Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: Topic 1 (Week 2)

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Cognitive and
Metacognitive
COURSE Factors
• Cognitive
factors -
mental
processes
the
learners
undergo as
they
process
informatio
n
• Metacogni
tive factors
– the way
learners
think about
their
thinking as
they
engage in
TOPIC 1 (WEEK 2) mental
tasks
Learner-
1. The
Centered learning of
Psychological complicated
subject matter
Principles is most
effective when
it is an
intentional
process of
Learning Principles constructing
Associated To meaning from
Cognitive, information
Metacognitive, and
Motivational, And experience.
Affective - An
intentional
Factors
learning
environment is
4 Learner-Centered
one that
Psychological Principles
fosters activity
(APA):
and feedback,
1. Cognitive and
and creates a
metacognitive factors
culture that
2. Motivational and promotes
affective factors metacognition.
3. Developmental and
social factors
2. The
4. Individual difference
successful
factors
learner, over
time and with
support and
instructional
EDUC 1 – The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles | 2nd semester, AY 2021-2022
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guidance, can create concepts,
meaningful, coherent information,
representations of and
knowledge. knowledge.
- Meaningful
learning takes place 6. Learnin
when what is presented g is influenced
to learners is very much by
related to their needs environmental
and interests. factors
including
3. The successful culture,
learner can link new technology,
information with and
existing knowledge in instructional
meaningful ways. practices.
- The integration - Much
of prior experiences to a of what
new concept to be learners learn
learned is a way of in the
making connections classroom with
between what is new their teachers
and what is already can only have
known. meaning once
they see them
4. The successful concretely in
learner can create and their everyday
use a repertoire of life. Examples
thinking and reasoning given in the
strategies to achieve classroom
complex learning goals. should be a
- Strategic reflection of
thinking is a person’s their actual life
ability to use knowledge experiences.
in different ways to
solve problems, address
concerns and issues, Motivational
decrease difficulties in and Affective
certain situations, and Factors
make sound decisions • Motivation
and judgments in varied al factors
conditions. Strategic –
thinkers do not easily how
give up even in difficult
situations. learners
push
5. Higher-order themselves
strategies for selecting to learn,
and monitoring mental and how
they value
operations facilitate
learning
creative and critical
thinking. • Affective
- Teachers should factors –
develop the learners’ relate to
higher order thinking the
skills (HOTS), attitudes,
which involve feelings,
interpretation, analysis, and
synthesis, and emotions
evaluation of varied that
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learners put into the learner’s effort
learning and guided
task practice. - The
learner’s
1. What and how motivation to
much are learned are learn is also
influenced by the partnered by
learner’s motivation. their extended
- Motivation to learn is efforts.
influenced by the Teachers
individual’s emotional facilitate
states, beliefs, interests learning
and goals, and habits of opportunities
thinking. Its level also and
determines the extent experiences
of his/her ability to that encourage
accomplish desired learners to
tasks. exert time and
effort, and at
2. The learner’s the same time
creativity, higher-order committment
thinking, and natural and
curiosity all contribute enthusiasm
to the motivation to toward a task
learn. they have to do
There are 2 kinds of and a concept
motivation: they have to
• Intrinsic – learn.
personally
gratifying, no
expectation of Learning
tangible reward Principles on
• Extrinsic – Developmen
engagement is t, Social, and
done for Individual
external gains or
Differences
to avoid
punishments
Development
and social
- The most important
factors, as well
way to motivate
as individual
students is to present
differences are
the value of what they
considered
study to their life.
critical factorsi
Learning is not about
the capacity of
getting good grades or
learners to
compliance with
engage in
requirements, but it is
learning. These
more of knowing why
principles
they need to learn
include the
about something, and to
following:
what specific instances
in their lives they would
1.
be able to use them.
A
s
3. Acquisition of
sophisticated
i
knowledge and skills
n
requires extensive
d
3
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i t
v r
i a
d i
u n
a t
l s
s
f
d o
e r
v
e l
l e
o a
p r
, n
i
t n
h g
e .
r
e -
L
a e
r a
e r
n
d i
i n
f g
f
e i
r s
e
n m
t o
s
o t
p
p e
o f
r f
t e
u c
n t
i i
t v
i e
e
s w
h
a e
n n
d
d
c i
o f
n f
s e
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r a
e l
n ,
t
i e
a m
l o
t
d i
e o
v n
e a
l l
o ,
p
m a
e n
n d
t
s
w o
i c
t i
h a
i l
n
d
a o
n m
d a
i
a n
c s
r
o a
s r
s e
p t
h a
y k
s e
i n
c
a i
l n
, t
o
i
n a
t c
e c
l o
l u
e n
c t
t .
u
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2. L
earning
is
influenc
ed by
social
interac
tions,
interper
sonal
relation
s, and
commu
nication
with
others.
- A
ll
learners
should
learn
the skill
of
working
with
others
in an
instructi
onal
setting.
This
ability
will
prepare
them
for the
real
world
where
they are
expecte
d to
interact
effectiv
ely to a
commu
nity of
diverse
people.
3. L
earners
have
differen
t
strategi
es,
approac
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hes,
and
capabili
ties for
learning
that are
a
functio
n of
prior
experie
nce and
heredit
y.
- E
ach
learner
has his
or her
own
learning
style,
intellige
nce,
potenti
al, skills,
talents,
learning
prefere
nces, as
well as
cognitiv
e
abilities,
which
are the
effects
of both
experie
nce and
heredit
y.
Theorie
s on
multiple
intellige
nces,
learning
styles,
and
differen
tiated
instructi
ons are
all to be
conside
red
when
plannin
g the
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delivery
of
lessons.
4. L
earning
is most
effectiv
e when
differen
ces in
learners
’
linguisti
c,
sultural
, and
social
backgro
unds
are
taken
into
account
.
- C
ulture
makes
one
person
distinct
from
other
people.
Student
s
manifes
t
differen
ces in
languag
e,
values,
belief
systems
, and
way of
life. An
inclusiv
e
classroo
m is
one
that
welcom
es and
respects
these
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differen
ces.
5. S
etting
appropr
iately
high
and
challen
ging
standar
ds and
assessin
g the
learner
as well
as the
learning
progres
s —
includin
g
diagnos
tic,
process
, and
outcom
e
assess
ment —
are
integral
parts of
the
learning
process
.
- A
ssessme
nt and
evaluati
on are
essentia
l parts
of the
teachin
g /
learning
process.
The
results
of
assessm
ents
conduct
ed are
used to
gauge
the
learner’
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s
strengt
hs,
weakne
sses,
limitatio
ns, and
areas of
difficulti
es.
Teacher
s can
also
determi
ne what
kind of
support
and
instructi
onal
material
would
best
assist a
learner
for
better
school
perform
ance.
--NOTES—
Basic
TOPIC 2 (WEEK Concepts
3) and
Issues in Human
Development
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development of a
child. During infancy,
the greatest growth
always occurs at the
Human development
top and gradually
centers the scientific study
from top to bottom
of systematic processes of
(e.g. the head to
change and stability in
toe). This is referred
people (Papalia &Feldman,
to as the (A.)
2012). It pertains to the
cephalocaudal
pattern of movement of
pattern of
change which starts from
development.
conception throughout life
Another pattern of
span. Changes that occur to
development
every human being,
explains how the
however, may either be
muscular control of
growth or decline.
the trunk and arms
comes earlier than
Two Approaches to those of the hands
Human Development and fingers. This is
referred to as the
● Traditional (B.) proximodistal
Development is a pattern (core and
perspective in human out) of
development that views development.
stages of life from birth
to adolescence as a
point from which
extensive changes
4. Development is
occur. Furthermore, it
contextual, meaning,
perceives adulthood
every being is subject
and late old age as a
to change in a
point where little or no
changing
change takes place.
environment.
Individuals respond
● Life-span Development to and act on
perspective believes context.
that changes take place 5. Development
across ages, including involves growth,
adulthood and old age. maintenance and
Listed below are the regulation. These
characteristics of the three are the goals of
life-span perspective by human development.
Paul Baltes:
1. Development is
lifelong
2. Development is
plastic. It pertains to
Principles of Child
the potential for
Development and
change (plasticity).
Learning
3. Development is
multidimensional
In 2009, the National
because it consists of
Association for the
different domains. It
Education of Young Children
is relatively
orderly and takes
place gradually.
This is well
presented on the
physical
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provided the following as 8. Development and
the bases of learning occur in and
developmentally are influenced by
appropriate practice under multiple social and
the early childhood cultural contexts.
program. This includes 9. Children learn in a
children of ages 0 to 8. variety of ways. They
are always mentally
1. All the domains of active in seeking to
development and understand the world
learning - physical, around them. A wide
social and emotional, range of teaching
and cognitive - are strategies and
important, and are interactions are
closely interrelated. effective in supporting
2. Many aspects of all these kinds of
children’s learning and learning.
development follow 10. Play is an important
well documented vehicle for developing
sequences with later self- regulation as well
abilities, skills and as for promoting
knowledge building on language, cognition and
those already acquired. social competence.
3. Development and
learning proceed at
varying rates from child 11. Development and
to child, as well as learning advance when
uneven rates across children are challenged
different areas of a to achieve at a level just
child’s individual beyond their current
functioning. mastery, also when they
4. Development and have many
learning result from a opportunities to
dynamic and continuous practice newly acquired
interaction of biological skills.
maturation and 12. Children’s experiences
experience. shape their motivation
5. Early experiences have and approaches to
profound cumulative learning, such as:
and delayed effects on persistence, initiative
children’s development and flexibility.
and learning. Optimal
periods exist for certain
types of development The Developmental Stages
and learning to occur. and Tasks (Santrock, 2002)
6. Development proceeds
toward greater 1. Prenatal period
complexity, self- (conception to birth) – It
regulation, and symbolic involves tremendous
or representational growth – from a single
capacities. cell to an organism
7. Children develop best complete with brain and
when they have secure, behavioral capabilities.
consistent relationships
with responsive adults 2. Infancy (birth to 18-24
and opportunities for months) – A time of
positive relationships extreme dependence on
with peers. adults. Many
psychological activities
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are just beginning – intimate way, starting a
language, symbolic family, and rearing
thought, sensorimotor children.
coordination, and social
learning. 7. Middle Adulthood (40 to
60 years) – It is a time of
3. Early Childhood (end of expanding personal and
infancy to 5-6 years) – social involvement and
These are the preschool responsibility; of
years. Young children assisting the next
learn to become more generation in becoming
self-sufficient and care competent and mature
for themselves, develop individuals; and of
school readiness skills, reaching and maintaining
and spend many hours in satisfaction in a career.
play with peers.
8. Late Adulthood (60s and
4. Middle and Late above) – It is a time for
Childhood (6-11 years) – adjustment to decreasing
The fundamental skills of strength and health, life
reading, writing, and review, retirement, and
arithmetic are mastered. adjustment to new social
The child is formally roles.
exposed to the larger
world and its culture.
Achievement becomes a Issues on Human
more central theme of Development
the child’s world, and
selfcontrol increases. The following are
paradigms of development
5. Adolescence (10-12 that provide a framework
years ending up to 18-22) for understanding individual
– Begins with rapid differences particularly in
physical changes – learning. However, these
dramatic gains in height are also points that
and weight, changes in developmentalists see as
body contour, and the lacking in scholastic vigor,
development of sexual thus causing debates and
characteristics such as further studies. As a pre-
the enlargement of the service teacher, you are
breasts, development of expected to take a research-
pubic and facial hair, and based position on the
deepening of the voice. following points:
Pursuit of identity and
independence are 1. Nature vs. Nurture -
prominent. Thought is There are two major
more logical, abstract, factors that
and idealistic. psychologists view
More time is spent crucial in the
outside the family. development of an
individual; nature which
6. Early Adulthood (from refers to an individual’s
late teens or early 20s biological inheritance
lasting through the 30s) – (heredity) and nurture
It is a time of establishing which refers to the
personal and economic influence of
independence, career environmental
development, selecting a experiences
mate, learning to live (interaction) of an
with someone in an
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individual. Question:
Which has more
significant influence on
human development?
Nature or nurture?
2. Continuity vs.
Discontinuity - Varying
studies present that
development may
involve continuity or
gradual and cumulative
change while some
studies propose that
development involves
discontinuity which
entails distinct change
only at particular
stage/s of life. Question:
Is our development like
that of a seedling
gradually growing into
a tree? Or is it more like
that of a caterpillar
becoming a butterfly?
3. Stability vs. Change -

Question: Does
TOPIC 3 (WEEK 4)
development involve
stability or change? This
question challenges the
Freud’s
idea that development Psychoanalytic
is leaning towards the
goal of being stable at a Theory
certain stage of life or
continues to grow and
change across all stages Sigmund Freud is one of
of life. the most well known and
influential psychologists
however contested by
--NOTES— many because of his
theory on the human
mind and of sexual
development. His theory
scoped a wide variety of
topics including
psychoanalysis,
psychosexual
development, and the
human psyche (elements
of personality and levels of
awareness).
Stages of Psychosexual
Development
There are five stages

on the development of an
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individual’s personality as personality may occur -
coined by Sigmund Freud. anal fixation. A child may
Under these stages, Freud turn out to be anal
identified specific retentive (obsession with
erogenous zones. These cleanliness, perfection and
pertain to specific pleasure control) or anal expulsive
areas that become focal (tendency of a person to
points for a particular stage be messy and
of development. Every disorganized).
individual undergoes this
sequence of stages 3. Phallic Stage (ages 3 to
wherein particular needs 6)
are to be met. If needs are This stage equates
not met, fixation or the to preschool age when
inability to adopt or cope children find interest in
occurs. their genders or what
makes boys and girls
1. Oral Stage (from birth different, therefore, the
to 18 months) genitals. It is the pleasure
During this stage, a child is or erogenous zone for this
focused on oral pleasures stage. Freud stated that
(e.g. sucking) thus the during this stage boys
erogenous zone for this develop the Oedipus
stage is the mouth. Too Complex or the
much or too little unconscious sexual desire
satisfaction to oral for their mother, seeing
pleasures may either lead their father then as a rival
to oral fixation or oral for the mother’s affection.
personality (manifested Boys then experience
through an increased focus castration anxiety for the
or inclination to oral fear that their father will
activities). punish them for having
sexual desire for their
Oral personality type is mother. Boys later on
subdivided into two. First, identify with their father’s
oral receptive individuals masculine characteristics
have a stronger tendency which implies the vitality of
to smoke, drink alcohol or parental presence
overeat. Second, oral especially within the crucial
aggressive individuals have years of development (1st
a tendency to resort to nail five to six years of life).
biting, cursing or even Furthermore, practitioners
gossiping. People with this in psychoanalysis also
type of personality may claim that girls also
either become too encounter similar
dependent on others or be experiences but towards
too pessimistic and their father, referred to as
aggressive towards others. the Electra Complex.
2. Anal Stage (18 months 4. Latency Stage (age 6 to

to 3 years old) puberty)
The erogenous Sexual urges of a
zone in this stage is the child remain repressed
anus as it is the child’s (sexual feelings are
center of pleasure. The dormant) during this stage.
child finds satisfaction in The child is focused on the
eliminating or retaining acquisition of physical and
feces (toilet training) as the academic skills, and relates
child learns bowel and with other children as well
bladder control. Fixation in (particularly with the same
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sex - boys to boys and girls drives a person to
to girls). pursue whatever feels
good without
5. Genital Stage (puberty consideration for the
onwards) This is the reality, logic or
stage of psychosexual practicality. Freud
development when explains that a child is
sexal urges are now born with the id that is
awakened and sexual vital to his/her
interest is maturing. personality in such a
Adolescents begin to way that the Id works in
focus their sexual urges order to meet the
toward opposite sex essential needs of a
peers. The pleasure is child. (e.g. The baby’s id
also centered on the will want food when
genitals. he/she is hungry,
therefore the baby will
Here are other cry.)
behavioral manifestations of
psychological fixations on ● The Ego takes into
one’s personality. account the reality of
Remember that fixations in the situation (reality
personality occur when principle). As the child
pleasure or erogenous turns into a toddler and
zones at a particular stage into a preschooler,
are overly satiated or he/she learns to relate
lacking. more with the
environment because
this is the time that the
ego slowly emerges. The
child gains awareness of
others' needs that the
ego drives the child to
know/ understand that
impulsivity or
selfishness may result in
negative consequences.
● The Superego develops

toward the end of the
preschool years (end of
phallic stage). It
Personality Components embodies an
and Adjustments (3 individual’s moral
Elements of Personality) aspect which is greatly
acquired and imparted
Freud believed that through the influence of
human personality has one’s parents, teachers
more than one component. and other people. A
According to him, person’s moral aspect
personality is composed of pertains to his/ her
three elements discussed as perception of what is
follows: good or bad and right or
wrong. It is likened to
● The Id operates on conscience which exerts
pleasure principle which what one considers
means that it focuses on right or wrong.
immediate gratification
or satisfaction of an
individual. Thus, the Id
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Topographical Model Subconscious
(Levels of Awareness) The
subconscious mind, also
called the preconscious,
refers to one’s level of
awareness that is not active
but can be reached if
prompted (e.g. recalling
your childhood memories,
the name of your first pet,
etc.)
--NOTES—
Sigmund Freud used

the analogy of an iceberg to
represent how the
unconscious mind entails a
huge part of one’s
memories, experiences and
thoughts while only
allowing our conscious mind
to be aware of limited
information or memories at
a given time.
Unconscious
Freud believed that most of
what influences an
individual and most of what
he/ she goes through in life
(emotions, beliefs, feelings
and impulses) is
unconscious. One good
example of this is the
Oedipus and Electra
Complex which are both
buried down into the
unconscious during the
early years of life, out of
awareness that is due to
the extreme anxiety it
causes an individual.
Conscious
The conscious mind entails
all that an individual is
aware of. According to
Freud, it only comprises a
very small part of
personality because he
believed that most of what
we are is hidden and out of
reach.
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stages; wherein progress
through each stage is
determined by the success
or failure of the previous
one. He deemed earlier
stages to be the foundation
for the later stages in life.
The transition between
stages is overlapping.
● Psychosocial Crises
or basic conflicts are
TOPIC 4 (WEEK involved
5) in each stage.
These are two opposing
Erikson’s emotional forces (contrary
dispositions) that relate to a
Psychosocial particular point in
Stages of development. Syntonic are
positive dispositions which
Development are always listed first (e.g.
Trust) in each crisis while
dystonic are negative
dispositions (e.g. Mistrust).
Erik
● Virtue or
psychosocial strength is
developed whenever a
certain developmental stage
is managed well. Virtues
acquired is deemed to aid
the individual through the
following stages of his/ her
Erikson, the renowned life. In order for these
German-American virtues to be obtained, a
developmental healthy ratio or balance
psychologist, has must be achieved between
contributed a highly the two opposing
regarded theory in dispositions that represents
personality and human each psychological crisis.
development. His
Psychosocial Theory of ● Malignancy and
Development is derived maladaptation may emerge
from two imperative if an individual did not
components of achieve balance on two
development: psychological opposing dispositions.
or relating to mental Malignancy involves too
processes, little of the positive and too
behavior and personality, much of the negative,
and social which involves therefore making it the
external factors such as worse of two tendencies
relationships and (e.g. being skeptical or not
interaction with the trusting others).
environment. Maladaptation, on the
other hand, involves too
● Epigenetic Principle much of the positive and
- Erikson believed that too little of the negative
human beings develop (e.g. trusting too much).
through a predetermined
unfolding of personalities in
8 successive psychosocial
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8 Psychosocial Stages of
Development ● Maladaptation:
Impulsiveness –
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust shameless
(birth to 18 months) This willfulness, acting
stage is during infancy without forethought
where the goal is to develop ● Malignancy:
a trusting relationship with Compulsiveness –
the parent/ caregiver perfectionist
without eliminating the behavior, self-doubt
capacity for mistrust. A ● Virtue: Willpower /
person’s sense of trust Determination
primarily forms within these
early years of life through
interaction with primary Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
caregivers or parents. It is (ages 3-4 to 5-6)
expected of them to give As the child begins to widen
the child a sense of his/ her insights and
familiarity, consistency and imagination, he/she learns
continuity. to become more curious
However, if the caregivers/ and assertive in trying out
parents are unreliable and ideas and plans. Parents
inadequate, rejects or should guide and encourage
harms the child or turns the child in order to take
away from the child’s initiative. Initiative is a
needs, the child will then positive response to
develop mistrust. challenges by taking on
responsibilities or learning
● Maladaptation: Sensory new skills, feeling
maladjustment – overly purposeful. Also in this
trusting, gullible stage a child’s capacity for
● Malignancy: moral judgement emerges
Withdrawal – because as a child learns
depression, paranoia how to imagine, plan and
● Virtue: Hope act on it, he/ she is also
responsible for whatever
his/her behavior results
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. into.
Shame and Doubt Thus, may begin to feel
(ages 18 mos – 3-4 yrs) guilt.
The developmental task of
a child in this stage is to ● Maladaptation:
develop a sense of Ruthlessness – heartless,
independence or autonomy merciless ● Malignancy:
by allowing him/ her to Inhibition – afraid to try
explore the environment, things, fears
directing their energies on b
learning physical skills like e
walking, grasping and rectal i
sphincter control (toilet n
training). In order to g
minimize shame and doubt,
the caregiver/ parent b
should not discourage nor l
push the child to do tasks a
they do not yet fully grasp, m
rather be firm but tolerant e
in guiding the child to d
maintain balance in this
stage. ●
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Stage 5: Identity vs. Role
V Confusion (ages 12 to 18)
i Adolescence begins
r with puberty wherein major
t physiological (bodily)
u changes occur. Patterns in
e this stage become bases for
: arriving at all other stages.
The task in
C adolescence is to achieve
o ego identity (a sense of
u identity in occupation, sex
r roles, politics, religion and
a many other areas where
g one sees fit in the society)
e and avoid role confusion.
There are numerous ways
wherein distinction
between childhood and
Stage 4: Industry vs. adulthood is made clear.
Inferiority (ages 6 to 12) This is what Erikson coined
This is the school-age stage as rites of passage which
when the child must be may be symbolic
dedicated to education and ceremonies (e.g. debuts)
learn social skills required and educational events (e.g.
by the society. Family, graduation). Without these,
friends, teachers and other an adolescent is likely to
members of the community experience role confusion
all greatly contribute to the (uncertainty about one’s
development of the child place in the society).
especially at this stage. The Individuals who experience
task is to develop a capacity this may be suffering from
for industry (develop a what Erikson called as an
sense of diligence towards identity crisis. Psychosocial
learning/ work) and achieve moratorium, he suggested
success, or risk a sense of be taken by adolescents
inferiority, failure and experiencing identity crisis,
incompetence. Inferiority where one may take some
may be formed on a child’s “time out”.
personality if allowed too
little success because of ● Maladaptation:
harsh parents / teachers or Fanaticism – too
unaccepting peers and idealistic, does not
environment. consider other ways /
● Maladaptation: ideals
Virtuosity – extreme ● Malignancy:
skill, too little Repudiation – rejects
exploration and involvement in society,
development may get involved in
● Malignancy: anti-norm groups
Inertia – ● Virtue: Fidelity (loyalty)
inferiority
complex,
incompetence, self-doubt Stage 6: Intimacy vs.
● Virtue: Competence Isolation (ages 19 to 30-40)
Since one has gone
through adolescence,
ideally, he / she no longer
fears losing oneself because
one’s sense of identity has
20
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
already been founded. ● Malignancy: Rejectivity
Young adulthood is the – little to no
stage where individuals are contribution
now in pursuit of some to society, midlife crisis
degree of intimacy, or suffer ● Virtue: Care
feelings of isolation. Being
intimate is the ability to be
close to others as a Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs.
participant in society, as a Despair (ages 65 onwards)
friend or as a lover. Maturity is referred
to as late adulthood or old
● Maladaptation: age. Erikson deemed
Promiscuity – freely reaching this stage a good
intimate too easily thing as not reaching up to
without depth this point suggests earlier
● Malignancy: Exclusion unsolved problems retarted
– isolates self from one’s development. The
love, friendship, and task here is to develop a
community sense of fulfillment with
● Virtue: Love minimal amount of despair.
Since this is a point in time
when an individual becomes
Stage 7: Generativity vs. detached from the society
Stagnation (ages 40 to 65) (e.g. retirement, children
Middle adulthood forming their own lives), it
involves a period in time would be unavoidable to
when individuals are feel that one’s input is no
supposed to be raising longer needed, thus despair.
children. In essence, Ego identity is
satisfying, supporting and defined as coming to terms
nurturing the next with one’s life and the end
generation is the main task - of it. This means being able
that is to cultivate proper to look back and accept the
balance between course of events, choices
generativity and stagnation. made and life as lived by
The extension of love into one and not fearing death.
the future is what Erikson
coined as generativity. ● Maladaptation:
Adults are expected to have Presumption – self-
some concern for the righteousness due to
succeeding generations age, no respect to
which is a selfless form of ideals and views of
intimacy (e.g. parent’s love younger ages
and support for their ● Malignancy: Disdain –
children without seeking contempt of one’s
anything in return). own / anyone’s life,
Generativity may also be making a person very
observed by other ways negative
such as teaching, writing, ● Virtue: Wisdom
social activism, involvement
in the arts and sciences, and
inventions which all --NOTES--
generally take part in the
welfare of future
generations.
● Maladaptation:
Overextension – overly
involved, no time for
themselves
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His theory fueled further
studies and influenced
other theories of
development and learning.
Basic Cognitive
Concepts
● Piagetian Tasks:
Piaget developed tasks to
assess the cognitive
abilities of infants,
children, and adolescents.
These involve tasks which
test capabilities of the
child in every stage of
development (i.e. object
permanence and deferred
imitation tasks, tests of
perceptual perspective
taking, class inclusion and
TOPIC 5 (WEEK the
6) pendulum problem).
Piaget’s ● Schema (plural:
schemata) refers to a
Stages of Cognitive cognitive structure that
Development individuals adapt
intellectually in order to
organize their
environment. Creating a
schema is a person’s way
Jean Piaget is a Swiss to
psychologist &
epistemologist (one that
studies nature, origin and
the extent of human
knowledge). He is
renowned for his theory of
cognitive development understand and create
which is centered on the meaning about a thing or
intellectual development an experience. It is as if the
of an individual throughout human mind has a filing
one’s childhood. cabinet with folders in
Moreover, Piaget believed every drawer containing
that the early years of life, files of things a person had
childhood in particular, encountered.
play a vital role in human
development. Thus, he ● Assimilation is the
focused his studies on process of fitting a new
cognitive development experience into an existing
which highlights cognition, or previously created
intelligence and mental schema (cognitive
processes. With his structure).
interests in how
knowledge develops in ● Accommodation
humans, he primarily involves changing or
referred to his general altering existing schemas
theoretical framework as owing to the new
the genetic epistemology.
22
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
information provided or Several abilities are the
learned. highlights of the
preoperational stage, as
● Equilibriation is follows:
the mechanism in which
the balance between ● Symbolic Function
assimilation and is the ability to represent
accommodation is objects and events. This
achieved. When our may be a drawing,
experiences do not match written word, or spoken
our schemata, we word which a child is now
experience cognitive learning gradually to
disequilibrium. This means understand what certain
there is a discrepancy symbols represent.
between what is perceived
and what is understood. ● Egocentrism is the
tendency of a child to
only see his/ her point of
view (from the word ego
Stages of Cognitive which means self),
Development assuming everyone also
has his/ her same point
Stage 1: Sensorimotor of view. At this stage, a
Stage (from birth to infancy) child is unable to take in a
At this stage, a child different perspective
who is initially reflexive in from others.
grasping, sucking and
reaching learns to be more ● Centration is the
in control with his tendency to only focus on
movements, thus making a one aspect of a thing or
more organized activity. event and exclude other
aspects. ● Irreversibility
Sensorimotor stage is pertains to the inability to
focused on the prominence reverse one’s thinking.
of the senses and muscle For instance, a child may
movement through which understand that 4+2 is 6,
an infant learns about but may not understand
him/herself and the world. that 6 - 2 is equals to 4.
● Object permanence is ● Animism is the

attained at this stage. tendency to attribute
This is the ability of a human-like traits or
child to know that an characteristics to
object still exists even inanimate objects.
when out of sight (e.g.
the existence of a ● Transductive
mother/ a carer even Reasoning refers to a
when she is out of sight). child’s ability to reason
from a precausal
structure, drawing
Stage 2: Pre-Operational relationships between
Stage (ages 2 to 7 - separate and unrelated
preschool years) events. For example, a
A child, at this child is being scolded by
stage, is intuitive in nature. his mother, then
He/ she can now make suddenly heard a loud
mental representations, thunder. From then on, a
closer to the use of symbols, child might conclude that
and is now able to pretend. because his mother was
23
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
angry, there will be a A child is now able
loud thunder. to think logically at this
stage but only in terms of
concrete objects which is
Stage 3: Concrete- marked particularly by the
Operational Stage (ages 8 following:
to 11 - elementary school
years)
● Decentering / Decentration is the ability to --NOTES—
perceive the different features of objects and situations. This
means that at this stage, a child is now able to focus on more
than one aspect or dimension of a particular object, allowing
the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete
objects and situations.
● Reversibility refers to the ability to follow and

understand certain operations done in reverse (e.g.
commutative property in math).
● Conservation is the ability to know that certain

properties of objects (i.e. number, mass, volume, area) do not
change even if there is a change in appearance.
● Seriation is the ability to arrange or order things in a

series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or
size.
Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage

(ages 12 to adulthood)
An individual,
at this stage, is able to
think more logically.
He/ she can now solve
abstract problems and
can hypothesize. The
stage of formal
operations is
characterized by the
following:
● Hypothetical
Reasoning is the
ability to come up
with different
hypotheses about a
problem. At this
stage, an individual
is already capable of
gathering and
weighing
information in order
for him/ her to
make a choice or
arrive at a final
decision/ judgement
(i.e. a child may try
to ask ‘what if’
questions and try to
seek for probable
answers).
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
● Analogical
Reasoning is the
ability to perceive a
relationship in one
context and use that
relationship to
narrow down
possible answers in
another situation or
problem seemingly
similar to the first
one (i.e. making and
understanding
analogies).
● Deductive
Reasoning is the
ability to think
logically, from
general to specific)
by applying a
general rule to a
particular situation.
The following principles can be

derived from Piaget’s findings
and comprehensive theory:
1. Children will
provide different
explanations of reality
at different stages of
cognitive development.
2. Cognitive
development is
facilitated by providing
activities or situations
that engage learners
and require adaptation
(assimilation and
adaptation).
3. Learning
materials and activities
should involve the
appropriate level of
motor and mental
operations for a child of
given age; avoid asking
children tasks that are
beyond their current
cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching
methods that actively
involve students and
present challenges.
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a child may not yet
understand as to why an act
TOPIC 6 (WEEK is7) considered right or
wrong, or good or bad.
Kohlberg’s
Stages of Moral ● Stage 1: Punishment or
Obedience
Development As aforementioned, a
child is yet fully
knowledgeable of what
is good and bad. This
explains why during the
earlier stage of
development, a child is
motivated to behave by
fear of punishment.
● Stage 2: Mutual Benefit

(Instrumental-Relativist)
A child, after learning
behaviors in accordance
Lawrence Kohlberg is an with its consequences, is
American psychologist then motivated to act by
known for his theory of the benefit he/ she may
moral development which obtain later. For
was greatly influenced by instance, a kindergarten
Piaget’s cognitive student shares his snack
development theory. He with his seatmate in
believed that a person’s exchange for a portion
ability to choose right from of his seatmate’s
wrong is tied with one’s Conventional Level
ability to understand and At this level,an individual
reason logically. moral reasoning is based on
“norms” or those that are
Six Stages of conventional or acceptable
Moral Development by the society. This may
According to Kohlberg, involve aiming for the
there are six stages of moral approval of others or
development clustered into following law and order.
three major levels. Each
level represents significant ● Stage 3: Social Approval
changes in the social-moral At this stage, one is
reasoning or perspective of motivated to act in
a person. accordance to what
others expect in
Preconventional Level behavior (e.g. submitting
Moral reasoning is based on your assignments on or
the consequences of the before deadline so that
act, not on the goodness or your teacher commends
badness of the act itself. As you on your work). An
a child, he/ she knows less individual now acts more
of what is right and wrong consciously as he/ she
or good or bad so parents values how he/ she will
or older significant others appear to others - giving
redirect behaviors by importance on what
providing consequences others will think or say.
(either good or bad) in
order for a child to learn
basic moral values.
However, during this stage,
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
● Stage 4: Law and Order to make societal
One’s actions are changes regardless of
motivated to uphold law consequences to
snacks.
and order. An individual oneself. Thus, a person

learns to follow laws and begins to possess moral
policies because these responsibility that is
are the laws. focused more on the
benefit of others (e.g.
Post-conventional Level helping in charity,
A more mature level of supporting societal
moral perspective that is propagandas on issues
based on consistent/ such as gender equality,
enduring principles. This violence, political/
level of moral reasoning governmental
entails not only the movements, religious
recognition of the law but beliefs, etc.)
also understanding
principles behind it.
● Stage 5: Social Contract,

Legalistic
An individual
understands that laws TOPIC 6 (WEEK 8)
that are wrong or faulty
can be changed. This is Vygotsky’s
the stage of moral Socio-Cultural
development when a
person learns to act Theory
based on social justice
and common good.
Bronfenbrenner’s
● Stage 6: Universal-Ethical
Bioecological
Principles
The development of Theory
conscience takes place
during this stage of
development when an
individual establishes
his/ her set of
standards. These moral Lev Vygotsky is a Russian
standards, which are psychologist who
then formed within a graduated with a degree in
person, drives him/ her law but later on pursued
27
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
the field of psychology and These cultural views
education. He is known for influence how children are
his contributions in shaped to become their
language, memory and own persons in the future.
thought, attention,
psychology of art, learning ★ Language
and development and Language is an
special education. avenue to acquire
knowledge that others
The sociocultural theory of already have. It is a
development is centered medium to know and
on two key elements that understand the world and
influence cognition: social solve problems. As much as
interaction and language. language is of social
Vygostsky viewed social function, it also serves an
interactions and cultural individual function by
contexts as imperative helping the learner to
factors for individual regulate and reflect in his/
development, alongside her own thinking. This may
language. manifest by talking to
oneself which is usually
★ Social Interaction observed in children.
One’s social Vygotsky referred to this
environment or as private speech which is
community plays a crucial a form of self-talk that
role in one’s development. guides thinking and action.
Social environment may
include parents, teachers, The Zone of Proximal
peers, or other adults in Development (ZPD)
the learners’ environment The zone of proximal
who may all contribute to development is the
the developmental distance between the
process. These adults may actual developmental level
explain, model, assist, give as determined by
directions and provide independent problem
feedback to the learner. solving and the level of
Meanwhile, peers may potential development as
work together with determined through
cooperation and problem-solving under
collaboration towards adult guidance or in
enriching the learning collaboration with more
experience. Involvement in capable peers. (Lev
social activities results in Vygotsky, Mind in Society,
effective learning. This is 1978). In other words, ZPD
why children learn better pertains to the distance
through hands-on activities between what a child
(learning by doing) than in knows and what a child is
passive listening. yet to know.
A child, given an
★ Cultural Factors unlearned skill or an
Vygotsky believed unfamiliar task, may
that culture opens a child perform only at a certain
to a vast variety of level of competency. A
experiences. For instance, more knowledgeable other
a particular culture where (MKO) shall guide the child
a child was raised may until he/ she is able to
have a different view on perform at a higher level of
education, religion, politics competency. MKO’s may be
or in many other areas. competent adults (parents,
teachers, etc.) or more
28
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
advanced peers. Generally,
the zone represents a
learning opportunity where
MKO’s assist children’s
development.
★ Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s theory
emphasized the importance
of more knowledgeable
others as vital influencers
and guides in children’s
cognitive development. He
defined scaffolding as the
appropriate and judicious Learning is truly a process of
assistance given by adults or both individual and social
peers so that the child can contexts. However, take
move from his actual zone note that learning will also
of development ( actual depend on the skills of
level of learning) to the MKOs and the learner’s
zone of proximal readiness and ability to
development (potentially learn. The difficulty of the
higher level of learning). skills being learned is also a
The process of scaffolding factor to consider.
moves in four levels: Educators, indeed, take on a
1. I whole lot of responsibility in
do, you honing learners' process of
watch. learning and development.
2. I
do, you ----- ----- -----
help. 3.
You do, I
help. The
4. You do, I watch.
The illustration
below explains the zone of
proximal development and
the role of MKOs in further
learning. Once a child is able
to learn with the assistance bioecological paradigm
of an adult or peers was developed by a Russian-
(scaffolding to reach ZPD), born American psychologist,
the child takes on the Urie Bronfenbrenner. He
autonomy to learn further, was greatly influenced by
but without the assistance Vygotski’s socio-cultural
of an adult or peers (e.g. theory. In relation to this,
learning how to ride a bike) Bronfenbrenner’s model
greatly highlighted vast
environmental factors that
shape human development.
These factors he considered
as systems which
were described as
varying spheres that
contribute to one’s
development
29
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
Bioecological Systems
(Bioecological Model) 2. Mesosystem
The mesosystem serves
Bronfenbrenner’s as a bridge towards other
theory viewed outside layers of one’s environment.
influences similar to a ripple It connects the different
effect (much like when you structures of a child’s
throw a pebble into a sound microsystem. It involves
body of water). These ripple interaction between
effects are what he parents, teachers and or
considered as spheres of other structures of the
one’s environment that community.
either directly or indirectly
affects the individual. 3. Exosystem
The exosystem is the
The ecological layer of a bigger social
systems theory is focused in system. It includes the city
the quality and context of a government, workplaces
child’s development as it and mass media. The child
further supports more and does not function directly
more studies that point out along with the structures
the importance of both within this layer although
biological and this layer may influence the
environmental factors in a child’s development by
child’s development. affecting some structures in
a child’s microsystem. For
1. Microsystem instance, parents may
The microsystem is the greatly be affected by
first layer of a child’s inflation and employment
environment. It involves crises. These circumstances
structures that are basically may then affect how they
the nearest from the child raise the child and how the
which he/ she directly child learns to live with the
interacts with. It comprises circumstances, as well as
an individual’s most basic the behavior and beliefs of
relationships such as family, his/ her parents.
school and neighborhood.
Relationships in this 4. Macrosystem
layer affect the child and The macrosystem is the
vice versa. People who the outermost part in the child’s
child interacts with are also environment. It includes
affected the same time they cultural values, customs and
influence a child's laws. Basically, this layer
development. A child is entails a wide variety of
affected by the behavior belief systems. Crucial as it
and beliefs of people is, the macrosystem
around him/ her (e.g. permeates (able to
parents) as the child also passthrough) all interactions
affects the behavior and in the other layers and
beliefs of these people. This reaches the individual
is what Bronfenbrenner him/herself. Thus, beliefs,
coined as bidirectional ideologies and attitudes of a
influences (similar to particular culture places a
mutuality, recalling big impact on human
Erikson’s theory). From the development.
term itself, it explains how
interactions (relationships) 5. Chronosystem
take effect in two directions. From the Greek word
This further occurs among “khronos” which means
all layers of environment.
30
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
time, the chronosystem every child’s environmental
covers the element of time systems to better
in relation to a child’s understand students and be
environments. This involves able to contribute stability
patterns of stability and and long-term relationships
change in the child’s life which support (not replace)
such that of orderly the relationships in a child’s
predictable patterns of home. Schools and teachers
behavior or sudden changes must work not to replace
in routine due to certain the lack of home but to
encounters that may be foster an environment that
new and peculiar to the welcomes and nurtures
child (e.g. timing of other families instead.
siblings coming, parents
separation or death).
The Role of Schools and

Teachers
Developmental
theories, such as this,
stresses the roles played by
different factors and the
extent to which these
factors interact with and in
an ongoing development of TOPIC 7 (WEEK 10 &
an individual. According to 11)
this theory, relationships in
the first layer (microsystem) Prenatal
is very important because a
child may not have the tools Development
to explore other parts of Infancy and
his/ environment if these
relationships break down or Toddlerhood
were not even established
in the first place. Thus,
primary relationships must
be with someone who can
Prenatal Period entails
provide a life-long sense of
conception or the process
caring which, ideally, must
of fertilization wherein a
be fostered by someone
whole new individual is
within the immediate
conceived. The complete
sphere of a child’s influence.
process of human
development begins at
A child lacking in the
conception. Thus, the
aforementioned foundation
prenatal period basically
of relationships may resort
involves developmental
to look for affirmation and
processes before birth. It is
attention in inappropriate
divided into three particular
places. These deficiencies or
periods:
maladaptive behaviors may
manifest especially in
Stages of Prenatal
adolescence as anti-social
Development
behaviors, lack of self
discipline and inability to
provide self-direction. 1. Germinal Period (first 2
weeks after conception)
This is where the teacher's ● The germinal period
role comes in. The theory encompasses the
helps teachers to look into creation of the zygote,
31
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
the continuous process excretory and
of cell division and the reproductive systems.
attachment of the
zygote to the uterine ● Life-support
wall. systems for the embryo
also develop rapidly.
● Cell differentiation These are the placenta
takes place as the (disk-shaped group of
blastocyst (inner layer tissues wherein blood
which later develops into vessels from the mother
the embryo) and and the offspring
trophoblast (outer layer intertwine but do not
of cells which later join), umbilical cord
provides nutrition and (containing two arteries
support for the embryo) and one vein, connecting
of the organism is the baby to the placenta)
formed. and the amnion (a bag or
envelope containing a
2. Embryonic Period (2 to clear fluid where the
8 weeks after developing embryo
conception) ● The mass floats).
cells called zygote
become an embryo as 3. Fetal Period (2-7
cell differentiation months after
continues and conception)
intensifies, lifesupport Growth and development of
systems for the embryo the fetus continues
develops and organs dramatically as follows:
begin to appear. This is ● At 3 months, the
called organogenesis or fetus is about 3 inches
the process of organ long, weighing about an
formation during the 1st ounce, becomes active by
two months of prenatal moving its arms and legs,
development. mouth, head, facial
movements may be
● Layers of cells are distinguished.
formed as the zygote gets
attached to the uterine ● At the 4th month,
wall: the fetus is about 6
▶ Endoderm is the inches long, weighing
inner layer of cells about 4 - 7 ounces;
which later on growth spurt occurs in
develops into the the lower body parts and
digestive and reflexes are stronger,
respiratory systems making the mother feel
▶ Ectoderm is one of the arm and leg
the outer layers of movements for the first
cells (because the time.
outer layer is divided
into 2). It is the ● Fetus shall be about
outermost layer which 12 inches long at the 5th
becomes the nervous month, weighing close to
system, sensory a pound; structures of
receptors for the eyes, the skin such as
ears, nose, and skin fingernails and toenails
parts such as nails and have formed; and are
hair. ▶ Mesoderm is more active.
the middle layer which
later on turns into the ● By the 6th month,
circulatory, skeletal, the fetus is about 14
32
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
inches long and weighs cluster of
about one and a half abnormalities that
pounds. The eyes and appears in children of
eyelids have completely mothers who drank
formed as well as the fine heavily during
layer of head covers. pregnancy.
Grasping reflex becomes Abnormalities may
present and irregular include facial
movements take place. deformities, and
defective limbs, face
● At the 8th and 9th and heart.
month, the fetus grows ➔ Fetal and neonatal
longer and gains a deaths are higher
substantial weight at among smoking
about 4 pounds. mothers. Incidents of
preterm births and
lower birth weights are
Teratology and Hazards also higher.
to Prenatal
Development ● Environmental
hazards may be radiation, x
Teratology is a scientific rays, environmental
field that studies and pollutants, toxic wastes and
investigates the congenital prolonged exposure to heat
abnormalities or birth in saunas or bathtubs.
defects and its causes. It
comes from the Greek word ● Other maternal
teratos which means factors can be diseases like
monster coined by Dr. German Measles (Rubella),
Isidore Geoffroy Saint- syphilis, genital herpes and
Hilaire (French physician) in AIDS. High anxiety, stress,
1832 in his writing “General nutrition and age may also
and Particular Structural be critical factors for
Monstrocities of Man and prenatal development.
Animals”. A teratogen, Infancy and
substance(s), is an agent Toddlerhood
that causes birth defects.
Physical Development of
Infants and Toddlers
Clusters of Hazards to
Prenatal Development are Recall from the earlier
as follows: discussion that there are
two patterns of physical
● Prescription and growth of a child beginning
nonprescription drugs (i.e. from conception to birth
antibiotic a prescription and across life-span. These
drug that can be harmful to are (a) the cephalocaudal
pregnancy while diet pills, trend where the head
aspirin and coffee are primarily develops more
nonprescription substances than the lower parts of the
that may endanger body, and (b) the
development) proximodistal trend which
explains the earlier
● Psychoactive drugs maturation of muscular
(nicotine caffeine and illegal control of the trunk and
drugs such as marijuana, arms to be followed by the
cocaine and heroin) hands and fingers as well as
➔ Fetal alcohol motor skills from the center
syndrome (FAS) is a of the body and outward.
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Motor Development
Height and Weight Infants and toddlers’ motor
● Newborns normally drop development begins from
5% to 10% of body reflexes to gross motor skills
weight due to neonatal and fine motor skills.
feeding adjustment.
Once the newborn child Reflexes are automatic
learns to adjust with bodily movements. For a
sucking, swallowing and newborn, reflexes serve as
digesting, they grow survival mechanisms before
rapidly. he/she has the opportunity
● Breastfed babies tend to to learn. Here are some of
be heavier than bottle- the most common reflexes
fed babies through the of a child:
first six months. After 6 ● Sucking reflex helps to
months, bottle-fed ensure that an infant can
babies usually weigh latch unto a bottle or
more than breast-fed breast.
babies. ● Rooting reflex is evident
● Infant’s length generally when an infant’s cheek is
increases about 30% stroked and the infant
within the first five responds by turning his
months. head in the direction of
● Weight triples during the the touch, opening his
first year but slows in the mouth for feeding.
2nd year of life ● Gripping reflex or the
● Low percentages are not tendency of a child to
cause for alarm as long grasp anything that is
as infants progress along placed in their palm.
a natural curve of steady ● Curling reflex is a child’s
development. response when their
inner sole is stroked by
Brain Development curling their toes. When
● Within the first two years the outer sole of a baby’s
of life occurs the most foot is stroked, the infant
dramatic changes in the will spread out his toes.
brain such as the growth ● Startle/Moro reflex is a
and expansion of child’s response to
dendrites. The process of sudden sounds or
myelination begins movements by throwing
prenatally and continues their arms and legs out
after birth. It increases and throwing their heads
the speed of information back.
travel through the ● Galant Reflex is observed
nervous system. when an infant’s middle
● A newborn’s brain is or lower back is stroked
about 25% of an adult next to the spinal cord
brain weight. By the 2nd which makes the infant
year of life, the brain curve his body toward
reaches at about 75% of the side being stroked as
an adult’s brain weight. a response.
● An infant’s brain awaits ● Tonic Neck Reflex is
for experiences in order observed when a child is
to determine how placed on his abdomen
connections between and whichever side the
neurons are made and child is facing, the limbs
used. on that side will
straighten, while the
opposite limbs will curl.
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
child constructs an
Gross motor skills, on the understanding of his
other hand, entails dramatic environment by
motor development within coordinating sensory
the first year of life. It experiences with physical
includes head control and motoric actions.
(lifting), rolling over, sitting,
standing, pulling up to Learning & Remembering
stand, walking with support, Infantile amnesia is the
standing and walking. inability to recall very early
events or memories. Studies
Fine motor skills involve a show that individuals
refined use of small muscles generally remember little or
controlling the hands, nothing before the age of
fingers and thumb allowing about 5 years old. Recalling
an individual to learn how memories before the age of
to draw, write, buttoning is extremely rare. It usually
and more. This ability involves significant
entails activities that involve memories (i.e. birth of a
precise eye-hand sibling or death of a parent).
coordination.
Language Development
----- ----- ----- As early as birth, infants are
observed to be tuning in to
Cognitive Development of their linguistic environment
Infants and Toddlers and are notable for acute
language learning abilities.
Cognitive development of In 2009, Robert Sternberg
infants is centered on how a stated that within the first
baby thinks, acquires and years of life there are stages
processes information. This in producing language:
includes language, 1. Cooing - comprises of
communication and largely vowel sounds
exploration skills. Cognitive 2. Babbling - comprises
activities include paying of consonant and
attention, remembering, vowel sounds
learning to talk, interacting 3. One-word utterances
with toys and identifying (limited in the vowels
faces. Recall from Piaget’s and consonants a child
theory that the utilizes) are called
sensorimotor stage is the holophrases which a
first stage of cognitive child uses to convey
development wherein a intentions, desires and
demands.
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech may --NOTES
— be observed by 18 months of age where a child typically
has 3 to 100 words in his vocabulary however still very
limited. Because of this limitation, a child may tend to
overextend the meaning of words in his existing lexicon to
cover things and ideas for which is unknown or unclear to
him (e.g. calling every four-legged animal as “doggie”).
This is called the overextension error. On the other hand,
telegraphic speech develops gradually at about 1.5 to 2.5
years of age wherein a child starts to combined single
words to produce two-word utterances with rudimentary
syntax but with articles and prepositions missing or lacking
5. Basic adult sentence structure (4 y/o and up) is acquired
with adult syntax and language structure and continued
vocabulary acquisition.
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
----- ----- -----
Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
Socio-emotional
development entails
the development of a
person’s ability to
master his/ her
emotions and the
ability to relate with
others. It includes
temperament,
attachments and social
skills. The formative
years are the first
three years of life
which are vital to
human development.
This is why the role of
parents, caregivers or
others are significant
to the development of
infants and toddlers.
Attachment
The social
phenomenon of
attachment explains
that infants need to
have an established
and enduring
emotional bond
characterized by a
tendency to seek and
maintain closeness to
a specific figure
especially during
stressful situations. Dr.
John Bowly, the father
of attachment theory,
mentioned that the
beginning of
attachment occurs
within the first 6
months of a child’s life
with a variety of built-
in signals the child
uses to keep his
caregiver engaged (i.e.
cry, gaze, smile). A lot
of responsive
interaction is the key
to a good start of
social development of
a child.
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
Temperament refers to one’s
emotional reactions, activity level,
attention span, persistence and ability
to regulate emotions.
Determinants of a child’s
temperament is as follows:
Activity level Mood

Threshold for distress Rhythmicity of children
Intensity of response Distraction
Approach to new situations Adaptability
Development of emotions Attention span
development, a child begins

to express him/herself
TOPIC 8 (WEEKS 12 artistically. Proper nutrition
& 13) Early and ample amount of sleep
further aids with their
Childhood physical growth. All these
are ideally acquired upon
guidance and constant care
of parents, caregivers and
Early childhood educators.
stage ranges from ages 3 to Thus, preschool years are a
8. This consists of the good time to begin learning
preschool years wherein skills requiring balance (i.e.
learning and development riding a bike and skating),
normally takes place before and instill habits (i.e. good
formal school begins. As physical and dental
mentioned from the hygiene).
previous discussions, the
earlier years of life plays a Nutrition and sleep is also
crucial role in human vital and has a long-term
development. Preschool effect on a child’s physical
age, a time before formal growth and development. It
schooling, is equally is beneficial to have about
imperative in forming a 10 - 12 hours of sleep each
strong foundation to later day for a child at this stage.
years of learning and Imperative biological
development. processes such as the
release of growth hormones
Physical Development of take place during sleep.
Preschoolers
Gross motor development
involves acquiring skills that
Significant changes in
engage the large muscles.
physical growth of
Gross motor skills are
preschoolers are marked by
categorized into three:
gross and fine motor skills
acquisition. At this point of
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
1. Locomotor skills connections. At birth, the
involve going from brain contains about 50
one place to billion neurons. Half of the
another (i.e. synapses made throughout
walking, running, an individual’s lifespan are
climbing, skipping, developed at age 2 and at
hopping, creeping, about age 6, the brain
galloping and develops for more
dodging). sophisticated thinking. This
2. Non-locomotor only proves that cognitive
skills are activities development at this stage
that do not require prepares the child for
moving from one further intricacies in
place to another learning language, acquiring
(i.e. bending, logical-mathematical skills,
stretching, turning interpersonal
and swaying). skills(interacting and
3. Manipulative skills relating with others),
involve projecting intrapersonal skills (growing
and receiving in one’s own feelings and
objects (i.e. emotions) and artistic
throwing, striking, expression.
bouncing, catching
and dribbling).
Symbolic and Intuitive
Fine motor development Thinking
pertains to the acquisition Under Piaget’s cognitive
of the ability to utilize theory, symbolic thinking of
smaller muscles of the arm, a child during the
hands and fingers preoperational stage
purposefully (i.e. picking, enables him/ her to draw
squeezing, pounding, objects that are not present
opening things, holding, which is the result of the
using a writing implement, child’s heightened language
self help skills like using the development and make-
spoon and fork, buttoning, believe play. Intuitive
zipping, combing and thinking, on the other hand,
brushing). allows the child to use
primitive reasoning by being
inquisitive (asking too many
questions). The observable
dramatic cognitive
improvement of a child at
this stage, however, still
presents some aspects of
Cognitive Development of
limitations or immaturity.
Preschoolers
Language Development and

Research findings on
Social Interaction Children’s
brain and development of
language development
children paved more
throughout the preschool
effective ways to care for
years becomes increasingly
children and teach them.
complex in four major areas
such as: phonology (speech
The human brain is
sounds), semantics (word
composed of neurons (brain
meaning), syntax (sentence
cells) that connect with
construction), and
each other to function,
pragmatics (conversation or
making synapses/ synaptic
social uses of language).
connections or cell
With these four areas,
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
parents, teachers and at ages 2 or 3 become
caregivers may monitor a aware that the mind exists
child’s language which they lean on to
development and identify needs, emotions and mental
which areas a child finds states. Research findings
struggle. suggest that social
Language is used for experience including (1)
socialization through early forms of
communication, as well as communication, 2)
to plan, guide and monitor imitation, (3) make-believe
one’s behavior (through play, (4) language, and (5)
inner speech or private social interaction is very
speech) Lev Vygostky, the important on the cognitive
proponent of socio-cultural development of children.
theory, viewed private ----- ----- -----
speech as an important tool
of thought during early Socio-emotional
childhood. Social interaction Development of
and language are both Preschoolers
required for a complete
cognitive development. Preschool age is the time
children learn their ever
expanding environment as
Information Processing they begin to discover new
Theory - roles outside of their
Attention and homes. Children become
Memory eagerly interested in
This model conceptualizes asserting themselves while
mental processes of relating with other people.
children as that of computer This explains the common
processing, encoding, knowledge that attending
storing and decoding data. pre-school is more for
During preschool age, the socialization than for
attention span of children academic learning.
becomes significantly
longer, however, they are Pre-schoolers’ Initiative
focused more on previously Healthy preschoolers
encountered or recalled develop initiative as
information and reconstruct discussed under Erikson’s
it in the present. theory of psychosocial
development. Recall that
Preschool aged children are initiative is a child’s ability
able to retain information to take action and assert
for up to 15 - 30 seconds oneself to create, invent,
(this is the span of their pretend, take risks and
shortterm memory engage in lively and
assuming no rehearsal). imaginative activities with
Between ages 2 and 5, long- peers.
term memory begins to
form. This explains why Self-concept is the way a
most people cannot person sees oneself with a
remember anything before general view of one’s
age 2 or 3. abilities, strengths and
weaknesses. For
Theory of Mind refers to an preschoolers, they already
individual's thoughts about have a clear understanding
how mental processes work that they are respectively
(Santrock, 2002). This separate and distinct
involves a set of ideas about individuals. Their self-
mental activities. Children concept is focused,
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
however, on observable attention on anything
characteristics and usual that interests him/her
beliefs, emotions and 2. Onlooker - child spends
attitudes. Furthermore, time watching others
selfesteem is an important play (sometimes may
component of self-concept talk but does not enter
as it refers to one’s into play with others)
judgment about his or her 3. Solitary play - child
own worth. Naturally, starts to play on his own
children at this stage are and seemingly leaving
often positive on esteem other children playing
and assertive on various nearby unnoticed
activities (i.e. taking 4. Parallel play - child
initiative as to say “kaya ko plays with toys similar
na!”). to those near him but
only plays beside and
Environmental Factors and not with them
Gender 5. Associative play - child
Preschoolers are capable of play with others, and
gender typing as they interaction among them
continue to develop takes place but without
different schemas, including task assignment and
in gender. This is the rules agreed upon
process of forming gender
6. Cooperative - child
roles, gender-based
plays with others and is
preferences and behaviors
bounded by some
accepted by society. This
agreed upon rules and
explains the tendency of
roles wherein goal/s can
children to associate certain
be making something,
things such as colors, toys,
play a
clothes, professions,
game or act out
behaviors and others with
something
being a girl or a boy because
they are already building
Caregiving Styles
their own gender identity as
Parents, teachers and other
well. Gender typing and
significant people’s
gender identity take great
caregiving style or manner
influence from
of rearing up children
environmental factors of a
affects the socio-
child such as the family,
development of children.
teachers, peers and the
Diana Baumrind
mass media.
constructed a model
describing the different
caregiving styles, this is
Stages of Play by Mildred known as the Parenting
Parten (1930’s) Styles Theory. According to
As tackled previously, play is her theory, there are
a vital event for early varying degrees of
childhood development demandingness and
wherein social interaction is responsiveness as
of great importance. This determinants of caregiving
model by Parten describes styles. Demandingness
play development of refers to the level of control
children aligned with the and expectations while
gradual increase of social responsiveness pertains to
interaction. the behavioral expression of
affection and
1. Unoccupied - child communication (i.e. how
appears to be not
playing but directs his
40
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
warm, caring and respectful
a parent is to the child).
Middle and Late
Childhood
Middle Childhood
Primary Schoolers
Physical growth during

middle childhood or the
primary school years has a
slow but steady pace which
highlights the following:
1. good muscle control and
coordination,
2. developing eye-hand
coordination,
3. good personal hygiene,
and 4. awareness of good
safety habits.
1. Authoritative - high
Height and Weight
demandingness and Within this period, children
responsiveness increase in height by about
2. Permissive - low 2 inches by average which
demandingness, high allows them to perform
responsiveness
activities or tasks with
3. Authoritarian - high
demandingness, low
greater accuracy. Weight
responsiveness gain, on the other hand,
4. Negligent / increases on the average of
Uninvolved - approximately 6.5 pounds a
low year. Factors that indicate
demandingness and how much a child grows or
responsiveness
changes include genes, food
intake, climate, exercise,
medical
TOPIC 9 (WEEKS 14 & conditions and
diseases/ illnesses.
15)
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ADM – 002- 20- 0061
Bones and Muscles 4. Agility - ability to
Growth of bones and change/ shift the
muscles are still incomplete direction of the
at this stage. Thus, middle body
childhood stage is the best 5. Power - ability to
time for parents and perform a maximum
teachers to educate effort in the
children of good dietary and shortest possible
exercise habits that will aid period.
in having strong and healthy
bones throughout one’s life.
Motor Development
At this stage of Implications to Child Care,
development, children tend Education and Parenting
to move a lot (i.e. running, Healthcare providers,
skipping, hopping, jumping, teachers and parents may
rolling, dancing). Performing provide children with good
unimanual (requires the use nutrition and involve them
of one hand) activities and in coordinated and age-
bi-manual (requires the use appropriate activities.
of two hands) becomes
easier while graphic ----- ----- -----
activities (drawing and
writing) becomes more Cognitive Development of
controlled but continues to
Primary Schoolers
develop. The following are
the highlights of motor
Primary schoolers or
development of primary
elementary-aged children
schoolers:
start to develop a more
mature way of looking at
1. Coordination - things and or
series of organized circumstances. This
and timed cognitive milestone greatly
movements to occur enhances their problem-
in a particular way solving skills. Recall
to perform a decentration from Piaget’s
defined output. theory, children learn in a
2. Balance - ability to sequential manner that is
maintain dependent on the
equilibrium/ development of the
stability of the body previous milestone they
in different achieved. At this stage they
positions. Static can already take on
balance is the ability complex sequential
to maintain symbolic tasks however,
equilibrium in fixed reasoning is still immature.
positions while
dynamic balance is Implications to Child Care,
the ability to Education and Parenting
maintain Parents, teachers and child
equilibrium while in care providers must
movement. understand that children
3. Speed - ability to have differing intelligence
cover a great profiles which are based on
distance in the the influences of learning
shortest possible and achievement. Listed
time below are ways wherein
significant adults can
42
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
recognize the varying child cannot complete or
intelligence profiles of master a task (i.e. school
children: activity).
● help children draw Self-concept is the

on their strengths knowledge about the self
and promote including one’s personality
growth in their traits, physical
weaknesses characteristics, abilities,
● plan lessons that values, goals and roles.
cater to multiple Primary schoolers have a
intelligences based growing understanding of
on instructional themselves as well as their
objectives place in the environment.
● encourage children Thus, parents and the
to read more growing number of people a
everyday to increase child encounters have a
their vocabulary great influence on a child’s
● bring children to self-concept.
museums, art Building friendships is also a
exhibits and crucial but essential part of
historical landmarks a child’s social and
to widen their emotional growth. Children
perspective about in the primary school age
the world and most likely belong to a peer
people group. Peer groups refer to
the grouping of children
● lessen children’s
who belong under
screen time and
approximately similar age
increase personal
groups.
and face-to-face
interactions
Implications to Child Care,
Education and Parenting
Children under the primary
Socio-emotional
school age begin to take
Development of Primary
pride in their ability to do
Schoolers
things and their capacity to
exert effort (these are
Children at this stage tend instances wherein a child
to become increasingly exhibits self-control) and
selfconfident and are more take pleasure in receiving
capable of coping with positive feedback from
social interactions as they parents and teachers. This,
also become aware of in turn, is a good
others' needs and desires. opportunity for parents and
Recall that primary school teachers to encourage
age or middle childhood positive emotional
belongs under the fourth responses from children by
stage of the psychosocial acknowledging their mature
theory of Erikson where and compassionate
children need to resolve behaviors.
and maintain a balance
between the crises in
In some instances, a child
industry and inferiority.
might poke, pull, hit or kick
Having a sense of industry
other children when they
entails a situation where
are first introduced. This is
long and patient work is
not a sign of antisocial
demanded from a child
behavior but rather a fairly
while inferiority refers to
normal response to a new
the feeling of failure when a
and unknown situation as
43
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
children at this stage are playing
still forming their own world cooperatively;
views. Parents and teachers 5. be a role model of
may assist in the process of healthy emotions
children making friends by: and expressing
these emotions
1. exposing children to appropriately; and
“kid-rich” 6. demonstrate
environment such calmness and
as playgrounds or staying in control of
parks one’s own feelings.
2. creating play group
in class and allow ----- ----- -----
children to mingle
with each other Late Childhood
3. reminding children
that hitting and the Physical Development of
likes may be hurtful Intermediate Schoolers
for others
4. coordinating with Motor Skills
parents and other During this period, greater
teachers in order for opportunity in developing
children to have motor skill functioning is
greater present as a result of
opportunities to changes arising gradually at
interact with other this stage. They now have
children more control over their
bodies which pave the way
Furthermore, in relation to for them to have greater
children’s socio-emotional freedom to choose
compentecy, parents, whatever hobbies or sports
teachers and health care that interests them.
providers should be able to: Children at this stage are
1. gain understanding centered on refining their
of children’s motor skills which explains
socioemotional why they prefer active
strengths and movements (such as
weaknesses through running, jumping or playing)
observation of than passive movements
behavior at home; (such as sitting or standing
2. work collaboratively too long).
with the parents of
a child and health Early Puberty
care provider to Late childhood generally
expand insights on a ranges from ages 9 through
child’s 12 or “preteens” period.
development; This is likely the stage
3. provide supportive wherein puberty begins.
setting where Puberty is the period in
children have which the body undergoes
opportunities to physical changes and
practice emotional becomes capable of sexual
regulation and social reproduction. This is likely
skills with peers; the reason why there is a
4. give out activities famous phrase usually
where children can connoted by parents,
practice taking “raging hormones.” It is
turns, sharing and because the brain triggers
and elicits the heightened
44
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
release of hormones in the home and in school
body. More and more, at for physical
this stage, the physical body exercises and sports
goes through maturation to ★ encourage children
the extent of conditioning to participate in
for reproduction. varied worthwhile
activities until they
Generally, girls become are able to discover
physically mature two years their interest
ahead of boys. Budding preferences
breasts for girls are the ★ develop a strong
initial sign of puberty and emotional
some may also start with attachment with
their menstrual period as children so as to
early as 8 years old while address any
some have it as late as 13 insecurities and
years old. social concerns
★ provide healthier
Insecurities food choices
This is a time when children
may tend to be very ----- ----- -----
concerned about their
physical appearance. Girls
may start being conscious of
their weight and decide to
eat less. While for boys,
Cognitive Development of
they may become aware of
Intermediate Schoolers
their stature and muscle
size and strength. Thus, this
may bring about insecurities Intermediate schoolers are
to children under their concrete operational
preteens. Parents and thinkers, as per Piaget’s
teachers must then be very theory of cognitive
conscious of their dealings development. Children are
with these children. now able to effectively
Children must be given organize their thoughts, can
appropriately designed logically perceive immediate
activities that: situations and can apply
★ promote healthy their learnings towards a
growth particular situation. In
general, children at this
★ provide a feeling of
stage become very
accomplishment
interested in talking about
and;
the future such that of their
★ reduce the risk of
potential careers. Their
certain diseases logical and reasoning skills
allow them to think about
Implications to child-care, what they want and how to
education and parenting get it.
Children at this stage still
have a lot of physical Although there are notable
maturation to go through progress on their cognitive
despite the rise of many abilities, intermediate
physical changes they schoolers still have very
undergo at this period. limited reasoning and
Healthcare providers, logical thinking abilities. This
teachers and parents must is why proper guidance and
consider the following: nurturance from parents,
★ provide ample teachers and the
opportunities at community is crucial in
45
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
order for children to
succeed in their intellectual As far as perks served on
endeavors. the platter, there are also
negative results of the
Creativity media. Violence and
Creativity is innate. This is aggression are often
true especially for children dubbed as one.
especially during this period Furthermore, Public Health
that they are open to Summit in 2000 listed some
explore new things. of these negative results:
Children are usually at their 1. Children will
best when the work is done increase anti-social
in small pieces. Providing and aggressive
support and guidance is behavior.
imperative. Note that 2. Children may
activities encourage become less
creativity when: sensitive to violence
★ it encourage and those who
different responses suffer from violence.
from each child; 3. Children may view
★ it celebrate the world as violent
uniqueness; and mean,
★ it breaks becoming more
stereotypes; fearful of being a
★ it values process victim of violence.
over product; 4. Children will desire
★ it reduces stress and to see more violence
anxiety in children; in entertainment
★ it supports sharing and real life.
of ideas, not only 5. Children will view
with the teacher/ violence as an
parent but also with acceptable way to
other children; and settle conflicts.
★ it minimizes
competition and These put the responsibility
external rewards. to parents, teachers and the
community as they are the
The Impact of Media one who allow and provide
The innovations in unlimited access to media
technology, particularly in (i.e. allowing children to
media, has given learners watch tv or online videos,
more opportunity to: play video games, browse
1. communicate for comics and other digital
effectively in speech literaries, listen to songs
and in writing; and their lyrics and more).
2. work
collaboratively; Parents, child-care providers
3. use technological and teachers must
tools; recognize that children have
4. analyze problems, different intelligence
set goals, and profiles based on influences
formulate strategies on learning and
for achieving those achievement. It should be
goals; and recognized through:
5. seek out 1. being an eager
information or skills participant in
on their own, as children’s growth
needed, to meet and development;
their goals.
46
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
2. understanding how Listed below are the five
to use the children’s types of peer status:
natural curiosity to
help make the ★ Popular - frequently
appropriate nominated as the
developmental bestfriend and one
leaps in their skills who is rarely
and abilities; and disliked by peers
3. creating an ★ Average - receive an
atmosphere where average number of
risks can be taken positive and
and discoveries negative
made while children nominations from
remain safe. peers
★ Neglected - very
----- ----- ----- seldom nominated
as best friend but is
not really disliked
Socio-emotional ★ Rejected -
Development of infrequently
Intermediate Schoolers nominated as a best
friend but one who
Friendships and family is also disliked by
support peers
By the time children reach ★ Controversial -
their late childhood years, frequently
they already familiarize nominated as a best
themselves with other friend but at the
children and are used to same time is disliked
interacting with others of by peers
different ages and gender.
This is because most of their Family is the primary
time is now spent outside of support system of a child
or away from home. Thus, which is also crucial at this
less supervision by adults is stage. Note that support
required as their peer size systems make failures and
increases. Building good setbacks of an individual
peer relationships becomes temporary and
very important for them surmountable. If they do
that the approval and not find support primarily
belongingness they receive from their family members
from others highly (e.g. in finding their
contributes to the stability interests), they might get
and security of their frustrated and may
emotional development. attribute these to personal
flaws or deficits.
Self-concept
Feeling of self-
competence is most
recognized at this
stage where, according
to Erikson, social crisis
of industry vs.
inferiority takes place.
The sense of
competence should be
growing at this stage of
development. Thus,
they should be offered
with ample chances to
47
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
experience both
success and failure
alongside constant
support and sincere
feedback. Children in
their late childhood
years are now able to
describe internal and
psychological
characteristics and
traits (e.g. “I’m brave
and confident”). They
employ more social
comparison (to
distinguish oneself
from others) and are
more capable of
perspective taking (or
the ability to judge
others’ intentions,
purposes and actions,
give importance to
social attitudes and
behaviors, and
increase skepticism of
others’ claims).
These abilities increase with age.
Emotional development
School-age children
present notable
improvement on
emotional
understanding that
various emotions can
be experienced at a
single event or
situation. This Is one of
the milestones in this
stage of development.
Emotional intelligence
(EQ) entails the ability
to show or conceal
emotions, utilize ways
to redirect feelings of
oneself and of others
in order to guide and
motivate behavior.
Furthermore, it is the
extent to which one is
capable of
understanding and
managing emotions
towards more
effective
communication,
building emphatic
relations and defusing
conflicts. It has four
main areas: ★
48
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
developing emotional
self-awareness
★ managing emotions (self-control)
★ Reading emotions (perspective

taking)
★ Handling emotions (resolve
problems)
Implications to child
care, education and
parenting Health-care
providers, teachers
and parents should be
able to:
★ gain understanding of
children’s socio-
emotional strengths and
weaknesses
★ encourage children to talk about
their feelings without doing it
forcefully
★ provide opportunities for
children to build relationships
with teachers and fellow
classmates;
★ remind children that friendships
have their ups and downs and
that occasional conflicts and
arguments can be healthy;
★ design activities that allow
children to work on their
own and discover activities and
hobbies that they
enjoy; and model
healthy
relationships.
Adolescents
TOPIC 10 (WEEKS 16
& 17) Physical, cognitive and
socio-emotional changes
Adolescencetransition during the period
of adolescence. It begins
with the biological changes
of puberty. As the fact
remains that
developmental pace varies
49
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
among individuals, with bodily cells. Hormonal
adolescence may come: changes in the
● as early as ages 11 - hypothalamus and pituitary
12 (early glands signal the entire
adolescence) process of sexual
● at ages 14 - 16 maturation. The process
(middle entails secretion of
adolescence) gonadotropic hormones
● at ages 17 - 20 (late from the pituitary gland,
adolescence) which in turn causes
secretion of testosterone
Growth spurt and estrogen in males and
During adolescence, females, respectively.
growth spurts take place
wherein hormonal levels Testosterone, in males,
rise. This results in changes stimulates male
to body dimensions (i.e. leg characteristics comprised
length, shoulder width, by:
trunk length) where spurt ● enlargement of the
in height is ascribed to testis (gland that
trunk growth rather than produces sperm in
leg growth. All muscular the scrotum),
and skeletal dimensions growth of the penis
appear to take part in the male organ for
growth spurts during copulation
adolescence. ● capacity for
ejaculation of male
Girls generally experience sperms
growth spurt at age 10, ● voice change
peak at age 11 ½ and then (lowering of voice)
slowly continue further for ● facial hair
a few more years. On the development
other hand, growth spurts continuing growth of
in boys begin at age 12, pubic hair
peak at age 14 and decline ● spermache or
at age 15 ½, while slow periodical discharge
continual growth continues of semen Estrogen,
on for several more years. in females,
stimulates female
By the time girls reach age characteristics
16, 98% of adult height is comprised by:
generally obtained while ● breast enlargement
boys do so at age 17. ● growth of the uterus
Growth in height is and vagina
conditioned by stages in ● appearance of pubic
bone maturation. The hair
muscles also grow in terms ● widening of the hips
of size and strength. Similar ● menarche or first
growth spurts occur for menstruation
weight, muscle size, head
and face maturation, and Sexual identity
the reproductive organs. Sexual identity involves
sexual orientation,
Hormones activities, interests, and
During puberty, hormonal styles of behavior (Bugwell
changes in the body are & Rosenthal, 1996). Some
complex. Hormones are adolescents are very
powerful and highly anxious about sex and are
specialized chemical sexually active. Others are
substances that interact
50
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
only a bit anxious about sex adolescent period. It is
and are sexually inactive. It important that adolescents
is also at this period when feel confident about how
most gay/lesbian and they look, but the physical
transgenders begin to features of the human body
recognize and make sense (facial looks, body size, color
of their feelings. of skin, etc.) depend on
genetic heritage which must
Sexual orientation is a be respected. However,
person's tendency to be there is more to body image
attracted to people of the than physical looks and
same sex (homosexual these concern good habits
orientations), of the in relation to:
opposite sex (heterosexual ● cleanliness and
orientation) or of both sexes grooming
(bisexual orientation) ● proper wearing of
clothes according to
Self-esteem is defined as current styles
one's thoughts and feelings ● erect body posture
about one's self-concept ● eye contact while
and identity. It is a major communicating
aspect of identity formation ● decorum (good form
during the period of and confidence) and
adolescence. decency.
Implications for child care, ----- ----- -----

education and parenting To
meet the physical
development of adolescent
children, parents need to be Cognitive Development of
aware of manifestations of Adolescents
behavioral patterns that
require closer
During adolescence,
communication, guidance
thinking takes more of an
and support. The teen is
abstract form. This allows
especially addicted to
the individual to think and
modern gadgets for music
reason in a wider
listening, video games,
perspective. Behavioral
mobile phone
studies also show the
communication, and social
development of executive
media posting which cause
functions comprised by
shorter sleeping time that
cognitive functions that
may contribute to
enable the control and
increased levels of daytime
coordination of thoughts
drowsiness, sleeping
and behavior. Adolescence
problems and depression.
is therefore a period of
In school, teachers need to
human development that
be aware of the possible
has great influence on the
drop in self-esteem among
individual's future life
adolescent learners. The
through character and
teacher's support is crucial
personality formation.
to protect adolescent
learners against severe
Changes in thinking patterns
distress and anxiety over
are marked by the
their school work and social
acquisition of new cognitive
relationships.
skills due to the brain's
increasing in weight and
Body Image
refining synaptic
Consciousness about body
connections (technically
image is strong during the
51
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
known as corpus collosum) green, big or small, flat
which join and coordinate or round).
the two hemispheres of the ➢ Relativistic thinking
brain. Another brain subjectively making an
development is myelination opinion on facts -
or the process of correlated involving one's own
temporal and parietal areas. bias, prejudice of
This second development distortion of facts -
covers the brain systems which may be either
whose executive functions right or wrong (e.g.
relate to attention, verbal arguing for or against
fluency, language and the superiority of the
planning. Ages 12, 15, and races, whether white,
18.5 were identified as the brown, yellow or black).
three peaks in brain ➢ Real versus possible -
maturation (these coincide examining a situation
with operational thinking and exploring the
processes for logical possible in terms of
reasoning) by neurological situations or solutions
scientists through brain (e.g. possible success in
scanning technology. implementing a student
Adolescents begin to project or a school
acquire spatial awareness policy).
and formulate abstract or
general ideas involving An indication of formal
numbers, order, and cause- operational thinking is the
effect. All these changes ability of the adolescent
propel the adolescent from thinker for combinational
the world of sensible and analysis, which is his taking
concrete thoughts to the stock of the effects of
world of the possible and several variables in a
universal ideas (e.g. general situation, testing one
ideas about the good, true variable at a time, and not
and beautiful). randomly.
Formal Operational Hypothetico-deductive

Thinking reasoning emerges in
From the lens of Piaget’s adolescent reasoning from
theory, adolescents are general facts / situations to
operational thinkers. a particular conclusion. This
Incorporate that involves deducing from
operational thinking variables, generating and
demonstrates how the recognizing a truth,
cognitive capacity of the expressed by the
adolescent allows him/ her transitional process of
to go beyond the sensible deriving a conclusion from a
and concrete in order to hypothesis.
dwell on what is abstract,
hypothetical and possible.
Siegler's Information
Furthermore, formal
Processing Skills
operational thinking
Robert Siegler views the
consists:
influence of the
➢ Propositional thinking -
environment on thinking. He
making assertions
sees cognitive growth, not
outside visual evidence,
as stages of development,
and stating what may be
but more of a sequential
possible in things not
acquisition of specific
seen by the eyes (for
knowledge and strategies
example, whether an
for problem-solving. He was
unseen object is red or
52
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
able to derive that discouragement when social
adolescents may show the realities become harsh (e.g.
following: unexpected low grades,
● speed in information family discord, etc.) 3.
processing, coupled Increased
with greater awareness argumentativeness. Teens
and control and enjoy learning through the
acquired knowledge use of group dynamics
base - a more efficient including role play,
kind of thinking discussion, debate, and
compared with that of drama.
the child
● complexity by way of Implications to
considering longer-term adolescent
implications and care, education
possibilities beyond the and parenting
here-andnow, and Parents and teachers must
● increased volume of be able to recognize the
information processing cognitive development
coupled with longer paths among adolescents
memory span along and create situations that
many areas or domains will foster higher thinking
of knowledge. The skills through:
adolescent thus ● Activities at home
transforms from being a e.g. asking teenage
novice to becoming a children for
near-expert. suggestions on
family matters --
Behavior and adolescent house physical
cognitive growth Behavioral arrangements,
tendencies may accompany things to buy, places
cognitive growth during to go to for family
adolescence. These are: outing, etc.
1. Egocentrism. This is ● Allowing more
the adolescents tendency to independence e.g.
think too much of use of school
themselves, while being too allowances, choice
sensitive to social on what to wear,
acceptance of their etc.
appearance, actions, ● Activities in school
feelings, ideas, etc. that allow
Egocentrist teens feel they participation, such
are being watched like an as projects, field
actor on stage; keep an trips, joint internet
imaginary audience who are research, etc., and
strict critics of dress, ● Develop reading
behavior or performance. skills through
One egocentric strain is an magazine articles,
exaggerated feeling of self Internet blogs.
importance which may lead
to murky early boy-girl Developing occupational
relationships, dangerous skills
escapades and adventures. Senior High School Grades
2. Idealism. This refers 11 and 12 were designed to
to imagining the far-fetched provide attention to
and less ideal situations at occupational skills that are
home, in school, and in absent even among college
society. The teen may graduates. The Department
imagine a utopia or heaven of Labor and Employment
on earth leading to reports that there is
53
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
mismatch between messengers, personnel.
academic preparation and These adolescent attitudes
job skills thus worsening the and abilities demonstrate:
gap between employable ★ self-reliance - working
school graduates and independently without
potential jobs or stress;
employment. Theorist John ★ money management
Holland has identified basic not spending money on
personality factors that luxuries, much less on
match with attitude and alcohol and drugs;
work preferences: ★ social responsibility -
● Realistic - This cooperation and respect
personality type prefers for other including
practical tasks, including superiors
those requiring physical ★ work orientation - pride
labor and motor in work and quality of
coordination, and less of work; • personal
interpersonal skills (e.g. responsibility - assuming
carpentry, driving, etc.). tasks independently and
● Investigative - This competitively; and
prefers tasks that are ★ positive attitude to
conceptual such as in work - work is seen as a
the fields of science and gainful and wholesome
technology as chemists, activity and not a
scientists, technologists, burden.
etc.
● Conventional - This
prefers structured tasks Socio-emotional
that cater to the needs Development of
of others, such as in
Adolescents
office jobs and manual
labor.
Teens develop social
● Enterprising - this
cognition in the context of
prefers independence
family structure, school,
and innovation in
community and media. He/
business and other
she exhibits emotions that
enterprises that reflect
need to be regulated for
autonomy and personal
success and for one’s own
initiative.
well-being.
● Artistic - this prefers
unstructured tasks that
Emotions (commonly known
show ability for self-
as human feelings) are
expression such as from
manifested by varied
artists, musicians, and
conscious or unconscious
performers.
moods. A more accurate
description is that it is a
Adolescents may also show subjective reaction to
capability for multitasking, internal or external stimulus
later on becoming that involves physical
professionals (ie.doctors change, action or appraisal.
who are at the same time The unique patterns of
business entrepreneurs). emotions are: 1. event that
Early on adolescents may is strong or important
show abilities for gainful
2. physiological changes in
work, later on becoming
heart pulse rate, brain
self-supporting in college, by
activity, hormone levels
entering the service sector
and body temperature
as fast-food employees,
sales clerks, office
54
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
3. readiness for action these years may not be
often described as "fight accurate, but they can be a
or flight" problem if not controlled. In
4. dependence of the time, emotional
emotion on how the competence can be
stimulus is appraised or developed by the child and
interpreted. this means he/she gains the
ability to regulate emotions
According to biologists, the and understand the
Autonomic Nervous System emotions of other people.
(ANS) controls emotional
reactions. The ANS is Girls are more skilled in
connected to most of the regulating emotions, but
glands and muscles in the they are more likely than
body. The system has two boys to be anxious, and
parts: the sympathetic part twice as likely to be
which excites or arouses depressed. Adolescent girls
and the parasympathetic are more likely than boys to
part which depresses body have both negative and
functions. These parts positive interactions with
coordinate for arousal or family and friends..
slowing down amid the
challenges of life. Adolescents especially feel
stress, usually from
Positive and Negative relationships with parents,
emotions friends, sweethearts, also
Positive emotions like from pressure of school
interest and joy motivate work. Thus adolescents are
the individual to continue stereotyped as moody and
his/her behavior. On the negative, poor emotion
other hand, negative control. Some studies argue
emotions may cause against stereotyping
withdrawal from what may adolescents pointing at
be perceived as bad or other emotions among
dangerous. For Charles teens such as feeling bored,
Darwin there are six basic tired, sleepy, social
emotions, namely interest, discomfort like
joy/ happiness, sadness, awkwardness and
anger, disgust and fear. loneliness. Generally,
Other scientists expanded adolescents are seen to
the list to include love, tend to emotions from
pride, hope, gratitude, social evaluation such as
compassion, jealousy and feeling embarrassed when
anxiety. being looked at, also only
fairly happy most of the
Social emotions start to time. Other observations
emerge as early as the are that most adolescents
toddler years (15-24) are not moody, while some
months) with feelings such are frequently angry,
as envy, embarrassment, anxious or sad. Thus,
shame, guilt and pride. educators must recognize
Observable emotions during and address the needs of
teenagers
who are chronically unhappy or moody as it is
imperative to understand that emotional
negativity for adolescents is a normal
phase of their development.
55
ADM – 002- 20- 0061
Social Media
Adolescents have easy
access to the culture of
various media and social
media, including
computers, cell phones,
video games, music
devices, FM radio and
cable television. Findings
indicate that electronic
communication
negatively affects
adolescents' social
development. As
face-to-face
communication is
replaced, social skills are
impaired sometimes
leading to unsafe
interaction with those
who use social media to
exploit others
financially or
sexually. Girls
are particularly
vulnerable to online
socializing, while boys
socializing in Internet
cafes lower their
academic work and
achievement. Socially
insecure teens become
victims rather than
beneficiaries of the
modern gadgets /
innovations of the digital
age.
56

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: Topic 1 (Week 2)

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Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: Topic 1 (Week 2)

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ADM – 002- 20- 0061

3. Stability vs. Change -

There are five stages

2. Anal Stage (18 months 4. Latency Stage (age 6 to

● The Superego develops

Sigmund Freud used

● Object permanence is ● Animism is the

● Reversibility refers to the ability to follow and

● Conservation is the ability to know that certain

● Seriation is the ability to arrange or order things in a

Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage

The following principles can be

● Stage 2: Mutual Benefit

and order. An individual oneself. Thus, a person

● Stage 5: Social Contract,

The Role of Schools and

----- ----- -----

Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers

Activity level Mood

development, a child begins

Language Development and

Physical growth during

● help children draw Self-concept is the

★ Reading emotions (perspective

Implications for child care, ----- ----- -----

Formal Operational Hypothetico-deductive

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