WOMEN IN POLITICS

SEMINAR REPORT: SOC-126

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIALWORK

THE IIS (DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)
JAIPUR, RAJASTHAN

SUBMITTED TO

MS.ARTI SHARMA
Associate Professor and Head

SUBMITTED BY

APARNA VERMA
MA-SEMESTER 1

ENROLLMENT NO-36366
INDEX

Chapter 1- INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2- SCIO-POLITICALCHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN

CHAPTER 3- POLITICALSOCIALIZATION AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN

CHAPETER 4- RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

CHAPTER 5- CONCLUSION

REFERENCES-
 CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION

Woman is the companion of man, gifted with equal mental capacities. She has the right
to participate in the minutest details in the activities of man, and she has an equal right
of freedom and liberty with him. -Mahatma Gandhi

Politics involves representation, policy, power and position with Government as its
area. Political participation refers to the participation of individuals in the political
process. It ensures that individuals are able to take part in deciding the common goals of
the society and the best ways of achieving it. Political participation means not merely
exercising the right to vote, but also power sharing, decision making, policy making at
all levels of governance of the State. Political participation refers to actual participation
in these voluntary activities by which the members of the society share in selection of
rules and formulation of public policy directly or indirectly.

The participation of women and their involvement in electoral process is an important

marker of the maturity of democracy in any country. It can be defined as equality and
freedom with which women share political power with men. Despite various provisions
in the constitution, women in the Indian subcontinent continue to be under-represented
in the legislatures, both at the national and the state levels. The number of female
representatives in legislative bodies in the Centre and in most of the states of India is
below 20%, reflecting a pan Indian gender exclusion from electoral participation and
quality representation. The Indian female participants in the electoral politics are
mainly less because of political party competition, as national political parties and the
regional political parties in the states discriminate not only in terms of seat allotments,
but also in the party rank and file and chain of command. This is a major contributor to
the party competition structure in the Indian politics that is ruled by inherent male
dominance and a patriarchal mind-set that excludes women from the electoral process.

At the same time, even though India is considered to be a country which follows
equality, the lawmakers or the people in the politics are to a certain extent influenced by
the old-time rules and customs of male dominance and patriarchy especially when it
comes to matters of making laws for the society and governing the people. This poses a
problem when it comes to devising efficient solutions and also creates a dilemma as to
what is more important; preserving something that has been practiced for long or
making a change and trying methods which shall bring equality in the society. This can
be addressed by going back to the origin.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Men and women are like two wheels of carriage. The life of one without the other is incomplete.
Neither man nor women can be true toward they are if either of them leads an isolated life.men
and women both contribute to the development of each other’s personality. Our ancient
scripture assigned women a place higher than a man.it was believed that why men represented
the distructive aspects of nature, women represented the constructive one and that blessed is the
home where women are given due respects.

The status of women in historic India has been a complex and evolving phenomenon, with
variations across regions and time periods. Here's a general overview:

1. Ancient India: In some ancient Indian societies, women had relatively high status. They could
inherit property, participate in religious and cultural activities, and wield influence. Examples
include the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, which feature strong female characters.

2. Vedic Period: Women in the Vedic era had significant roles in rituals and religious practices.
Some Vedic hymns were composed by women.

3. Mauryan and Gupta Empires: The status of women may have declined during these periods.
Practices like child marriage and the seclusion of women began to emerge.

4. Medieval India: The status of women further deteriorated during the medieval period, with the
practice of purdah (seclusion), sati (widow immolation), and limited education opportunities.
However, there were exceptions, like Razia Sultana, who became the Sultan of Delhi in the 13th
century.

5. British Colonial Rule: The colonial period saw efforts to reform some practices, such as the
abolition of sati and widow remarriage. However, it also introduced new challenges, including
restrictions on women's participation in politics.
.
6. Independence and Post-Independence: After India gained independence in 1947, there were
significant efforts to promote gender equality. Legal changes, including the Hindu Succession
Act (1956) and the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), aimed to improve women's rights.

7. Contemporary India: Progress has been made in various areas, with more women participating
in education, the workforce, and politics. India has seen women serve in prominent political
roles, like Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President Pratibha Patil. The status of women in
India continues to be a subject of social and political debate and reform efforts
POLITICISATION OF THE DOMESTIC SPHERE DURING INDEPENDENCE

while the contribution of men (in public sphere) were recorded and celebrated, there is no such
mention of the women in the households, who stood as pillars of support for their husband's
throughout the national movement. In the decades after independence, newspaper and
vernacular literature published the reminiscences of women's domestic nationalist activities.
There articles referred to ordinary middle class women, whose nationalist contributions primarily
in the domestic sphere, have been inadequately acknowledged in Indian nationalist
historiography.
Several questions arise: why were ordinary middle class women's contribution, not included in
the 'memory ‘of the nation?
Is it because, within the specific social and political context, it was public domain? What was the
nature of nationalist activities of ordinary middle-class women with in the domestic sphere in the
Hindu speaking belt of India? How did women who were mainly confined to the domestic
sphere understood activate their own contribution to the political movement?
It would be difficult to demonstrate the validity of these Questions without exploring some of
the influential scholarship that has highlighted the centrality of the domestic sphere/inner
spritual domain to the nationalist project, and the ways in which domesticity and domestic order
came to 'service' the nation. Though some of these debates have been articulated in the context
of colonial Bengal Hindu class (the respectable middle class of Bengal), They are honestless
important in trying to understand the ways in which nationalist debates were not only politically
and historically contingent but arose out of the specific needs of anti-colonial nationalism in
India.
Parth Chattriee (1989, 1993,1996, 1996: P, 217) argues that anti-colonial nationalism creates its
"own domain of sovereianty with in colonial society well before it begins its political battle with
the imperial power. The world of social institutions was divided into two distinct domains - the
material and the spiritual. The spiritual domain represented by home and family was the
'sovereign territory where to colonial intrusion would be allowed. Though the state was in the
hands of the colonial power in the material sphere, it was sovereign in its spiritual domain.
Chatterjee argues that it was this period that was already the period of nationalism' (Madan
2003). The new women' was embodiment of the nationalist culture, the upholder of nationalist
traditions within the spiritual domain, the domain of the family, the home. The new women was
to be 'Modern' but not western'. Her primary duty was to was to preserve the culture of her
nation by upholding the tradition and values that constituted that culture. (Chatterjee 1989:243)
There were five main ways in which women participated in nationalist actives and demonstrated
the political significance of the domestic sphere. These were: (1) constructive programmes like
spinning Khadi, (ii) Familial Sacrifice, (ili) being supportive wives and mothers, and nurtures, to
activists, (iv) being pillars of support and strength and (v) conducting secret activities.
Gandhi expected women to contribute to the political cause primarily from within the domestic
sphere through their roles as supportive wives and mothers. The concept of 'Swadeshi
(indigenous) was aligned with the political liberation of the country (Brown 1989), P, 89
After Salt, he used another ordinary household item, the charkha or spinning wheel, to ignite the
imagination of the masses, and politicized and popularized this domestic object at both the
national and local levels. It was possible for women to contribute to the nationalist movement
from within the domestic sphere since Gandhi had articulated that 'every act counted (Forbes
1998, 9,125). The charkha was the 'symbol' of the unity of the people and their respect and
dignity as a nation' (Agnew, 1979, P.37). The role of women was significant in this constructive
programme because they were significant in this constructive programme because they were
expected to be responsible for spreading both the message of 'swadeshi' and emphasizing its
importance in India's struggle for independence on the spinning khadi charkha was a powerful
nationalist statement which showed that not only could domestic values be associated with
nationalist activities in the public sphere such as in the picketing of foreign cloth shops, but also
that nationalist activities could be taken into, and performed with in the domestic sphere men
and women wore khadi in the public domain as a mark of national pride.
Gandhi ji belief in self-rule and self-reliance (Swavalamph) was not rugged individualism but
rather individual responsibility in the context of the community (Jain 1986, P.267). Self-reliance
for Gandhi did not mean liberation from British colonial rule but also internal liberation from
the dominant classes and capitalists. This could be achieved though spinning khadi and
production for self-consumption, if on a small scale self-reliance also minimized one's material
wants and disciplined one's mind and body, 'Preparing in every way for the hardship and
potential deprivation of a non-violent struggle. Swaraj (home rule) Swadeshi (the use of self-
made goods) and Swavalambh (Self-reliance) were linked together in Gandhi's opinion. Self-
made goods become Gandhi's Platform, linking political with individual freedom (Jain, 1986, P,
267-269). Besides he argued that colonial rule would be contested from both the political and
economic platform (Guha 1997).
By spinning, weaving and selling khadi, women could help in their own liberation by gaining a
modicum of economic independent. The self-sufficiency achieved thorough producing swadeshi
cloth also helped the struggle for national liberation women could bring Swaraj to the household.
The domestic based qualities of sacrifice, the good nurturer, strength of will and fortitude were
linked by the key concept of
'Service' (Seva) to the nation' and widely referred to in the Hindi literature. Vidyawati Sahgel
wrote about how, 'in thus short time this movement despite repression has created an
extraordinary awareness and given new life to the women of India' (Sehgal, 1930, P 4). She
emphasized that in a few months this movement has liberated women from centuries of
subordinate drawing on a quote from the 'Indian Mahlia Sangh' Magazine stree Dharm she states
that, 'The weapons of the movement like truth, patience, sacrifice, purity of soul are only of
women and it is thus no surprise that women are taking the main part in the movement. The
activity that but encapsulated the weapons of the movement', particularly sacrifice, was fasting, a
practice that is still popular in contemporary India for self purification as well as for the genera
prosperity of one's family. Even Gandhi advocated fasting for both men and women to enable
them to have greater control over this bodies and the senses that generated pleasure.
In their own homes women fasted and conducted nationalist religious prayers. It was an activity
associated with the Hindu religious belief of purification of the body, mind and soul and closely
associated with the Hindu concept of Dharma. Through fasting women were also completing
their essential religious.
duties (Dharma). To abruptly eat fasting, especially when it was so closely aligned with
nationalist duty, was viewed as breach of
'Dharma'.
women's fasting for the well being of their husband's, sons and brother's who were serving jail
sentences was extended to the idea of fasting for the nation, closely aligning the domestic sohere
with nationalist politics. Surendranath Pandey along with his associated Bhagat Singh and
chandraShekar Azad, was accused in the Lahore conspiracy case and was imprisoned in the
Lahore Borstal Prison. During his time of imprisonment his wife fasted,' and the day she died,
call the accused in the prison wore black bands and did not eat for the whole day'. The wife, in
purdah, fasted within the confines of the domestic domain as a way to indentify with the
suffering of their husbands in prison and also the nationalist movement.
Women also conceptualized their roles as wives in accordance with political demands. For a
women to stoically bear a long separation from her husband, and to face the mental and physical
trauma of his imprisonment and disappearance for weeks on end was to undertake another form
of sacrifice which showed strength of will, stead fastness of purpose and fortitude in the face of
adversity. In the imprisonment of a family member in jail, other members of the family within
the domestic sphere were also affected.
 POLITICAL EMPOWENMENT OF WOMEN

Political Empowerment refers to the editable representation of women in decision-making

structures both formal and informal, and their voice in the formulation of policies effecting their
societies. The inter-parliamentary Union reports a world average of only 15.6% in combined
houses of parliament.
The statistic by region offer few surprises, ranging from 6.3% in the Arab states to 18.6% in the
Americans, and 39.7% in the Nordic States. While women are poorly represented in the lower
levels of government, they are rarer still in the upper echelous of decision- making.
The absence of women from structures of governance inevitably means that national, regional
and local priorities-i.e. how resources are allocated are typically defined without meaningful input
from women, whose life experience gives them a different awareness of the communities needs,
concerns and interests from them of men. For example, a study in three widely differing
countries (Bolvia, Cameroon and Malaysia) showed that were women to have a greater say in
spending priorities, they would before more likely to spend family and community resources for
improving health, education, community infrastructure and the eradication of poverty, as
opposed to the military, alcohol or gambling.
Indeed, the demand for changed priorities is heard from virtually all women's organization, from
the most advanced and politically savvy in developed countries, to fledging women's NGO's in
the developing world.
However, in order for spending and development priorities to change, there must be at least a
critical mass of women represented who are learning the rules using the rules and changing the
rules of the decision making "games, and thus having an impact on discourse and decision at all
levels, from the family to the nation, to the international community.
Here, we have measured the dimension of political empowerment by using data on the number
of female ministers, seats in parliament held by women, women holding senior, legislative and
managerial positions and the number at years a female has been head of state (President or Prime
Minister) in each of the 58 countries.
 THEORITICAL PERSPECTIVE

Several theorists and activists have promoted the importance of political representation
for women in Indian politics. Some notable figures include:

1. MAX Webber: Max Weber, a prominent German sociologist, is known for his contributions
to the study of sociology and political science. While his work primarily focused on sociological
and political theory, he didn't extensively address the role of women in politics in the same way
that some later feminist scholars did. However, some of Weber's ideas can be relevant to
understanding women in politics.
-Bureaucracy: Weber's theory of bureaucracy is often applied to political organizations. His
emphasis on the importance of a rational-legal authority structure can indirectly relate to women
in politics by highlighting the need for fair and transparent political systems that allow all
individuals, regardless of gender, to participate.

-Rationalization: Weber discussed the process of rationalization in modern society. This

process, while not explicitly about gender, can be applied to understanding how women have
sought to challenge traditional roles and gain access to political power through rational and
calculated means.

-Charismatic Authority: Weber's concept of charismatic authority, which is an authority based

on the charisma of a leader, can be seen in the context of women leaders who have broken
through traditional gender roles to make a significant impact in politics.

While Weber's work provides a framework for analysing political structures and authority, his
direct views on women in politics are not as extensively documented as those of some other
scholars. His theories can, however, be used to analyse the dynamics of gender and politics
within a broader sociological and political context.
2. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: As one of the architects of the Indian Constitution, Dr. Ambedkar
advocated for the inclusion of women's rights and representation. He played a pivotal role.
- Equality: Ambedkar was a staunch advocate of gender equality. He believed that women
should have the same political rights and opportunities as men. He argued for equal voting rights
for women and men.

- Reservations: Ambedkar played a pivotal role in introducing reservations for women in the
Panchayati Raj institutions (local self-governance) in the Indian Constitution. He saw this as a
way to empower women and ensure their participation in grassroots politics.

- Political Representation: Ambedkar recognized the importance of women's representation in

political bodies. He believed that women's perspectives and experiences were crucial in shaping
public policies and decisions.

-Social Reform: Beyond political rights, Ambedkar emphasized the need for social and cultural
reforms to improve the status of women. He advocated for the abolition of practices like child
marriage and the caste system, which disproportionately affected women.

-Education: Ambedkar stressed the significance of women's education as a means to empower

them politically and socially. He believed that an educated woman could play a more active role
in politics and society.le in ensuring reservations for women in local governance.

Ambedkar's views on women in politics were closely aligned with his broader vision of social
justice and equality. His efforts to promote women's political participation and rights have had a
lasting impact on India's political landscape and continue to influence policies related to women's
representation in governance.
3. RAJNI KOTHARI: Rajni Kothari was an influential Indian political scientist and scholar
known for his contributions to the field of political science in India. While his work primarily
focused on Indian politics, democracy, and political theory, he did not have a specific body of
work dedicated to the topic of women in politics. However, like many scholars of his time, he
was aware of the importance of gender issues in politics and advocated for gender equality and
women's participation in political processes.
Kothari's views on women in politics can be inferred from his broader perspective on
democracy, social justice, and inclusivity in the Indian political context. He likely believed in the
importance of women's political empowerment and representation as a means of achieving a
more inclusive and just democratic system in India. His work often emphasized the need for a
more participatory and equitable political process, which would naturally include the active
involvement of women.

While Rajni Kothari's specific writings on women in politics may not be as well-documented, his
general commitment to the principles of democracy, social justice, and political inclusion would
suggest a favourable view of women's participation in the political sphere. His ideas would align
with the broader goals of promoting gender equality and women's rights in Indian politics.
 CHAPTER 2
SOCIO-POLITICAL CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN

1. UNDERREPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN POLITICS

History, society, and the patriarchy have shaped female roles for centuries. The constant fight for
women’s rights and suffrage in 1920 has granted women the right to participate in elections,
however, unfortunately, it has not changed much in today’s climate. In the contemporary world,
society still lacks the representation of women in politics and leadership positions. Before diving
into the topic, readers should take into consideration that there are two main distinctions that
characterize this problem. According to political scientist Christopher Berry, there is so-called
“voter bias” – society’s distrust towards female politicians, and “election aversion”- women’s
lack of desire or underestimation of their qualifications (Cahn, 2020). To identify the starting
point of these reasons, the reader should understand the historical purview of this pertinent issue
as it has shaped the present vis a vis internalized misogyny, widespread prejudices about women
as leaders, and ruined the female politicians’ ambitions.

“Men make better political leaders than women ” (Setzler, 2019) is a common misconception
society comes across in discourse on women in politics. This idea emerges from a profoundly
ingrained mentality and from stereotypes that affect society’s consciousness and deter women
from entering and participating in politics. In a survey conducted in 2018, many participants
inadvertently demonstrated their bias towards female political leaders without understanding
society’s impact on their perception. (Setzler, 2019). This phenomena is studied through the
disciplines of feminist epistemology and the philosophy of science. Feminist epistemologists
observe how the sex of a person determines our understanding of knowledge and other people’s
attitude towards women. They argue that “women’s interests are gendered” (Anderson, 2020),
and that females’ cognitive and decision-making abilities are assessed based on their gender.
According to them, this invisible barrier arises from women’s constrained role in society. History
put men in leading positions for most of the traditional systems. This phenomenon is rooted by
society’s belief that patriarchal order is the natural state of human society. As Lerner notes, “As a
system, patriarchy is as outdated as feudalism; but it is a 4000-year-old system of ideas that won’t
just go away overnight”(Lerner,1986, as cited in Collins, 1986) – even though it is not. The
standpoint of men deprived women’s participation in political activities because it was labelled as
a cultural abnormality since women were assigned the duties of the caretakers and educators in
the family. From the onset, these kinds of specific roles did not leave enough room for women
to practice their passions and prove themselves as valid leaders in society.

Apart from deep-seated stereotypes, believing in the ineffective leadership of women emerges
from the fact that “women lack the economic base which would enhance their political
participation” (Karuru, 2001). Economic underdevelopment is also linked to the historical
patriarchal nature of society, where women were excluded from economic decision-making and
did not have equal access to resources. Research conducted at the national scale illustrates the
micro-view of gender inequality in male-headed households. In 17 countries most of the male-
headed households have more advantages economic-wise than their female companions (Fisher

& Naidoo, 2016). In addition, the general problem of persisting a huge gender wage gap in most
countries (UN Women, 2018) demotivates women to strive towards male-dominated
workplaces, especially, towards political positions. From the statistical nature and studies of
wealth inequality, we can conclude how big of an impact the economy has on empowering
women in politics as far as it is centralized around the idea that women should participate equally
in existing markets, have access to a noble workplace, and should not be paid differently because
of their sex (WFUNA, n.d.).

Conservative ideas hinder the demand and supply of females in politics. Consequently, society’s
thoughts and ideas have shaped and lowered a female’s confidence to be politically active.
Deeply engraved mentality does not only affect the outside world’s perception. It also alters
one’s mind and makes women believe that they are “not worthy” of politics and not qualified
enough to be leaders. The double standards imposed on women lower their self-assessment skills
and create the “confidence gap”. “Disruptions in Women’s Self-Promotion: The Backlash
Avoidance Model” article suggests that when women strive for objective self-promotion the
society perceives them as vain and dominant. This backlash effect states that only atypical
women are competent and daring to compete against men for leadership positions. This
approach creates two barriers for women (Moss-Racusin & Rudman, 2010). Firstly, it disregards
a woman’s ability and judges their ambitions based on their personality. Secondly, it manifests
pessimistic internal efficacy and cultivates lower engagement of women in politics (Kay&
Shipman, 2014).

Although nations adopted a democratic ideology, women have still not been conferred equal
status under the greatest guardian of egalitarianism – democracy. Presently, women still lack a
political role in our democratic institutions. The problem and causation of this issue are clear,
unfortunately, what makes this issue quizzical is that there is no clear solution about how to alter
the situation. Even though approaches towards this issue are controversial, the result and
importance of this move are obvious and crucial. Most of the studies urge society to strengthen
women’s political participation and decision-making power. Taking this step forward will lead to
the achievement of gender equality and democratic governance (UN Women, n.d.). Once again
feminist epistemologists state that as women face adversity in a male-dominated world, they have
different understandings of situations. Standpoint theory suggests that as females know what it is
like to be oppressed, this vulnerability makes their vision more objective and allows them to
reflect insightfully on critical issues – “the perspectives of subordinated social groups have an
epistemic advantage regarding politically contested topics related to their subordination, relative
to the perspectives of the groups that dominate them”(Anderson, 2020). Based on this theory,
epistemologists argue that having more women in politics is a collective goal since it will also
support the needs and interests of other minorities (Wood, 2005).

Demarginalizing women in the political sphere can be achieved by several steps:

Governments and society should address the problems that deter women from entering the
world of politics and ensure gender equality by monitoring laws and challenging male-centric
cultures.
Increasing women’s access to political institutions and establishing support for women who have
already entered the realm of politics will help to manifest an inclusivity factor.
Various solutions have already been taken into consideration by organizations that promote
fundamental human rights. One of the most active unions that combat against discrimination in
the European Union (Galligan, n.d). The EU has pursued the promotion of balanced
participation in politics since the 1990s. European Parliament and the Member States actively
fight against sexual harassment in political life and put an effort to have a presence of females in
important positions. The EU encourages governments and international organizations to involve
women in active political life and even welcomed the gender quotas in some of the Member
States. Gender equality is an essential human right that is the principal value of the EU, and it is
clearly stated in article 8: “In all its activities, the Union shall aim to eliminate inequalities, and to
promote equality, between men and women” (European Commission, 2020). Moreover, the
European Commission has set out the Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025, which includes how
the EU will support women’s empowerment in politics, business, and society, as a whole
(European Commission, 2020).

Tackling women’s underrepresentation in politics is a challenging process, which requires effort

from everyone. Even though progress has been made over the decades, and women are present
in parliament; still the political sphere “remains quite socially homogeneous” (Gjermeni, 2021).
In enhancing the participation of women in political decision-making society must to overcome
the obstacles of discrimination, work to educate people on gender bias, and support women
mentally and economically as changes occur. This journey should not only be a burden on
women; it is the government’s and society’s responsibility to take on a different perspective and
begin the transformation of “malestream” politics. Spreading awareness on gender-sensitive
solutions is the starting point to improve gender balance and equality. As a democratic and
evolving society, people must aim for unbiased political parties, wherein women are encouraged
to actively participate in politics and pursue a seat at the table to finally be a part of the decision-
making process.
2. WOMEN'S RESERVATION BILL: THE ISSUES TO CONSIDER

The 73rd and 74th Amendments passed in 1993, which introduced panchayats and municipalities
in the Constitution, reserve one-third of seats for women in these bodies. The Constitution also
provides for reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies for Scheduled
Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in proportion to their number in the population. The
Constitution does not provide for reservation of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and state
legislative assemblies. Some members of the Constituent Assembly had opposed reserving seats
for women in legislatures.

15% of the total members of the 17th Lok Sabha are women while in state legislative assemblies,
women on average constitute 9% of the total members. In 2015, the Report on the Status of
Women in India noted that the representation of women in state assemblies and Parliament
continues to be dismal. It noted that decision making positions in political parties have negligible
presence of women. It recommended reserving at least 50% seats for women in local bodies,
state legislative assemblies, Parliament, ministerial levels, and all decision-making bodies of the
government.6 The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001) had stated that
reservation will be considered in higher legislative bodies.7

Bills amending the Constitution to reserve seats for women in Parliament and state legislative
assemblies have been introduced in 1996, 1998, 1999, and 2008. The first three Bills lapsed with
dissolution of their respective Lok Sabhas. The 2008 Bill was introduced in and passed by Rajya
Sabha but it also lapsed with the dissolution of the 14th Lok Sabha. The 1996 Bill had been
examined by a Joint Committee of Parliament, while the 2008 Bill was examined by the Standing
Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and Justice. Both Committees agreed with the
proposal to reserve seats for women. Some of the recommendations given by the Committees
include: (i) considering reservation for women belonging to other backward classes at an
appropriate time, (ii) providing reservation for a period of 15 years and reviewing it thereafter,
and (iii) working out the modalities to reserve seats for women in Rajya Sabha and state
legislative councils.

The Constitution (One Hundred and Twenty-Eighth Amendment) Bill, 2023 was introduced in
Lok Sabha on September 19, 2023. The Bill seeks to reserve one-third of the total number of
seats in Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies for women.

Key features of the Bill

▪ Reservation for women: The Bill reserves, as nearly as may be, one-third of all seats for women
in Lok Sabha, state legislative assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital
Territory of Delhi. This will also apply to the seats reserved for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha and
states legislatures.
▪ Commencement of reservation: The reservation will be effective after the census conducted
after the commencement of this Bill has been published. Based on the census, delimitation will
be undertaken to reserve seats for women. The reservation will be provided for a period of 15
years. However, it shall continue till such date as determined by a law made by Parliament.

▪ Rotation of seats: Seats reserved for women will be rotated after each delimitation, as
determined by a law made by Parliament.

Issues to consider

The issue of reservation of seats for women in legislatures can be examined from three
perspectives: (i) whether the policy of reservation for women can act as an effective instrument
for their empowerment, (ii) whether alternate methods of increasing representation of women in
legislatures are feasible, and (iii) whether there are any issues with the proposed method for
reservation in the Bill. The analysis in this section is largely based on our earlier Brief published
on the 2008 Bill.
Purpose of reservation
If a group is not represented proportionately in the political system, its ability to influence policy
making is limited. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women provides that discrimination against women must be eliminated in political and public
life. While India is a signatory to the Convention, discrimination in matters of representation of
women in decision-making bodies has continued. The number of women MPs has increased
from 5% in the first Lok Sabha to 15% in the 17th Lok Sabha; but the number continues to be
quite low. A 2003 study about the effect of reservation for women in panchayats showed that
women elected under the reservation policy invest more in the public goods closely linked to
women’s concerns. The Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and Justice
(2009) had noted that reservation of seats for women in local bodies has enabled them to make
meaningful contributions. It also noted that concerns regarding women being proxies to men in
local bodies have turned out to be baseless. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (2022) has noted that
legislated quotas have been a decisive factor in women’s representation.

Opponents of the reservation policy argue that separate constituencies for women would not
only narrow their outlook but lead to perpetuation of unequal status because they would be seen
as not competing on merit. For instance, in the Constituent Assembly, Renuka Ray argued
against reserving seats for women: “When there is reservation of seats for women, the question
of their consideration for general seats, however competent they may be, does not usually arise.
We feel that women will get more chances if the consideration is of ability alone.” Opponents
also argue that reservation would not lead to political empowerment of women because larger
issues of electoral reforms such as measures to check criminalisation of politics, internal
democracy in political parties, and influence of black money have not been addressed
3. THE PATRIARCHAL BARRIER TO WOMEN IN POLITICS

The lack of representation for women in politics is an evident truth all over the world. It is only a
variation of degree in which this fact changes all across the world. So some countries may have
relatively more women involved in politics as opposed to some other countries, but the basic
fact that women are underrepresented in politics, remains unchanged. So even if a state is
democratic, this only helps to a certain extent. The situation is probably better than in countries
which are autocratic and undemocratic, where women may not get much access to political
franchise at all, as either voters or candidates.
The problems facing women in politics have common roots with the problems that prevent the
emancipation of women in any other sphere. So female politicians, businesswomen, executives,
scientists, or any other positions that involve certain power, will always come with common
forces opposing growth in their fields. At the end, it can all be traced back to the patriarchal
values imbibed within society that deem women to be incapable of handling power and
responsibility. Patriarchal values reinforced in societies will continuously refuse to believe that a
woman can take charge of affairs and is capable of making decisions that are binding to
everyone.
So how do patriarchal societies portray women?
Women are portrayed as weak and incapable of making smart decisions. They have been
depicted across generations to be only capable of trivial matters, constantly engaged in gossip
and hearsay, utterly incompetent and less intelligent. This was projected and reinforced through
the years through male-dominated institutions and patriarchal societies which internalized the
idea that the woman was inferior. With the constant reinforcement of the notion that women are
inferior in every aspect, it became hard for women to pursue their political rights as an active
participant.
For a woman to enter politics, such patriarchal attitudes make it even harder. The truth is that
such attitudes are not a thing of the past. Such attitudes towards women still exist in societies all
over the world today – in both developed and developing countries.

So why is it harder for women to engage in politics as an active participant?

Firstly, the woman needs to secure support from her constituency as a politician. Even in non-
democratic societies, in order for a woman to pursue a career in politics, she has to secure the
support of community leaders. If the immediate connotations of being a woman are
indecisiveness, incompetentness and inferior intelligence, then how is she going to secure votes
or support? When judging the personality of a candidate, stereotypes cloud the judgment of
voters and this is apparent in their political culture as well as their voting trends. So most voters,
under the influence of patriarchal stereotypes and generalizations, assume that a woman is not
capable of making big decisions which concern the lives of others, that she is not capable of
understanding and conducting policy and is not strong enough to accomplish much.
Women in politics are also subject to more stringent scrutiny of their personal lives unlike their
male counterparts. If a woman is unmarried and has an active sex life, society deems her
promiscuous and that promiscuity becomes her identity and repels her voters. And if the same
woman is married, then the voters are concerned about how she would manage both work and
family at the same time. These trivial details of her personal life then define her in politics rather
than her stand on various issues which really matter.
Without being able to secure a constituency, the woman is unable to capitalize on her capabilities
because she is not given a chance to prove herself as a politician. So this in effect, creates a
vicious cycle where a woman cannot project her capabilities because she has no support and she
has no support because she cannot project her capabilities.
As opposed to what may be commonly believed, women have a hard time not only convincing
male voters to vote for them, but also in rallying the support of female voters. Women don't
have a guaranteed vote bank through other women. Women have to lobby as hard – and even
harder sometimes - to garner female votes. This is again, because patriarchy has reinforced a
sense of inferiority within women, who have internalized it over the years.It is much easier to be
a male in politics to influence women’s vote, because if a male candidate were to project himself
as pro-women, he will secure support from female voters.
However, female politicians are expected to be more than just pro-women to secure the female
vote. For a male politician, being pro-women is a bonus or a privilege, while for a female
politician, this is taken for granted. So a combination of factors namely, the vestiges of
patriarchal attitudes in society towards women, women being subjected to different standards
and the refusal to take women seriously fosters the general lack of participation of women as
career politicians all over the world.
Trends however, are changing. With increased awareness around the world about women's rights
and the attack on patriarchal attitudes all over the world, we may one day see women being
subject to the same standards as men are in politics. We cannot ascertain when that can happen,
but increased awareness is the key.
.
 CHAPTER 3
POLITICAL SOCIALISATION AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN

-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The concept of political socialisation is a modern one. It is quite new in a field of empirical and
behavioural research. The importance of socialisation has been long recognized. Many political
scientist in the past were aware of the value of the political education. Plato laid emphasis upon
education in training the philosopher kings and molding their character and behaviour.
‘Aristotle suggested that the most important key requisite for participatory democracy was the
civic education of the young. Both Plato and Aristotle placed importance on the training of
members of the society for various types of political activities. Rousseau believed that it is the
education of the young that lays down the foundation for stable social life in the society. It
moulds their opinions and makes them patriotic by inclination, passion and necessity, and
inculcates values into the young. Bodin had also emphasized the importance of political learning
of the young. The liberal philosophers of the nineteenth century placed greater stress on what
has been described by Robert Lowe as the need to educate our masters. Throughout history,
great use has been made on formal education for political purposes. This is apparent in the
medieval church's monopoly of education. In modern times also, almost all the states,
particularly, the totalitarian regimes, have fully recognized the importance ofpolitical socialization
in shaping and molding the attitudes, opinions and values of individuals. Thus, inculcation of
supportive orientations towards the political system has been central concern of political
philosophers and statesman throughout the ages.
Political socialization is the process by which an individual is acquainted with the political system
which determines his perceptions of politics and his reactions to political phenomenon. It is
determined by the social, economic and cultural environment of the society in which the
individual lives and by the interaction of the experiences and personality of the individual.
Political socialization *is the process by which political cultures are maintained and changed."
Through the performance of this function individuals are inducted into political culture and their
orientations towards political objects are formed.
Political socialization mainly refers to the learning process by which norms and behaviour
acceptable to the political system are transmittedIn a broader sense it refers to the way society
transmits its political culture from generation to generation.
Political socialization is a process through which the human being gradually attains his own
personal identity.? This allows him to express himself and seek to meet his own needs and values
in his own way.
Hyman defined political socialization as the 'Individuals learning of social patterns corresponding
to his social positions as mediated through various agencies of society. Almond and Powell
defines it as the process whereby political attitudes and values are inculcated as children become
adults and as adults are recruited into roles. David Easton and Jack Denis define political
socialization as those developmental processes through which persons acquire political
orientations and patterns of behaviour.
Political socialization is the most important link between the social and the political systems.'
This however, varies from one system to another. The principle emphasis of the concept of
political socialization is on the transmission of political values from one generation to the next.
The persistence in cultural pattern and political style exists because societies are able to pass their
major values and attitudes intact from one generation to another. The stability of the social or
political system depends on the political socialization of its members. A well functioning citizen
is one who internalizes the political norms of society and transmits these to the future
generations. Thus, political socialization aims to achieve the goal of political stabilization. It
stands on the basic premise that a system cannot function smoothly unless the process of
internalization of political norms and values is at work simultaneously.
Political socialization seeks to inculcate values, norms and orientations in the minds of the
individuals so that they develop trust in their political system. From a political point of view
political socialization is extremely important as the process by which individuals become
involved in varying degrees, in the political process.
DIMENSIONS
The contents or dimensions of political socialization fall into three categories:
1) Attachment to the political system,
2) Partisan attitudes, and
3) Political participation.
Attachment is normally defined as focusing on their institutions, structures and norms of the
political system. The process of political socialization provides the individuals with a perceptual
screen through which he receives political stimuli. The stimuli are seen in the process of political
participation that means the extent to which individuals are involved at the various levels in the
political system. The most conventional definition of political socialization implies society's
molding of the child to a particular model usually, on perpetuating the status quo mass attention
has been accorded to the child's early attachment to symbols of the political system, because, it
has been thought to be politically crucial and is one of the earliest effective responses children
seem to make to the political arena. The attachment includes knowledge of symbols of the
regime (flag, public buildings, historical documents, slogans, glorious national heroes and
events).
Socialization of the young is necessary to maintain the stability of the social system. This enables
the younger generation to carry on willingly the values, orientations and norms of social lives. A
newborn child is socialized through the learning process. Once the norms are internalized there
is no difficulty for the individual to adjust himself with the social system in which he lives.
Viewed from the perspective of each individual citizen, political socialization is the process
whereby effective, cognitive and evaluative orientations towards policies are developed. This
includes acquisition of knowledge or information, values of basic beliefs and attitudes or
opinions on specific issues. The acquisition of knowledge and formation of attitudes or opinions
are interrelated. This knowledge may influence the formation of values and attitudes and vice-
versa. It has also been observed that attitudes are closely related to values. Thus although values,
attitudes and acquisition of information are analytically distinguishable, they are
closely interrelated.
TYPES OF POLITICAL SOCIALISATION
According to Almond and Powell, political socialization is of following two types:6
1) Manifest
It is manifest when it involves the explicit communication of information, values or feelings
toward political objects.' In other words political socialization is manifest when certain values or
feelings towards political system are put into the minds of others directly, clearly and manifestly.
It includes the process of formal instruction given in schools or colleges about the
political objects.
Lessons in the advantages of democracy, rights of the citizens, respect for authority, love of
political system, the civics courses in American public school, compulsory courses of Marxism-
Leninism in the erstwhile Soviet Union at school level simplify manifest political socialization)
But the usual methods of manifest socialization, being formal education given in educational
institutions, lectures and use of mass media is either for political stability or for political changes
or maintain status quo.
2) Latent
Political socialization is latent when attitude to non-political things becomes as attitude towards
political things. In other words latent political socialization is the transmission of non-political
attitudes which affect attitudes toward analogous roles and objects in political system.!
For example the attitude of submission to the authority of the father in a family makes us to
submit to the authority in one political system.
It is deep-rooted and usually it works unnoticed and more or less automatically. Latent political
socialization therefore, involves many of the most fundamental characteristics of the general
culture, which may in turn, have great effect on the political sphere. I°
In addition to these two main types of political socialization, there are following other types of
it:"
a) Particularistic
b) Universalistic
c) Affective
d) instrumental
e) Specific; and
f) Diffuse

Particularistic socialization is that process in which individual is taught only one and not more
than one role. He does not learn anything about other roles that means, socializing an individual
into particularistic values only.
In universalistic socialization cosmopolitan outlook is developed.
One therefore learns several roles.
In affective socialization there is stress on emotional values and localities, namely pride in one's
political system, loyalty to one's country, respect for ruler, etc.
In instrumental socialization the emphasis is on pragmatic bargaining and calculating strategies
that means, the brief that a political system should be supported not for all times, but as long as
one drives benefit from it.
In specific socialization, specific attitudes and values are imparted by specific political structures.
There is diffused socialization where there is learning about vague things such as religion,
politics, economy, society, etc. It is found in such societies in which there is no differentiation
between state and society.
THERE ARE SOME AGENTS OF POLITICAL SOCIALISATION
Religion
Some of the writers are of the view that religion is also an agent of political socialization. The
Roman Catholic Church, for instance, has been influential in imparting certain political attitudes
to its followers especially to women.
Caste
The role of caste as an agent of socialisation is also regarded as potent particularly in the third
world nations. Voters are seen to vote on caste lines and the candidate also reflects caste
allegiance in their political behaviour. The ideology underlying the system of reservation for
schedule castes and tribes is that their members are so socialized as to be sympathetic to the
cause of these disadvantaged communities.
Politics
Politics itself is a powerful agent of political socialization. The ways in which the politics of a
country is conducted is a deep learning experience for citizens. Citizens are exposed to the
method of selection of candidates in elections, mode of election campaign, behavior of political
activists; nature of electoral competition gives the most significant political experiences to the
individuals. That is why Peter
H. Merkel rightly observed, "One of the most immediate and effective agents of political
socialization of children and adults is the spectacle of politics itself. As the group and sports help
to socialize, so the game of politics, especially its competition, may get adolescents and adults
involved.
POLITICAL SOCIALISATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Political socialisation is related to the nature of the polity and nature of the change. In
homogeneous societies the process of socialisation will become clearly defined and unified while
in heterogeneous societies, there is frequent and radical change in the socialization process. The
relationship between political culture and political socialization is crucial. The process of political
socialization has two variables:
a) Homogeneous, and
b) Heterogeneous.
Homogeneous process signifies that individuals co-operate with each other in an atmosphere of
mutual trust towards their political system. Heterogeneous process signifies that the individuals
have an attitude of suspicion and hatred towards each other which leads them to have
dissatisfaction with their political system. It should be remembered that political socialization
aims at political stabilization. It lays stress on gradual and peaceful change and varies according
to time and development.
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SOCIALISATION
The above discussion shows the following given important functions of political socialization:
1. Maintaining political culture: This function is performed by communicating political culture
from one generation to another generation. Under stable conditions this is an important
function. But since the political field is generally disturbed, the political socialization does not
always act for maintaining political culture.
2. Modification of political culture: Therefore an important function of political socialization is
the modification of political culture.
This aspect is clear from its relationships to change.
3. Creating political culture: With the establishment of new political system every society needs
the creation of a new political culture. This function is performed by means of the process of
political socialization.
Of the above mentioned three functions, political socialization performs a particular function
according to the historical condition of the nation, the national and the international
environment, relationship of traditions and politics and the aims and means of the leaders and
the citizens. Generally, political socialization performs all the above mentioned three functions.
All these functions are carried on in all the fields of the life of the citizens.
ROLE OF SOCIALIASATION IN POLITICAL SYSTEM

The role of socialisation in a process is as follow:

1. It is the learning process by which individuals acquire orientation towards the political
system
2. It provides identity to the political system
3. It provides continuity to the political system
4. It provide stability to the political process.
5. It may provide dissatisfaction and alienation in the political system.

1. Learning process: Every individual holds certain beliefs and values about politics. A question
arise how he/she learns political roles such as a voter, as a member of an interest group or as a
legislator.
2. Provides identity: According to Rey Macridis, political culture is the commonly shared goals
and commonly accepted rules about politics. When the political system's symbols are accepted by
the vast group of people, it provides identity to the political system. When the attitudes, beliefs,
emotions and values are alike, the political system gets an identity on the basis of which the
system is run.
3. Provides continuity: Political socialization is important to both the social system and citizen.
It maintains political culture and provides continuity to the political culture. Thus, with the help
of political socialization the political culture is transformed from generation to generation.
4. Provides political stability: One of the most important functions and the role of political
socialization is the task of providing stability to the political system.
5. Provides alienation: It does not always hold true that socialization in a political system will
provide stability all throughout.At times, people may be socialized so as to alienate from the
political system and sometimes they may even be socialized to protest against the established
political order.
Here, the best example to site is our country India itself. The political socialization in Indian
context provides for the growth of terrorism in various parts of the country. Thus, political
socialization may be destructive also. It may be the way through which political culture is
sustained or changed.

Therefore, the role of political socialization is very widely discussed by the political scholars. The
scholars like Gabriel Almond, Robert Lavine, David Easton etc. are devoting considerable
attention to political socialization. The role of political socialization is very important in the
continuity and stability of the political system. This is the reason why all goals try to get hold of
political socialization as it provides legitimacy to their regime.
CONCLUSION
Political socialization is, thus, a relatively new area of study, but it performs functions which are
vital to the political system no less than to the individuals. This is when even a totalitarian regime
is keen to monopolize the socialization process that people develop positive attitudes towards it
however; deplorable it may be from the larger humanistic standpoint.
But the study of political socialization, like political culture, has special and vital significance for
the third world countries where the political culture is in flux and change and is yet to take a
definite shape. The great issues of politics in the emerging nations such as political stability,
political development and change can be much more meaningfully studied and discussed with
the help of the concepts like political culture and political socialization.
 CHAPTER -4

RECENT DEVELOPMETS

Half of the world's population is made up of women. It is believed that women's

participation should be increased in political systems as they constitute half of the
population, and where both men and women are legally allowed to run for office same
as men. If only half of its population is actually served by democracy, the demographic is
still underrepresented in politics. Absence from the political process means that half of
the population's issues will go unheard and cannot be fully considered or addressed
because their opinions are not given enough weight for political system integration. If
women do not participate in politics, democracy is only partially successful at all levels.
Therefore, equal political participation for women is necessary.
Political representation of women is an important determinant of their modernization.
It enables women to come out of the shackles of tradition and secluded life. It also leads
to greater social and political awareness among them. Women in politics could
effectively represent opinions of other women and also understand and deal effectively
with the problems of society in general and women in particular. Political
representation of women equips them with political competence, organizational
abilities and belief in egalitarianism and democratic planning.
Realizing the need for the inclusion of women in the mainstream development process,
it has been strongly felt that unless women are involved effectively in the development
process, the goal of overall socio-economic development of the country cannot be
accomplished.
A truly representative democracy seeks adequate representation of women in politics.
India is the largest and one of the most resilient parliamentary democracies in the
world. Women’s representation in India’s Parliament has improved since independence.
It is an important metric to evaluate progress in bridging gender
inequalities in the country
Journey of Women’s Political Participation in India
Before Independence: India has a history of marginalization and exploitation of women
framed by patriarchal social structures and mindsets. Beginning of social reforms and
participation in Freedom struggle: The Indian freedom movement, starting with the
swadeshi in Bengal (1905-08) also witnessed the impressive participation of women,
who organized political demonstrations and mobilized resources, as well as occupied
leadership positions in those movements.
Post-Independence: After India attained independence, its Constitution guaranteed
equal status for men and women in all political, social and economic spheres.
Equality guaranteed by The Constitution:
-Part III of the Constitution guarantees the fundamental rights of men and women.
-The Directive Principles of State Policy ensure economic empowerment by providing
for equal pay for equal work by both men and women, humane conditions of work, and
maternity relief.
-Any Indian citizen who is registered as a voter and is over 25, can contest elections to
the lower house of Parliament (Lok Sabha) or the state legislative assemblies; for the
upper house (Rajya Sabha) the minimum age is 30.
-Articles 325 and 326 of the Constitution guarantee political equality and the right to
vote.
Reservation for women in local bodies: In 1992, the 73rdand 74th amendments to
the Constitution provided for reservation of one-third of the total number of seats for
women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and municipal bodies.

THE CURRENT SCENARIO

After the independence and in the current scenario, women are holding important
political and administrative offices and portfolios, such as governors, chief ministers, and
ministers in cabinet and state governments, presiding officers of legislative bodies, judges
of supreme court, high courts and secretaries to the Government of India.
India is one of the first countries in the world to have a woman as the head of the
government and as the head of the state. Women in India got the right to equal political
participation, much earlier than most of the Western countries, this includes the right to
vote. In the regional level of politics there are few women who have become prominent
leaders in their respective states, for instance, Mayawati in Uttar Pradesh, Jayalalitha in
Tamil Nadu, Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal, and Sheila Dixit in New Delhi. They also
have significant influence on the national politics. However, we should keep in mind that
these women entered politics and were able to achieve this position because of their
proximity to male leaders.
There have been various law, legislations and amendments which have helped women
get equal political representation in the country. Like the 73rd Amendment Act, in the
Panchayati Raj system it provides for 33% reservation for women in all the three-tiers. It
is a step towards removing the inequality and incapability of women in all tiers of
government. The 73rd Amendment is a landmark amendment

VARIOUS METHODS IN WHICH WOMEN CAN PARTICIPATE IN POLITICS IN INDIA

During the old times, political power was in the hands of a few and these people were
considered to be as important. In India, women participating in political activities and
programs is of recent origin. According to Myron Weiner, “The concept of political
participation refers to any voluntary action, successful or unsuccessful, organized or
unorganized, episodic or continuous, employing legitimate or illegitimate methods,
intended to influence the choice of public policies, the administration of public affairs, or
the choice of political leaders at any level of Government, local or national”. Women are
still fighting with the society to eradicate the old norms and traditions which stopped
women from political participation. The actual interest of women in politics and the
extent to which women can participate in politics is explained in the later stages:
(i) Voting Right: Voting is the commonest yet the most important act of political
participation. Women constitute half the population of the country, as a result they play
an important role in politics of the country, yet they are not given equal importance.
There have been a number of schemes which have been initiated for women voters so
that they can know the importance of voting. More awareness is required to be created
so that women are encouraged to go and cast their vote. This political right to vote is
granted to all adult citizens irrespective of their sex from the time the constitution came
into power on 26th January 1950 when the first free elections were held. All the votes
carry equal weightage whether it is a male vote or a female vote.
(ii) Participation in canvassing, political meetings and agitations: As women became
more aware about politics and gained education. The method of personal contact with
the voters will help in gaining more votes and support for the political party through
political meeting and agitations. Campaigning also helps in getting attention of the people
about what the party plans on doing and what are its ideologies. Campaigning often helps
people to come and vote who usually do not go and vote. People also actively start
working for a party when campaigning begins, they often initiate a political meeting or
rally or are a part of it. The people working for a party often contribute money to the party
as they believe that the ideologies of the party and the leadership can help them win in
the future and fulfill their needs through the party. Membership of women in these
political clubs are really important as through these methods they can represent their
group which lacks representation and the public who doesn’t know them. Great leaders
like Mayawati and Mamata Bannerjee are the women political leaders who have been
Chief Ministers representing their marginalized group and their various interests.
(iii) Membership in any association or political party: Traditionally, only a few women
were allowed or were associated to a political party. In Muslims, only elite women were
allowed to be a part of the political party. This was mainly because these women came
from backgrounds who had a standing in politics or were economically well off. But now
the times are changing as due to various socio-political processes more women are taking
part in political parties. In today’s date, a woman can be a leader, a social figure and a
person a person who can bring a change. Women are victims to various aggression in the
society, as a result, women have started forming groups which work for women facing
violence and aggressive behavior. There are various NGOs which work for women who
also conduct movements to get justice. In the case of Nirbhaya in 2012. Various NGOs
came together seeking justice for the girl. Women who are a part of such political parties
prefer to work for the betterment of the society. There are various groups which work
for the poor by providing them education, financial support, etc., these groups are
affiliated to the political parties who on a large scale benefit the whole country.
The Way Forward
To address these challenges and improve the status of women in India, there needs to be
a concerted effort from all sectors of society. The government needs to continue to
implement policies that promote women’s health, education, and economic
empowerment. There needs to be a greater focus on gender sensitization and education
at all levels of society. The media also has a role to play in promoting positive messages
about women and combating gender stereotypes.

What Women's Representation in India's Parliament, Assemblies Looks Like Now?

The Constitution (One Hundred and Twenty-Eighth Amendment) Bill, 2023 was
introduced in Lok Sabha on September 19, 2023. The Bill seeks to reserve one-third of all
seats for women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies. A similar Bill had been
introduced in Rajya Sabha in 2008, and was passed by the House two years later. It lapsed
after the dissolution of the 14th Lok Sabha in 2014. This note takes a look at participation
of women in Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.

▪ Women’s representation in Lok Sabha has increased from 5% in the first Lok Sabha to
15% in the current Lok Sabha.
▪ Scandinavian countries such as Sweden and Norway, and South Africa have more than
45% women representation in their national legislatures. Japan at 10%, lags behind India.
▪ Currently, 15% of Lok Sabha MPs and 13% of Rajya Sabha MPs are women.
▪ Among parties with more than 10 seats in Lok Sabha, 42% of BJD MPs and 39% of TMC
MPs are women. In Rajya Sabha, 17% of INC MPs are women.
▪ TMC and BJD fielded the highest proportion of women candidates. Across parties with
10 or more MPs, women were as likely to win as men.
▪ No state has more than 20% women representation in its Assembly. Chhattisgarh has
the highest representation with 18% women MLAs, while Himachal Pradesh has just one
woman MLA and Mizoram has none.
▪ Both men and women have more than 75% attendance in Lok Sabha. Attendance and
participation in Lok Sabha ensure that members are performing their legislative duties.
▪ There is no significant difference in the educational qualifications of men and women
legislators.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the status of women in India has improved significantly in recent years, but
there is still a long way to go. It is essential to recognize the achievements made so far
and continue to work towards a more equitable and just society for women. By
addressing the challenges that women in India face and promoting gender equality, we
can ensure that women can fully participate in all aspects of life and contribute to the
development of the country.
There are many obstacles to overcome before gender equality in decision-making
positions can be achieved. Moreover, for those women who have made a life in politics,
the fundamental challenge they face is how to use the power they hold effectively.
Identifying the obstacles Many obstacles have been identified that impede women's
political participation, including political, economic and socio-cultural barriers. In
particular, these include the prevalence of the “masculine model of politics”, a patriarchal
culture, the absence of well-developed education and training programmes to support
women candidates, and a lack of coordination with public organizations, including
women’s groups and organizations. The dual burden of balancing domestic tasks with
professional obligations and lack of control over financial resources also impact women’s
political participation. Although the role and functioning of political parties is being
questioned in many countries today, they remain central to representative democracies,
promoting essential competition on ideological and policy alternatives.
By maintaining firm control over the nomination of candidates, political parties play a
determining role in women’s access to parliament and decision-making positions within
political institutions. The stage at which the party secretaries choose the candidates for
election is perhaps the most crucial for determining whether women will enter
parliament. So long as political parties remain institutions dominated by men, without
clear and transparent rules for the recruitment of candidates, women's access to
decision-making positions will remain restricted. Although some parties are taking
measures to address the low number of women in decision-making bodies by adopting
affirmative action strategies, the rate of progress remains slow. Political parties need to
be more proactive in training and promoting women candidates to contest elections, and
by providing sufficient financial resources for women.