UNIT 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

UNDERSTANDING PHILOSOPHY IN A BIGGER PICTURE

Learning Outcomes:

In this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Discuss and explain the meaning and the process of philosophy;

2. Utilize philosophy as essentially a personal and communal activity;
3. Compare schematically the four major branches of philosophy;
4. Understand ethics both as a study and activity.

Introduction:

According to Camiloza (2016) philosophy is not only for philosophers. Every person has the
capacity to find the value of philosophy in his/her own life. However, without a formal introduction to the
discipline, you may not be aware that you are engaging in philosophy.

This unit provides an introduction to the study of philosophy and ethics and a brief overview of
some of the main branches of philosophical thought about ethics. This lesson will acquaint you with some
basic philosophical concepts and help you identify philosophical questions that are personally meaningful
to you. As well as introducing the central ideas that relate to environmental and development ethics and
how these two areas of ethical study are interrelated, this unit shows why ethics as a discipline can
provide useful tools for clarifying arguments, for understanding a range of viewpoints in a debate, and for
justifying one’s own ethical positions more clearly. Key conceptual frameworks and some key terms are
introduced and explained.

Discussion:

A. The Origin of Philosophy: A Brief Sketch

Human beings want to understand the world and to know the truth for there are so many things we
have not figured out. Camiloza (2016) claimed that we wonder about many things including the workings
of the universe, the mystery of human experience, and the existence of Supreme Being. We wonder
about things that puzzle us.

According to Socrates, as Plato reports, “wonder is the only beginning of philosophy.” Later, Aristotle,
in response to his predecessors, especially the Ionian philosophers, said that “it is owing to
their wonder that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize.” This is precisely the context
and basis of the now famous claim that philosophy begins in wonder (Llewelyn, 2001).

But what kind of wonder is this? For sure, wonder includes the feeling of surprise coupled with
admiration, that is, when one is being curious or being in awe. We are curious on how a new gadget
works, but we may wonder whether one can live without the new gadget. But this is not enough. Wonder
as the beginning of philosophy is precisely “philosophic wonder,” that is, the feeling of being perplexed.
For example, the ancient Greek philosophers were puzzled about the origin and nature of the world. As
Aristotle writes:

“For men were first led to study philosophy, as indeed they are today, by wonder. Now, he who is
perplexed and wonders believes himself to be ignorant…they took to philosophy to escape ignorance…
(Aristotle, Metaphysics 982b, tr. A.E. Taylor).”
 In this sense, philosophic wonder seeks clarity by trying to understand the perplexities or
vagueness or confusion that shrouded the inquiring mind. In other words, philosophic wonder seeks
answers to or at least make sense of the mysterious world. Thus, when one begins to make sense of the
questions regarding, for example, the origin of the world, or the meaning and purpose of life, one begins
to philosophize. Thus, in philosophic wonder, one is not merely amazed by the mysteriousness of the
world or of life, but seeks to understand this mystery. In a word: one thinks!

Given the above brief discussion on the origin of philosophy on the conceptual level, it is
therefore reasonable to suppose that Western philosophy originated in Miletus, because Thales, the
acclaimed first philosopher in the Western world, was from Miletus. Miletus during the time of Thales was
the richest and the most powerful of all the Ionian cities, and was the first center of scholarship in ancient
Greece. Ionia was a Greek city-state on the coast of Asia Minor, now Turkey (Rooney, 2014).

It is worth noting that with the decline of Ionia, which began with its conquest by the Persians in
546 BCE, the intellectual life of Greece moved to Croton in southern Italy in 530 BCE. Croton was a
splendid and powerful city-state of Greece to where Pythagoras emigrated from Samos and founded the
Pythagorean Brotherhood (Armstrong, 1989).

However, if philosophy begins in wonder, how do we exactly know that Thales was the first
philosopher, that he was the first one to wonder, that is, the first one to attempt to make sense of the
mysteriousness of the world? In fact, we cannot deny the occurrence of other pre-philosophical rumblings
in Egyptian and Babylonian cultures, as well as in India and China. For sure, there were great thinkers
that existed in each of these cultures, and there are evidence that some of the earliest Greek
philosophers had come in contact with at least some of the products of Egyptian and Babylonia thought.
And, of course, we cannot absolutely determine the first person who wondered or philosophized. But it is
commonly believed that Thales was the first philosopher because he was the first, at least in
recorded history, to put his philosophy into writing (Adamson, 2014). In fact, we find in Thales, and
many philosophers after him, some reasoned arguments for the origin and development of the world.
Indeed, this is a unique feature of ancient Greek philosophy that distinguishes it from the pre-
philosophical rumblings of other cultures.

To reiterate, Western philosophy begins in wonder, and that the origin of philosophy in terms of
place is said to be in Miletus, Ionia.

B. The Nature of Philosophy

I will briefly sketch the definition of philosophy as well as its major branches. Specifically, it will
address the question: What is Philosophy? What are the major branches of philosophy? The first
philosophers were the ancient Greeks, around sixth century BCE (Pritchard, 2015). Philosophy,
particularly Western philosophy, comes from the two Greek words philia, which means “love” and sophia,
“wisdom”. Thus, etymologically speaking, philosophy means the love of wisdom (Villasoto, Dollantas, &
Limqueco, 2013) &(Pritchard, 2015).

As it is well known, love in this context is understood as a strong desire for a particular object;
while wisdom is understood as a correct application of knowledge. Thus, philosophy as the love of
wisdom, at least in this context, could refer to the strong desire of the human person to possess
knowledge and apply it correctly. It’s not a coincidence, therefore, that most philosophers in the Ancient
World, particularly in Greece, India, and China were sages or wise men. Think for example of Socrates,
Gautama Buddha, Confucius, and Lao Tzu.

Traditionally, however, philosophy is defined as a science that studies beings in their

ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of human reason alone (Villasoto,
Dollantas, & Limqueco, 2013). Based from the above statement, we can identify elements in the definition
of philosophy. “It is a science”. Okasha (2016) mention that philosophy is a “science because it is a
systematic body of knowledge which is not only based on opinions, hypothesis and theories, but on ideal
knowledge. “Being”- according to Artigas (1990) the term being denotes everything that exists or may
exist, everything knowable. And when we speak of “being” or “beings” in philosophy in this context, we
mean all things that exist, material or immaterial. An example of material beings are “stones”, “trees”,
“persons”, “cars”, air, water; and the notions of “God”, “soul”, “spirit” are considered as immaterial being.
All of these are beings, and philosophy studies their ultimate causes, reason, and principles through the
aid of reason alone. It is also considered as the mother of all sciences because of its very vast scope and
subject matter. “it aims to know that Ultimate cause”. Acccording to Villasoto (2013), philosophy asks
and answers not only facts and proximate causes but also the deepest causes of thing. Its task is to give
answers not only to the question “what” but most importantly to the question “why”. “philosophy relies in
the aid of human intellect alone”. Meaning philosophy uses natural reason and not divine revelation.
The natural reason is the product of one’s own thinking and not of imagination or fantasy (Meer, Hualda,
& & Bamba, 2004).

In other words, philosophy is concerned with the reason and principles that account for everything
that exists. Thus, some of the basic questions in philosophy are:

 What is the origin of the world, of everything that exists?

 Why do these things exist, rather than not exist at all?
 Is there God? If so, how can we justify the goodness of God in the face of evil?
 What is the meaning and purpose of life? Why do we have to suffer?
 If one is suffering from an unbearable pain, such as cancer, is it morally right to resort to euthanasia or
assisted suicide?

These are just some of the questions that philosophy attempted to address. And in doing so,
philosophy uses reason as a tool, which can be expressed in many forms, such as the ability to reflect,
question, articulate one’s thought, and analyze certain phenomenon or event. In short, philosophy
attempts to understand things in a critical and logical manner.

It is important to note, however, that philosophers do not agree on a single definition of

philosophy. In fact, philosophers differ in their basic understanding of philosophy. For example, Karl
Jaspers, a famous German existential philosopher, understands philosophy as a discipline in which
questions are more important than answers because answers themselves will, in turn, become
questions.

C. Major Branches of Philosophy

After addressing the question “what is philosophy?”, let us now discuss the major branches of
philosophy. Philosophy is normally divided into four major branches, namely: Metaphysics, Epistemology,
Logic, and Ethics.

The first major branch of philosophy is Metaphysic.

Metaphysics comes from the two Greek words meta, - means “beyond” and physika, - means
“physic”. Thus, metaphysics, in Greek, means “beyond physics” (Artigas, 1990). Hence, etymologically
speaking, metaphysics means the study of things beyond the physical, that is, concepts or things that
cannot be experienced, such as the concepts of God, freedom, and soul (Inductivo, 2013).

Metaphysics is commonly understood as the foundation of philosophy. In fact, Aristotle calls it the
“first philosophy”. Originally, the Greek word metaphysika, which literally means “beyond/after physics”,
actually designated that part of Aristotle’s works, which came after those chapters that dealt with physics.
However, it was misappropriated later by the Medieval commentators on classical texts as that which is
beyond the physical. Thus, over time, metaphysics has been understood as the study of that which exists
beyond the physical.
 Ontology is derived from the two Greek words onto, which means “being” or “that which is”, that
is, everything that exists; and logos, which means “knowledge” or “study”. (Note, however, that the
term logos in ancient Greek scholarship have different connotations. For example, Heraclitus, a Greek
philosopher of the late 6th century BCE, understands Logos as reason or the underlying principle of all
that is.) Ontology, therefore, is the specific branch of philosophy that studies beings in their ultimate
causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of reason alone. In other words, Ontology studies the first
principles or the essence of all things (Artigas, 1990).

Some of the basic questions in ontology are:

 What is being?
 Why do things exist, rather than not exist at all?
 What is the meaning and nature of reality?
 What is the underlying principle of all that exist?
 Is there nothing?

Cosmology, from the Ancient Greek words kosmos, which means the “world” and logos,
meaning “study”, is the specific sub-branch of philosophy that studies the world (or universe), including its
origin, dynamics, and characteristics, as well as the laws that govern its order (Artigas, 1990).

Some of the basic questions in cosmology are:

 What is the origin of the world?

 What is the basic material of which the world is formed?
 How do things arise?
 In what consists its (the world) fundamental form or principle of order?
 Is the world or universe infinite?

Psychology comes from the two Greek words psyche, which means “soul” (but loosely
understood as mind) and logos, study. Thus, psychology is the specific sub-branch of philosophy that
studies the soul or mind. Broadly construed, though, psychology is the study of the nature and dynamics
of the human person as a whole, with emphasis on the way the person’s mind functions and the way she
behaves (Artigas, 1990).

Some of the questions in psychology are:

 What is the nature of the human person?

 Is there such thing as human nature?
 What is the meaning and purpose, if any, of life?
 Is there life after death?
 How do we account for the existence of sufferings in the world?

Theodicy (Natural theology) is derived from the Greek word theos, which means God. The word
theodicy was coined by the famous 18th century German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in his
1710 work titled Théodicée. Broadly construed, theodicy is the study of God. But specifically, theodicy is
concerned with the justification of the goodness of God in the face of the existence of evil in the world
(Artigas, 1990).

Some of the questions in theodicy are:

 Is there God?
 What and who is God, if He exists at all?
 How do we prove the existence of God?
 If God exists, how do we justify the existence of evil and suffering in the world?
 Does a belief in God really necessary?

The second major branch of philosophy is Epistemology.

Epistemology comes from the two Greek words episteme, which means knowledge, and logos
which means study (Meer, Hualda, & & Bamba, 2004). It is formally defined as the study of the nature and
scope of knowledge and justified belief. Specifically, it analyzes the nature of knowledge and how it
relates to similar notions, such as truth, belief, and justification.

Some of the basic questions in epistemology are:

 What is knowledge?
 What do we know?
 How is knowledge acquired?
 What is the structures and limits of knowledge?
 What makes justified beliefs justified?

The third major branch of philosophy is Logic. Logic comes from the Greek word logos – meaning “word”
or “discourse”. Logos has different meanings. It is defined as the science of correct thinking or the study
of the principles and criteria of a valid argument. More specifically, logic attempts to distinguish sound or
good reasoning from unsound or bad reasoning (Villasoto, Dollantas, & Limqueco, 2013).

Some of the basic questions in logic are:

 What is correct reasoning?

 What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?
 How can we detect a fallacy in an argument?
 What are the criteria for determining the validity of an argument?
 What are the types of logic?

Now, on the fourth major branch of philosophy is Ethics.

The study and practice of philosophy is valuable for many reasons, not least because it helps to
foster independent thinking. And being an independent thinker seems especially valuable when it comes
to dealing with ethical questions, such as: How should I live my life? What kind of person should I be?
(Brady, 2015) When man began to wonder about the right thing to do, another exciting field of philosophy
came to life. Philosophers called it ethics.
The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which originally means custom or
character, a characteristic or habitual way of doing things or action that is properly derived from one’s
character (Pasco, 2018). Ethics, in ancient Greece, was concerned with the development of a virtuous
and moral character. The Greeks believed that developing character would lead one not only to knowing
the right thing to do, but to actually doing the right thing or living the right way of life (Articulo, 2003).
Broadly construed, ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the rightness or wrongness of a human
action. In particular, this branch of philosophy is concerned with questions of how human persons ought
to act, and the search for a definition of a right conduct and the good life. It is for this reason that the
attempt to seek the “good” through the aid of reason is the traditional goal of ethicists (Albert, Denise &
Peterfreund 1984, p. 1-2).
It must be noted, however, that there is no single, absolute definition of ethics. This is because
ethics as a discipline is constantly evolving as a result of a change in socio-cultural and political context.
For example, in the Greek tradition, ethics was conceived as relating to the concept of the “good life”.
Thus, the ethical inquiry during this time was directed toward discovering the nature of happiness. In fact,
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics does not only present a theory of happiness but also provides ways in
which happiness is attained. Now, centuries later, a quite different orientation was introduced by the
Judeo-Christian tradition. In this ethical tradition, the ideals of righteousness before God and the love of
God and neighbor, not the happy or pleasant life, constitute the substance of ethics (Adamson, 2014).
Indeed, if we make an effort to reconcile these views, we are faced with the difficult task of defining the
relationship between “doing what is right” and “being happy”. Again, it is for this reason that we cannot
have an absolute definition of ethics. The least that we can do, in my opinion, is to describe the nature
and dynamics of ethics based on a specific time and context. Indeed, we could say simply that ethics is a
study of methods and principles used to distinguished good from bad, right from wrongs actions.

It is also important to note that ethics is not the same with morality, although many philosophers
believe that the two terms can be used interchangeably. This is because the former denotes the theory of
right action and the greater good, while the latter indicates practice, that is, the rightness or wrongness of
a human action. In other words, ethics undertakes the systematic study (that is, questioning and critical
examination) of the underlying principles of morality. Hence, it is interested primarily in the illustration of a
more general problem and the examination of underlying assumptions and the critical evaluation of moral
principles.
Morality, on the other hand, is more prescriptive in nature. It tells us what we ought to do and
exhorts us to follow the right way. According to Terrance McConnell (1994), “morality is characterized as
an ‘end-governed rational enterprise’ whose object is to equip people with a body of norms (rules and
values) that make for peaceful and collectively satisfying coexistence by facilitating their living together
and interacting in a way that is productive for the realization of the general benefit”. For example, a
religious leader may ask her followers to be good at all times. In this way, a moralist may want to keep
alive the values she considers to be worthwhile and to improve the moral quality of the community where
she belongs. Hence, morality, at the very least, aims to guide one’s action by reason and gives equal
weight to the interests of each individual affected by one’s decision. Indeed, this gives us a picture of what
it really means to be a morally upright person.
Based on the brief discussion above, we may conclude that ethics is the science of morals, while
morality is the practice of ethics.

Types of Ethics
During the mid-20th century, according to Sumner (1967), a “certain theory in the methodology of
ethics has gradually become more and more widely accepted, at least by British and American moral
philosophers”. According to this position, there are two ways of doing ethical inquiry, namely, normative
ethics and metaethics.
On the one hand, normative ethics is prescriptive in nature as it seeks to set norms or standards
that regulate right and wrong or good and bad conduct. This may involve articulating the good habits that
we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.
Hence, normative ethics normally attempts to develop guidelines or theories that tell us how we ought to
behave. For example, Immanuel Kant’s claim that an act is morally right if it is done for the sake of duty is
an example of a normative ethics.
Metaethics, on the other hand, is descriptive in nature. According to Sumner (1967), “metaethics
is allegedly constituted, at least in part, by questions of the meanings of the various ethical terms and
functions of ethical utterances.” Hence, if a normative ethical inquiry is evaluative and prescriptive,
metaethics is analytical and descriptive. Put simply, metaethics is a type of ethical inquiry that aims to
understand the nature and dynamics of ethical principles. It asks questions about the nature and origin of
moral facts, as well as the way in which we learn and acquire moral beliefs. Thus, for example, if
normative ethics urges us to do good at all times, metaethics asks the question “What is good?”. For sure,
if a moral philosopher attempts to address the questions “What is good?”, “What is justice?”, “Why should
I be moral?”, then that moral philosopher is doing metaethics. Hence, when Plato proposed an answer to
the question “Why should I be moral”, Plato was doing metaethics―indeed, Plato raised a metaethical
question.
 In the course of the development of ethics, applied ethics became its third major type. As its
name suggests, applied ethics is the actual application of ethical or moral theories for the purpose of
deciding which ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given situation. For this reason, casuists (that
is, the adherents of applied ethics) are concerned with individual moral problems, such as abortion or
euthanasia, and attempt to resolve the conflicting issues that surround these particular moral problems.
Casuists may also act on some occasions in an advisory capacity, such as guiding individuals in their
choice of actions. For example, they may attempt to resolve the conflicting duties of a mother suffering
from ectopic pregnancy who has no other option than to abort the fetus.
Applied ethics is usually divided into different fields. For example, we may talk about business
ethics, which deals with ethical behavior in the corporate world; biomedical and environmental ethics,
which deal with issues relating to health, welfare, and the responsibility we have towards people and our
environment; and social ethics, which deals with the principles and guidelines that regulate corporate
welfare within societies.
Finally, the difference between the three major types of ethics can be illustrated in the following
situation: A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to blow up a crowded shopping mall. The act of
the police officer is morally wrong according to metaethics because it is always wrong to kill. As is well
known, killing in itself is intrinsically wrong. However, if the police officer does not shoot the terrorist, many
innocent people will die or get injured. Though the police officer’s act may be wrong, the adherents
of normative ethics may say that it is the right thing to do in this particular situation because not doing so
will result in the death of so many people. Hence, the action might be morally correct. Finally, the applied
ethics may say that the police officer is just doing his best to fulfill his duty, that is, to protect as many
innocent lives as possible.

Conclusion:

The discussion presents the nature of philosophy, as a whole, and its branches. Thus philosophy
leads the learners to develop their critical skills since the course guides them to see themselves and their
fellow’s beings as persons.

“Doing what is right” and “avoiding evil deeds” is absolute what ethics wanted to say to us.
Indeed, we could say simply that ethics is a study of methods and principles used to distinguished good
from bad, right from wrongs actions. This gives us a picture of what it really means to be a morally upright
person. We may conclude also that ethics is the science of morals, while morality is the practice of ethics.