of accomplishment.
● Bandura realized that reinforcement does not always come from outside sources.
● It is an internal state of mind and motivation is an important factor influencing
your learning.

3. Learning and Behavior change

● Learning doesn’t necessarily come only when someone’s behavior is
permanently changed.
● Learning occurs through:
● Observation
● Imitation
● Modelling ( or learning in other words)
● Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs due to prior experience.
● Learning means the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skill
● It can change our behavior.
Factors that ensure success in learning

● ATTENTION
In order to learn, we need to be paying attention.
Anything that distracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on
observational learning

● RETENTION
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up
information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

● REPRODUCTION
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time
to actually perform the behavior you observed.
Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill
advancement.

● MOTIVATION
In order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to
imitate the behavior that has been modeled.

In addition, Bandura’s social learning theory has had important implications in the field
of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important it is to model
appropriate behaviors.

As Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to
learn everything you know from personal experience. Observing others plays a vital role
in acquiring new knowledge and skills.
By understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain a greater appreciation
for the powerful role that observation plays in shaping the things we know and the
things we do.
 1.3 Vygotsky’s Scaffolding theory
To begin with Vygotsky’s theory, let's start with why scaffolding was the chosen word in
this theory. This is what a scaffolding looks like

and as obvious as it is, it is a platform for the construction workers that provides them
the much-needed foothold for when they are building their project, and this is somewhat
similar to that of when a teacher provides temporary help to the learners
- Jerome Bruner, David Wood and Gail Ross were actually the first to introduce
the theory where they applied the concept of Vygotsky’s ZPD
Vygotsky’s ZPD
ZPD stands for Zone of Proximal Development, Vygotsky was famous for this concept
of his that he defined as the space of what a learner can do with or without assistance.

ZPD
Learner can’t do
without assistance
Characteristics of Scaffolding
- Contingency
- Temporary
- Transfer of Responsibility
Purpose of Scaffolding
1. Cognitive structuring
- Providing explanatory and value structures
2. Reduction in degrees of freedom
- Taking over those parts of a task that the student is not yet able to perform, or
breaking it into smaller parts
3. Direct Maintenance
- Keeping the learner and the learning focused on specific goals
4. Metacognitive coaching
- Helping learners identify and modify their learning and problem-solving
strategies
5. Recruitment
- Getting the learner interested in a task and helping him adhere to the
requirements of the task
6. Contingency Management
- Facilitating learning using rewards as well as keeping learners motivated

Types of scaffolding
1. Metacognitive
2. Conceptual
3. Procedural
4. Strategic

1.4 JEAN LAVE’S SITUATED LEARNING

Description:
Situated learning is an instructional approach developed in the early 1990s by Jean
Lave and Etienne Wenger that builds on the work of Dewey, Vygotsky, and others
(Clancey, 1995) who claim that students are more likely to learn when they actively
participate in the learning experience. Situated learning is essentially the creation of
meaning from real-life activities of daily living where learning occurs in relation to the
teaching environment. Here are some examples of situated learning activities:
⮚ Field trips in which students actively participate in a new environment
⮚ Cooperative education and internships in which students are immersed and
physically active in a real-world work environment
⮚ Music and sports (physical education) practice that simulates the actual location
of these events, such as orchestras, studios, and training facilities
⮚ Laboratories and child-care centers are used as classrooms, with students
participating in activities that mimic real-world work settings.

These examples demonstrate how students are actively engaged in addressing real-
world issues. The student is "situated" in the learning experience, as the practice
implies, and knowledge acquisition becomes a part of the learning activity, its context,
and the "culture in which it is developed and used" (Oregon Technology in Education
Council, 2007). Students "construct" their own knowledge based on the experiences
they bring to the learning situation; the success of situated learning experiences is
dependent on social interaction and kinaesthetic activity.

Jean Lave proposed Situated Learning Theory in the late 1980s. The idea behind
Situated Learning Theory is that learning happens in an authentic context, culture, and

activity and is often unintentional. It promotes the idea that students learn more
effectively in collaborative group settings and when activities are based on real-world
experiences.
GUIDELINE FOR USE:
Guideline 1 – Authentic Contexts
⮚ Learning takes place in an environment that simulates real-life situations.
Activities should include opportunities for students to investigate and explore
information from a variety of sources. To seek relevant information, the
 investigation should focus on a relatively broad focus rather than smaller
fragmented tasks.

Guideline 2 – Legitimate Peripheral Practice/ Scaffolding

⮚ Students begin on the periphery of the learning as novices in the subject matter,
and instructors become more of a facilitator, scaffolding the learning. As the
students' knowledge grows, the scaffolding is removed, and they progress toward
becoming subject experts.

Guideline 3 – Community of Practice/ Collaboration

⮚ As they learn and collaborate with one another, students move from the
periphery to the center of the community of practice circle. Activities are designed
with a group setting in mind, allowing for various points of view and differences of
opinion. Another important aspect of developing their community of practice is
providing students with opportunities to interact with subject matter experts.