GGE 4202 SATELLITE GEODESY

Prof. M.K. Gachari

 Course Outline
1. Introduction
Definitions
2. Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy
Reference systems
Reference frames
Conventional reference systems and frames
3. Satellite Orbit
Orbital Parameters
Orbital Perturbations
Orbit Determination
4. Look Angle Determination
Course Outline Cont.
5. Satellite Data processing
Carrier Phase,
Double Differencing,
Wide Laning,
Ambiguity Fixing
6. Ranging methods
Laser ranging,
Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI),
Satellite Altimetry.
Transit Doppler system
7. Satellite Systems
Global Positioning System (GPS)
The GALILEO System
8. The International Terrestrial Reference Frame(ITRF)
9. Differential GPS (DGPS), LAAS, WAAS.
10. GPS Methods.
 Course assessment

During the period of study, assessment will be conducted by

CATs (Continuous Assessment Tests), regular assignments and
a final Examination at end of the unit.
The composition for continuous assessment shall be as follows:
10% Assignments, 20% Tests, and regular examination at the
end of semester 70%.
 Course Text Books
Course Text Books
1. Beutler G., Mervart L., and Verdun A., (2004) Methods of
Celestial Mechanics: Volume II: Application to Planetary System,
Geodynamics and Satellite Geodesy. 1st Edition. Berlin: Springer.
2. Heiskanen, W.A. and Moritz, H., (2006). Physical Geodesy. Berlin:
Springer.
3. Kaula W. M., (2000) Theory of Satellite Geodesy: Applications of
Satellites to Geodesy. NY: Dover Publications.
4. Seeber G. (2003). Satellite Geodesy. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
5. Torge, W., (2001). Geodesy, 3rd Edition. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter-
Berlin.
Course Journals, Reference Text Books, Reference
Journals
Course Journals
1. Journal of Geodynamics
2. International Journal of Geodynamics
Reference Text Books
1. Hofmann, W., Lichtenegger, H. and Collins, J., (2001). Global
Positioning System, Theory and
Practice.5th Edition. Berlin: Springer.
2. Maling, D.H., (1973). Coordinate Systems and Map
Projections. London: Phillip.
3. Moritz, H., (1980). Advanced Physical Geodesy. London:
Abacus Press
Reference Journals
1. 1. Journal of Geodesy
2. 2. Journal of Geodesy and Geodynamics
Background: Definition of Terms
Geodesy may be defined as the discipline that deals determination of the
shape and size of the Earth, its orientation in space, and its external
gravity field.

Or geodesy is the “discipline that deals with the measurement and

representation of the Earth’s surface, including its gravity field, in a three-
dimensional time varying space”
 Definition of Terms Cont.
Physical Geodesy – Deals with the determination of the Earth’s shape, and gravity field.

Physical geodesy is the branch of geodesy that deals with the physical properties of the
gravitational field of the Earth. Physical geodesy uses the geoid as a primary model for
the Earth’s shape and its other properties

Geometrical Geodesy - deals with determination of the Earth’s size, shape, and
positional relationships

Space geodesy is geodesy by means of sources external to Earth, mainly artificial

satellites (in satellite geodesy) but also quasars (in very-long-baseline interferometry,
VLBI), visible stars (in stellar triangulation), and the retro-reflectors on the Moon (in lunar
laser ranging, LLR).

The term quasar is short for "quasi-stellar radio source". This name, which means star-like emitters of radio waves, was
given in the 1960s when quasars were first detected.
Objectives of Geodesy

The objective of geodesy with respect to the planet

Earth may be described as follows:

“The objective of geodesy is the

determination of the figure and external
gravity field of the Earth, as well as its
orientation in space, as a function of time,
from measurements on, and exterior to the
Earth’s surface.”
Satellite geodesy

Satellite geodesy is the measurement of the form and dimensions of the Earth,
the location of objects on its surface, and the figure of the Earth's gravity field,
by means of artificial satellite techniques.

Satellite geodesy may be described as geodesy by means of artificial satellites

— i.e. the measurement of the form and dimensions of Earth, the location of
objects on its surface and the figure of the Earth's gravity field by means of
artificial satellite techniques.

It belongs to the broader field of space geodesy, which also includes such
techniques as geodetic very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) and lunar laser
ranging (LLR) etc.
 Satellite Geodesy Cont.
The main goals of satellite geodesy are:

• Determination of the figure of the Earth, positioning, and navigation,

• Determination of geoid, Earth's gravity field and its temporal
variations,
• Measurement of geodynamical phenomena, such as crustal
dynamics and polar motion.

Satellite geodetic data and methods can be applied to diverse fields

such as navigation, hydrography, oceanography, and geophysics.

 Satellite geodesy relies heavily on orbital mechanics.

Earth’s Shape & Its Representation
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite
Geodesy- Overview
Reference systems are required in order to describe;

- The position and motion of the Earth and other celestial

bodies including artificial satellites,

- Positions and movements on the surface of the Earth, and

- The stationary and time-variable parts of the Earth’s

gravity field.
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy
- Overview Cont.

Reference systems are represented by coordinate systems,

which – in Newtonian space – are three-dimensional (3-D) in
principle, and defined with respect to origin, orientation, and
scale.

A fourth dimension (4-D),time, enters through the mutual

motion of the Earth, and other celestial bodies, and through
the temporal variations of the Earth’s shape, its gravity field,
and its orientation.
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy -
Overview Cont.

Present-day measurement accuracy even requires a four-dimensional (4-D)

treatment in the framework of general relativity, with rigorous coupling of space
and time.
(General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is
the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of
gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and refines Newton's law of universal
gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time or four-
dimensional spacetime.)
Reference systems are realized through reference frames consisting of a set of
well-determined fixed points or objects, given by their coordinates and (if
necessary) velocities at a certain epoch.

They serve for modelling geodetic observations, as a function of a multitude of

geometric and physical parameters of interest in geodesy and other geosciences.
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy
- Overview Cont.

Basic units and constants are fundamental to the geodetic measurement

and modelling processes

Time systems are based either on processes of quantum physics, on

motions in the solar system, or on the daily rotation of the Earth.

The geometric properties of reference systems are provided by three-

dimensional coordinates - here we distinguish between a space-fixed
celestial, and an Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy
- Overview Cont.

Conventional reference systems and corresponding reference frames are provided by the
International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS).

In addition, gravity field-related local level systems have to be introduced, as most geodetic
observations refer to gravity

The treatment of height and gravity requires the introduction of dedicated reference systems.

Vertical Reference Systems are based on the gravity field of the Earth.

Gravity measurements apply different techniques and deliver various gravity field quantities.

As a consequence, a Gravity Reference System has to be introduced in order to consistently

evaluate the heterogeneous gravity data,
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy

The description of objects or events in space and time in a coordinate

system requires four coordinates, three identifying the position in space,
the fourth providing time.

In Newtonian mechanics the time coordinate is independent from the

three space coordinates and "absolute".

This is not the case when applying special and general relativity.

(It is noted however, that part of the coordinate definition in space geodesy is done in
the framework of the theory of relativity)
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy Cont.
In the course of the centuries, the following hierarchy of three levels of
coordinate systems - or more generally - reference systems turned out to be
particularly meaningful:
• Space-fixed or inertial systems, in which the positions of stars are fixed or
almost fixed and in which the motion of artificial satellites can be formulated
according to the Newtonian laws of mechanics.
• Earth-fixed systems, in which all terrestrial points can be expressed
conveniently as well as vehicles in motion on the earth's surface.
• Local horizon systems, fixed to observatories or instruments and often
oriented horizontally with one axis pointing towards north.

These three levels of reference systems are complemented, when needed, by

some specialized ones such as orbit or spacecraft systems or regional terrestrial
systems.
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy Cont.

Equally important, also time keeping requires some generally

adopted reference for maintenance, comparison, and transfer
of time.
Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy Cont.
Hierarchy of Reference Systems

When addressing reference systems, it is useful to distinguish between the

three concepts :- Coordinate System, Reference System, and Reference Frame.

Coordinate systems are the central - mathematical - element of any geodetic

reference system. The choice of a coordinate system in three dimensions
requires the definition of its origin (three elements), the orientation of the axes
(three elements), and the scale. It is convenient and common practice to choose
orthonormal base vectors and the same scale along all three axes. It is again a
matter of convenience to tie a system of curvilinear coordinates, such as
spherical, geographical or ellipsoidal coordinates to any such orthonormal
system of base vectors.
 Hierarchy of Reference Systems Cont.

A reference system consists of the adopted coordinate system and, in

addition, a set of constants, models and parameters, that are required in
order to achieve a certain degree of generality or idealisation.
This additional set could be necessary, for example, in order to deal with
tectonic plate motion, tides and the Earth's response to tides, it could
define the constants of a reference ellipsoid or the parameters of a
reference gravity field.
 Hierarchy of Reference Systems Cont.
Since positioning and navigation are global activities, nowadays, it is
important that the same set of definitions is used everywhere.

Thus, internationally adopted conventions are necessary.

The International Earth Rotation Service (IERS), a joint service of the

International Association of Geodesy (IAG) and of the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) prepares the definition of so-called
conventional reference systems and of their implementation.

The conventional international celestial reference system (ICRS) is

adopted by IAG and IAU, the conventional terrestrial reference system
(CTRS) done by IAG.
 Hierarchy of Reference Systems Cont.

Reference frame contains all elements required for the materialization

of a reference system in the real world.

In the case of space fixed or celestial frames, it is essentially an adopted

catalogue of celestial objects such as stars or quasars,

In the case of a terrestrial frame, it is the catalogue of coordinates of

terrestrial points (stations, observatories) as well as their velocities.

The catalogues are chosen to be consistent with the conventions of the

corresponding reference system.