Received: 3 April 2020

| Revised: 11 August 2020

| Accepted: 17 August 2020

DOI: 10.1002/cche.10339

NOTE

Development of a method for determining oil absorption capacity

in pulse flours and protein materials

Ning Wang1 | Lisa Maximiuk1 | Dora Fenn1 | Michael T. Nickerson2 | Anfu Hou3

1
Canadian Grain Commission, Grain
Research Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB,
Canada
2
Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University
of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
3
Morden Research and Development
Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
Morden, MB, Canada
Correspondence
Ning Wang, Canadian Grain Commission,
Grain Research Laboratory, 1404-303 Main
Street, Winnipeg MB R3C 3G8, Canada.
Email: ning.wang@grainscanada.gc.ca
Abstract
Background and objectives: The conventional method for determining oil absorp-
tion capacity (OAC) in pulse ingredients involves mixing a sample with excess
oil, centrifuging the dispersion, and then calculating the amount of oil absorbed.
However, there are issues associated with the conventional method such as loss of
the less dense materials through oil decanting process and reabsorption of oil by
samples after centrifugation. Therefore, the objective of this work was to develop a
method that could eliminate those concerns for determining OAC.
Findings: A method for measuring OAC of flours or protein concentrates/isolates
derived from pulses and soybeans was developed. The new method involved mixing
0.5 g sample with 1.5 ml canola oil intermittently for 20 min, centrifuging the in-
verted sample tubes at 600 ×g for 25 min, and measuring the amount of oil absorbed
per gram of dry sample. Comparing to the conventional method, the new method
used a lower sample to oil ratio (1:3 g/ml), and each test tubes were centrifuged up-
side down in an apparatus at a lower centrifugal force (600 ×g). A syringe barrel was
used in the apparatus to hold a filter paper in place to prevent sample materials from
draining out with the excess oil during centrifugation. Test efficiency increased due
to combining steps of centrifugation and oil draining in the new method. Differences
in OAC values determined by the new method were exhibited from various pulse and
soybean materials.
Conclusions: Amounts of oil absorbed by flours and protein concentrates/isolates
from pulses and soybeans could be measured by the new method without accounting
for the extra free oil trapped in the samples. The new procedure showed good within-
laboratory reproducibility. More samples could be tested with the new method due
to its simplified procedure. Flours and protein concentrates/isolates from pulses and
soybeans with different OAC values could be separated from each other using the
new method.
Significance and novelty: The method developed was simple and reliable and could
be applied to a variety of pulse and soybean ingredients.

KEYWORDS
oil absorption capacity, protein concentrates and isolates, pulses, soybeans

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© 2020 The Authors. Cereal Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Cereals & Grains Association

Cereal Chemistry. 2020;97:1111–1117.  wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cche | 1111

 |   
1112
1 | IN TRO D U C T ION
Pulses are good sources of protein, complex carbohydrates,
dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals (Costa,
Queiroz-Monici, Reis, & Oliveira, 2006). Apart from their nu-
tritional properties, pulses possess functional properties such as
water holding, gelling, emulsifying, oil absorption, and foam-
ing capacity that are important in food formulation and process-
ing (Adebiyi & Aluko, 2011; Barac, Pesic, Stanojevic, Kostic,
& Bivolarevic, 2015; Gupta, Chhabra, & Liu, 2018).
Oil absorption capacity (OAC) is an important func-
tional property in food for pulse flours and proteins. OAC
influences flavor, texture, mouthfeel, and product yield
(Kinsella, 1976; Seena & Sridhar, 2005). OAC is also es-
sential in the manufacture of products such as doughnuts,
pancakes, baked goods, desserts, confectioneries, bev-
erages, salad dressings, meats extenders, and meat ana-
logues (Farooq & Boye, 2011; Prinyawiwatkul, Beuchat,
McWatters, & Dixon, 1997; Seena & Sridhar, 2005). OAC
has been attributed to the physical entrapment of oil within
proteins and noncovalent bonds such as hydrophobic, elec-
trostatic, and hydrogen bonding as forces involved in lipid–
protein interactions (Farooq & Boye, 2011; Kinsella, 1976;
Mwasaru, Muhammad, Baker, & Che Man, 1999). Oil
retention is the result of the binding of the hydrocarbon
chains of oil to the nonpolar side chains of the amino acids
(Lin, Humbert, & Sosulski, 1974).
There are no standard methods available for measuring
OAC of pulse ingredients. The most commonly used method
for determining OAC involves mixing a sample with oil and
then centrifuging the dispersion (Lin et al., 1974). OAC
is determined as the amount of oil absorbed by material.
However, a wide variation existed in the OAC method pro-
cedures performed by researchers, which included sample
(g) to oil (ml) ratio (1:5 to 1:12), mixing protocols such as
stirring by hand, shaking or vortexing, centrifuging force
(1,600–15,000 ×g) and time (10–30 min), and expression of
results (by weight or volume) (Beuchat, 1977; Du, Jiang, Yu,
& Jane, 2014; Lin et al., 1974; Pathiratne, Shand, Pickard,
& Wanasundara, 2015; Prinyawiwatkul et al., 1997; Rao
et al., 2016; Sathe, Deshpande, & Salunkhe, 1982; Seena
& Sridhar, 2005). All of which lead to inconsistence results
making it difficult to compare between different laboratories.
There has been a growing interest by the food industry to-
ward utilizing plant-based protein ingredients such as those
made from pulses in new product formulations due to their
nutritional value, low cost, and beneficial health effects.
However, successful application of pulse ingredients in food
formulations depends largely on their functional properties.
It is important to measure OAC using a standard method.
Therefore, the objective of this work was to develop a stan-
dardized method for determining OAC in pulse flours and
protein materials.
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WANG et al.
2 | M ATERIAL S AND M ETHOD S
2.1 | Materials
Six pulse samples, including 2 yellow pea (Pisum sati-
vum) (A and B), 1 green lentil (Lens culinaris), 1 Kabuli
chickpea (Cicer arietinum), 1 navy bean, and 1 pinto bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris), were selected from the Canadian Grain
Commission (CGC)'s harvest survey collection of the com-
mercially grown pulses. Seed coats of the pea sample (A)
were removed using the Satake TM05C Grain Testing Mill
(Satake Engineering Co Ltd) according to the procedure de-
scribed by Wang (2005).
Protein and starch concentrate from the dehulled pea
sample were prepared by air classification process according
to Wang and Maximiuk (2019). Dehulled peas were milled
using an Alpine 160 Z pin mill (Alpine) at 17,000 rpm. Air
classification was carried out on a NETZSCH-CONDUX
classifier (Model CFS 5-HD-S, NETZSCH-CONDUS,
Mahltechnik Gmbh). Pea flour was fed into the classifier
through material intake with a Three-TecT twin-screw vol-
umetric feeder (Three-TecT GmbH, Seon). The fine frac-
tion (protein concentrate) passed the classifying wheel,
after which they were transferred through the fine fraction
outlet and collected through a cyclone in a product hopper.
The coarse fraction (starch concentrate) was rejected and
discharged directly through the coarse material outlet into
a coarse product hopper. Classification of pea flour was
carried out at classifying speed of 6,000 rpm and air flow
at 45 m3/h.
An extruded pea sample was prepared according to Wang,
Warkentin, Vandenberg, and Bing (2014) using a labora-
tory twin-screw extruder (Model KETSE 12/36; Brabender
GmbH & Co. KG). The extruder barrel consisted of four
heating zones. Barrel temperatures were maintained at 40°C
in the first zone, at 70°C in the second, at 95°C in the third,
and at 90°C in the fourth zone, and the screws were oper-
ated at 150 rpm. Pea flour was fed into the extruder at a
rate of 355 g/h using a MT-1 twin-screw volumetric feeder
(Brabender GmbH & Co. KG). Water was injected into the
extruder with a liquid pump (FMI, QG 20, Fluid Metering
Inc.) at a rate of 130 g/h. Pea flour was extruded through a
circular die with 2 × 1.2 mm round openings and then dried
overnight at 40°C. The dried samples were kept in sealed
plastic bags before analysis.
Four commercial pulse and soy products, including soy
protein concentrate (SPC), soy protein isolate (SPI), pea pro-
tein concentrate (PPC), and pea fiber sample, were obtained
from food processors for this study. Above samples were
ground into flours using a Retsch mill with an 0.5-mm sieve.
All samples were stored at 4°C in sealed plastic bags until
analysis. Commercial canola oil obtained from a local market
was used for OAC determinations.

WANG et al.
2.2 | Conventional measurement of OAC in
pulse and soybean materials
Oil absorption capacity was determined conventionally ac-
cording to Lin et al. (1974) with modifications. Briefly, 1.0 g
of ground sample was vortexed with 5.0 ml canola oil in
a 50 ml conical plastic centrifuge tube. The contents were
vortexed for 15 s every 5 min, for a total of 20 min. Tubes
were then centrifuged at 1,600 ×g for 25 min. Excess oil was
drained and the centrifuge tubes were then weighed. OAC
was expressed as the amount of oil absorbed per gram of
sample.
2.3 | Measurement of OAC with the
proposed method
We used above conventional method to determine OAC in
various pulse flours and protein materials in our laboratory
and found that there were some issues associated with the
method. It was observed that some pulse samples contained
materials that were less dense than oil and these floated on
the surface of the oil. Furthermore, pulse protein concen-
trates/isolates formed lighter sediments after centrifugation.
In both cases, materials were lost when draining out excess
oil. Thirdly, certain pulse materials tended to reabsorb part
of oil after centrifugation, resulting in higher OAC values.
These issues resulted in measurement errors in the OAC
method. To overcome the problems, a new method was pro-
posed with the use of an apparatus that hold filter paper in
place to prevent sample materials from draining out while
centrifuging sample tubes upside down. Figure 1 illustrates
a schematic representation of the apparatus used in the pro-
posed OAC method. Filter paper (Cat. 28313–080, VWR)
was cut into circular shape (4.5 cm diameter), folded, and
inserted into a 20 cc syringe barrel (Figure 1a). Briefly, the
cut filter paper was placed on the opening of the syringe
F I G U R E 1 A schematic diagram of the apparatus for determining oil absorption capacity with the proposed method. (a)—folded filter paper
in a syringe barrel; (b)—test tube with sample and oil in the syringe barrel with filter paper at bottom; (c)—syringe assembly (syringe barrel, filter
paper, inverted test tube, sample and oil) in a centrifuge tube; and (d)—syringe assembly after centrifugation (oil collected in the conical centrifuge
tube) [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
|
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    1113
barrel. The bottom side of the test tube was then placed on
the center of the filter paper and syringe barrel. The filter
paper was pressed against the side of the test tube at four
equal distance point, resulting in a taco bowl-like shape with
four edges sticking out. Edges were gathered by bending
one neighboring pair at a time toward each other and around
the tube. The folded filter paper was then pushed down to
the syringe barrel using the test tube carefully (Figure 1a).
Sample (0.5 g) was weighed into a test tube (16 mm diam-
eter × 100 mm length). Total weight of the syringe, folded
filter paper (Figure 1a), test tube, and sample was measured.
Oil (1.5 ml) was added to the test tube, which was vortexed
for 5 s every 10 min for a total of 20 min. The tube con-
taining sample and oil was then inverted into the syringe
with filter paper seating inside at the bottom (Figure 1b),
and then, the whole assembly was immediately placed into
a 50 ml conical centrifuge tube (Figure 1c) for centrifuga-
tion at forces from 200 to 800 ×g for 25 min. Free oil passed
through the filter paper upon centrifugation and was col-
lected in the conical centrifuge tube, with solids retained
by filter paper (Figure 1d). The syringe assembly (syringe
barrel, filter paper, test tube, sample, and oil absorbed) after
centrifugation was then weighed. It was possible that some
free oil entrapped in the filter paper and was not collected
at the bottom of the conical centrifuge tube after centrifu-
gation. Therefore, a sample blank with filter paper was
included in each run to eliminate this problem. OAC was
calculated as Equation(1):
⎡� �⎤
⎢ W3 _W2 _W4 ⎥
OAC (g oil∕g sample, dry matter) = ⎢ � � ⎥ (1)
⎢ 1_ mc W1 ⎥
⎣ 100 ⎦
where
W1 = weight of the sample before oil addition (g)
 |   

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1114 WANG et al.

W2 = weight of the syringe assembly (syringe barrel, fil- W4 = weight of oil absorbed by the blank filter paper after
ter paper, test tube, and sample) (g) centrifugation (g)
W3 = weight of the syringe assembly (syringe barrel, fil- mc = initial moisture content of the sample (%)
ter paper, test tube, sample, and oil absorbed) after cen-
trifugation (g)
2.4 | Statistical analysis
(a)
Data were assessed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) using
the Statistical Analysis System (V.9.4; SAS Institute). The
Duncan's multiple range test was used to separate means at
significance of p < .05 (Cochran & Cox, 1992).

3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSIO N

3.1 | Effect of centrifugal force and time on

OAC

Figure 2a shows the effect of centrifugal force on the OAC

values of different samples as the centrifugal time was kept
at constant for 25 min. Increasing centrifugal force from
(b)
200 to 500 ×g significantly (p < .05) reduced the OAC val-
ues in the air-classified pea protein concentrate (ACPPC)
and pea flour. Similar trend was observed for soybean pro-
tein concentrate (SPC), pea fiber, and pea protein concen-
trate (PPC) with centrifugal force from 200 to 600 ×g. It
was also observed that there was still free oil in the test

TABLE 1 Comparison between the conventional method and

the proposed method on oil absorption capacity (g oil/g sample, dry
matter) of flours and protein concentrates or isolates from pulses and
soybeans1

Method Conventional
Sample developed method
(c) Navy bean 0.19 ± 0.02b2 0.92 ± 0.01a
Pea flour A 0.33 ± 0.02b 0.72 ± 0.02a
Kabuli chickpea 0.25 ± 0.01b 0.97 ± 0.01a
Commercial pea fiber 0.29 ± 0.01b 1.29 ± 0.02a
Extruded pea flour 0.16 ± 0.01b 1.11 ± 0.03a
Air-classified pea protein 0.75 ± 0.01b 1.04 ± 0.03a
concentrate
Commercial pea protein 0.51 ± 0.03b 0.74 ± 0.03a
concentrate
Commercial soy protein 0.30 ± 0.01b 1.10 ± 0.07a
concentrate
Commercial soy protein 0.33 ± 0.03b 0.95 ± 0.04a
isolate
Pooled standard deviation 0.018 0.034
F I G U R E 2 Effect of centrifugal force (a) and time (b, c) on
(sp)
oil absorption capacity of different pulse samples (ACPPC = air-
1
classified pea protein concentrate; SPC = soybean protein concentrate; Six replicates were determined for each sample (n = 6).
2
PPC = pea protein concentrate) [Colour figure can be viewed at Means within a row with the same letter are not significantly different (p > .05)
wileyonlinelibrary.com] as determined using Duncan's multiple range test.
 |

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WANG et al.     1115

TABLE 2 Oil absorption capacity

Sample Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3 Mean2
(g oil/g sample, dry matter) of flours and
protein concentrates from pulses and Navy bean 0.20 ± 0.01a 0.21 ± 0.01a 0.23 ± 0.01a 0.22 ± 0.02f
soybeans as determined by three operators Pinto bean 0.19 ± 0.01a 0.20 ± 0.03a 0.21 ± 0.01a 0.19 ± 0.01g
with the proposed method1 Lentil 0.39 ± 0.02a 0.40 ± 0.01a 0.40 ± 0.02a 0.40 ± 0.01c
Kabuli chickpea 0.27 ± 0.01a 0.30 ± 0.02a 0.28 ± 0.01a 0.28 ± 0.02e
Extruded pea flour 0.16 ± 0.01a 0.15 ± 0.03a 0.16 ± 0.03a 0.16 ± 0.01h
Air-classified 0.29 ± 0.01a 0.30 ± 0.03a 0.34 ± 0.01a 0.31 ± 0.03d
starch fraction
Pea flour B 0.22 ± 0.02a 0.22 ± 0.02a 0.23 ± 0.01a 0.22 ± 0.01f
Commercial pea 0.29 ± 0.01a 0.32 ± 0.01a 0.33 ± 0.02a 0.32 ± 0.02d
fiber
Air-classified 0.76 ± 0.02a 0.77 ± 0.02a 0.75 ± 0.01a 0.76 ± 0.01a
pea protein
concentrate
Commercial 0.51 ± 0.02a 0.52 ± 0.03a 0.49 ± 0.01a 0.51 ± 0.02b
pea protein
concentrate
Commercial 0.31 ± 0.01a 0.31 ± 0.03a 0.32 ± 0.01a 0.31 ± 0.01d
soy protein
concentrate
Commercial soy 0.31 ± 0.01a 0.33 ± 0.02a 0.34 ± 0.01a 0.33 ± 0.02d
protein isolate
1
Means within a row for the three operators with the same letter are not significantly different (p > .05) as
determined using Duncan's multiple range test.
2
Means for the column with the same letter are not significantly different (p > .05) as determined using
Duncan's multiple range test.

tube for all the samples studied after centrifugation at 200
or 300 ×g, which caused erroneously high OAC values.
No significant changes in OAC values were observed for
ACPPC and pea flour at centrifugal forces over 500 ×g,
whereas for SPC, PPC, and pea fiber at over 600 ×g. To
ensure that the centrifugal force is applicable to a variety
of materials, 600 ×g was, therefore, chosen throughout this
study.
The effect of the time of centrifugation from 10 to
30 min on OAC was also determined (Figure 2band 2c ).
OAC values for ACPPC decreased as the time of centrif-
ugation at 600 ×g increased from 10 to 25 min and then
leveled after 25 min (Figure 2b). It was also observed that
there was free oil in the test tube for ACPPC from 10 to
20 min, indicating that the time of centrifugation was in-
sufficient for removing the free oil in the sample. For other
samples, OAC values decreased significantly (p < .05)
as the time of centrifugation increased from 10 to 20 min
(Figure 2c). However, the OAC values were not affected by
centrifugation above 20 min. As a result, 25 min was se-
lected as the optimal time of centrifugation to cover various
materials studied. Valid comparisons of OAC of different
samples could be made when the conditions for determin-
ing OAC were optimized. To standardize the procedure, the
centrifugal force and time were maintained at 600 ×g and
25 min, respectively.
3.2 | Comparison between the
conventional and the proposed method
Mean OAC values of different flours and protein concen-
trates/isolates of pulses and soybeans between the conven-
tional and the proposed method were compared (Table 1).
Six replicate determinations were made for each sample,
performed by three separate operators. Three sets of repli-
cates were analyzed on day one and another three replicates
on day two. No significant difference was observed in OAC
among samples analyzed on different days. The pooled
standard deviations (sp) for the two methods were calcu-
lated according to Wernimont (1985) (Table 1). Analysis of
variance indicated that the variances from the two methods
were not significantly different. However, the OAC values
for all the samples determined with the proposed method
were significantly lower (p < .05) than those obtained with
the conventional method (Table 1). The samples used in the
proposed method were dispersed in oil for the same length
of time as in the conventional method. Furthermore, the
 |   
1116
amount of oil used in both the traditional and the proposed
method was in excess although the ratio of sample to oil was
different in both methods. In our preliminary study, chang-
ing the ratio of sample to oil in the conventional method
had no significant effect on OAC values (data not shown).
More free oil was also extracted after second centrifugation
(1,600 ×g, 25 min) of pea flour or protein sample (~0.1 g
oil/g sample) and pea fiber sample (~0.2 g oil/g sample)
with the conventional method, indicating that reabsorption
of free oil back into sample happened after centrifugation.
The proposed method minimized reabsorption of free oil in
pulse materials by removing excess oil during centrifugation
through the filter paper (Figure 1d), resulting in lower OAC
values as compared to the conventional method (Table 1).
Therefore, the proposed method provided a better meas-
urement of the actual amount of oil absorbed by a sample.
Furthermore, it was noted with the conventional method
that certain pulse flours, protein concentrates, and isolates
formed lighter sediments after centrifugation, which had the
tendency to drain away with the excess oil. This also caused
erroneous measurements in OAC. The proposed method
overcame these problems associated with the conventional
method. The within-laboratory reproducibility of the new
method on various flours and protein concentrates/isolates
of pulses and soybeans was determined by three operators
from our laboratory (Table 2). Analysis of variance showed
that there was no significant interaction (p = .392) between
sample and operator for the measured OAC values, indicat-
ing that results from the proposed method was consistent
across all operators. Furthermore, no significant difference
in OAC values determined by the operators for the same
sample was observed (Table 2), which demonstrated that
the results determined with the proposed method were re-
producible. To qualitatively determine how well the new
method separated various samples, Duncan's multiple range
test was performed on the overall means from the three
operators (Table 2). Results indicated that the proposed
method produced good separation among samples differ-
ing in OAC. It was observed that air-classified pea protein
concentrate had the highest OAC value among all samples
(Table 2). Other protein concentrates/isolate from peas and
soybeans in this study were produced commercially by ex-
tracting through acidic or alkaline condition. Chemical ex-
traction and processing caused proteins to denature, change
surface hydrophobicity, and reduce solubility, affecting
sample functionality (Reinkensmeier, Bußler, Schlüter,
Rohn, & Rawel, 2015). As a result, these may lead to lower
OAC values in the commercial protein concentrates/isolate
as compared to that in the air-classified pea protein con-
centrate. Presence of fiber in the air-classified pea protein
concentrate may also contribute to the increase in OAC
(Dalgetty & Baik, 2003; Tyler, Youngs, & Sosulski, 1981;
Wang & Maximiuk, 2019; Wang & Toews, 2011).
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WANG et al.
4 | CONCLUSIONS
The method developed for determining OAC of flours and
protein concentrates/isolates from pulses and soybeans pro-
vided good within-laboratory reproducibility as compared to
the conventional method. The new method had the advan-
tages of being objective, simple, efficient, and reliable. It
could also be applicable to various ingredients from pulses
or soybeans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance
of M. Cabral, C. Davies (co-op student), and K. Kleitman
(co-op student), and in-kind support of the Canadian Grain
Commission, Winnipeg MB, Canada. Financial support
was provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, the
Saskatchewan Pulse Growers, the Alberta Pulse Growers
and the Manitoba Pulse and Soybean Growers through the
Canadian Agricultural Partnerships' AgriScience Program
(Pulse Science Research Cluster).
ORCID
Ning Wang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2387-7388
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