Strength of Materials

Lecture #3
Horris K. Nangulama (MSc., BSc. Civil Eng.)
Department of Mining Engineering, Malawi University of Business and Applied
Sciences
hnangulama@poly.ac.mw; 0885271934; at 201 Engineering Bldg
STRAINS
 STRAINS
• By Hooke’s law, consider an object acted by uni-axial stress in x-
𝑥
direction, 𝜖𝑙 = strain in x direction =
𝑙
• In a system, when the length changes, there is also change in
diameter/lateral thickness, hence another strain exist but having a
different sign than longitudinal strain.
• Therefore if the material elongates such that there is reduction in
𝛥𝑑
diameter, 𝜖𝑡 = strain in lateral direction = -
𝑑
• The ration of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called poisons ratio.
𝝐𝒕
ʋ=-
𝝐𝒍
-ʋ𝜖𝑙 = 𝜖𝑡
 DIRECTIONAL STRAINS

• When a solid material is subjected to bi-axial stress, stresses exist in x

and y, but there is deformation in all three directions.
• There are three strains acting in a body,
• 𝜖𝑥 = strain in x direction
• 𝜖𝑦 = strain in y direction
• 𝜖𝑧 = strain in z direction
σ𝑥
Knowing that 𝜖𝑥 =
𝐸
σ𝑦
𝜖𝑦 =
𝐸
σ𝑧
𝜖𝑧 =
𝐸
 Considering that σ𝑧 =0
directional strains principal strains
σ𝑥 σ𝑍σ𝑦 σ1 σ2
𝜖𝑥 = - ʋ + 𝜖1 = -ʋ
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
σ𝑦 σ σ σ σ1
𝜖𝑦 = - ʋ 𝑥 + 𝑍 𝜖2 = 2 - ʋ
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
σ σ 𝑦 σ σ σ
𝜖𝑧 = 𝑧 - ʋ + 𝑥 𝜖3 = - ʋ 1 + 2
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

Hence, Since young’s modulus is a material

σ σ𝑦 property, principal stresses can be used
𝜖𝑥 = 𝑥 - ʋ to find principal strains.
𝐸 𝐸
σ𝑦 σ
𝜖𝑦 = - ʋ 𝑥
𝐸 𝐸
σ𝑦 σ
𝜖𝑧 = - ʋ + 𝑥
𝐸 𝐸

Knowing 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 and 𝜖𝑧 , the new volume

of the solid body can be obtained,
hence volumetric strain is calculated
 STRAIN ROSETTE

• The most common type of stain gauge is an

electrical resistance strain gauge.

• It measures strain based on the change in

resistance of the wire as the object is strained.
 STRAIN ROSETTE

• A strain gauge rosette is a term for an arrangement

of two or more strain gauges that are positioned
closely to measure strains along different directions
of the component under evaluation.

• Single strain gauges can only measure strain

effectively in one direction, so the use of multiple
strain gauges enables more measurements to be
taken, providing a more precise evaluation of strain
on the surface being measured.
Example
A 60mm x 50mm x 20mm solid body was acted upon by stresses;
• 65MPa compressive parallel to 50mm side
• 40MPa tensile parallel to 60mm side
• 15MPa shear
• Poisson’s ratio = 0.3
• Young’s modulus of the material E= 200GPa
From the above information, calculate:
1) Volumetric strain
2) Principal stresses and maximum shear stress
3) Principal planes
4) Principal strains
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
ELASTIC CONSTANTS IN ISOTROPIC MATERIALS
• Elasticity Modulus (E)
• Poisson’s Ratio (ϑ)
• Shear Modulus (G)
• Bulk Modulus (K)
Modulus of Elasticity, E
• Also known as Young’s Modulus
E= Stress/strain
• Linear strain (ε) : Deformation per unit dimension is called strain.
Strain measured along the direction of load is called linear strain

Strain = Change in length/original length

𝛿𝑙
𝜀= Strain is unit less parameter
𝑙

• Lateral strain (ε’) : strain measured lateral to the linear strain is called
lateral strain
Lateral strain
• For round bar:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Lateral strain =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝛿
𝜀′ =
𝐿
• For rectangular bar:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Lateral strain =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝛿𝑏
𝜀′ =
𝑏
Hooke’s Law
• Within elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the strain
• Stress-strain Curve is shown below
 𝟏
Poisson’s ratio, ϑ and
𝒎

• Ratio of lateral strain to linear strain is called Poisson’s

ratio
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
• Poisson’s ratio =
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜀′
𝜗=
𝜀
• For most of the materials, value of ϑ lies between 0.25
to 0.42
Volumetric Strain (𝜺𝒗 )
• Ratio of change in volume to the original volume is called volumetric
strain. It is also known as dilation.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Volumetric strain =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝛿𝑣
𝜀𝑣 =
𝑣
Shear Modulus, G
• Shear stress : When a body is subjected to two equal
and opposite forces acting tangentially across the
resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to
shear off across the section, the stress induced is called
shear stress
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
• Shear stress =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴𝑠
Unit of shear stress is N/𝑚2
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Shear strain =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Bulk Modulus (K)
• When a body is subjected to three mutually
perpendicular stresses of equal intensity, the ratio of
direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is
known as bulk modulus
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• K=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎
• K=
𝜀𝑣
𝛿𝑣
• Where, 𝜀𝑣 =
𝑣
Example
Solution
P=1000 N
𝜎 1000
𝐸= = = 25 000 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
𝜀 0.04

∆𝑙 0.4
𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 = = = 0.04
𝑙𝑜 10

∆𝑑 −0.1
𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 = = = −0.01
𝑑0 10

−0.01
𝜗= = 0.25
0.04
RELATION BETWEEN K & E
• Consider a cube with a unit volume
RELATION BETWEEN K & E
• 𝑉0 = 1
• Final volume 𝑉𝑓 of the cube is now:

1 + 𝜀 1 − 𝜗𝜀 1 − 𝜗𝜀 = 1 + 𝜀 1 − 2𝜗𝜀 + 𝜗 2 𝜀 2

= 1 − 2𝜗𝜀 + 𝜗 2 𝜀 2 + 𝜀 − 2𝜗𝜀 2 + 𝜗 2 𝜀 3

= 1 + 𝜀 − 2𝜗𝜀 − 2𝜗𝜀 2 + 𝜗 2 𝜀 2 + 𝜗 2 𝜀 3

ε is small, 𝜀 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 3 are smaller and can be neglected.

𝑉𝑓 = 1 + 𝜀 − 2𝜗𝜀, ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝜀 1 − 2𝜗

• If equal tensile stresses are applied to each of the other two pairs of faces
of the cube than the total change in volume will be:
∆𝑉 = 3𝜀 1 − 2𝜗
RELATION BETWEEN K & E

𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜎 Τ3 𝜎 𝐸
𝐾= = = =
∆𝑉ൗ 3𝜀 1 − 2𝜗 3𝜀 1 − 2𝜗 3 1 − 2𝜗
𝑉𝑜
𝐸
Therefore, 𝐾 =
3 1−2𝜗
RELATION BETWEEN K & E
• The relationship between K and E is:
𝐸
𝐾=
3 1 − 2𝜗

• There is also a relationship between G and E, and it is given by:

𝐸
𝐺=
2 1+𝜗

The relation between G, E and K is:

1 1 1
= +
𝐸 9𝐾 3𝐺

• Therefore, out of the four elastic constants, only two of them are independent.
Effects of Lateral Restraint
Imagine a body which is subjected to a complex loading
situation but is only allowed to deflect in “not all
directions”
1. Restraint in one direction
Consider the body shown,
• There is a rigid lateral restraint provided in y-direction
• 𝜗 extension along the y axis is totally prevented
• The material is free to contract laterally in the x-
direction
Effects of Lateral Restraint
• The strain in the y-direction with 𝜎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑦 both compressive (-ve)
1
𝜀𝑦 = − 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜗𝜎𝑥 = 0
𝐸
Therefore 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜗𝜎𝑥
• The strain in the x-direction,
1
𝜀𝑥 = − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜗𝜎𝑦
𝐸
1
= − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜗 2 𝜎𝑥
𝐸𝜎
𝑥
=− 1 − 𝜗2
𝐸
• The lateral restraint affects the stiffness hence the effective change of
Young’s modulus from E to 𝐸 Τ 1 − 𝜗 2
 Effects of Lateral Restraint
2. Restraint in two directions
• Consider a material subjected to three-dimensional
stress system, 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑧
• Restraint should be provided in both the y and z-
directions, thus 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = 0

• In this scenario also, there is an effective change of

young’s Modulus to 𝐸൘ 2𝜗2
1− 1−𝜗
Practice
𝟗𝑲𝑮
1.Show that 𝑬 = is true. Hence find other elastic
𝟑𝑲+𝑮
constants relations used in strength of materials.
2.show how you can determine principal stresses from
principal strains.
3-D: GENERALISED HOOKE’S LAW
3-D: GENERALISED HOOKE’S LAW
• Assumptions used/where the law works
1. Isotropic material: Material behaves the same way in all directions
2. Linear system: linear elastic material- so we apply the rule of
superposition
• In other situations we may apply thermal strains 𝛼∆𝑇

• The body may also be subjected to shear stress 𝜏

• This shear stress has an effect to shear strain.
• Linear relationship between pure shear stress and angle is
given by
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
3-D: GENERALISED HOOKE’S LAW
• So in the generalized Hooke’s Law we throw in shearing strains 𝜏
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺
𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝛾𝑥𝑧 =
𝐺
𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝛾𝑦𝑧 =
𝐺

• Also remember that shear modulus is given by

𝐸
𝐺=
2 1+𝜗
End of Lecture #3

Thank You!
Assignment 2

Quiz