UNIT-III

Mobile IP And Wireless

Access Protocol:

M V K Gayatri Shivani
Assistant Professor
Syllabus [Textbook: Wireless communication and Networks-William Stallings(UNIT 12) ]
➢Mobile IP: IP Packet Delivery
➢Agent Discovery
➢ Tunneling And Encapsulation,
➢Mobile IP Session Initiation Protocol
➢WAP Architecture-overview,
➢WML scripts
➢WAP service
➢WAP session protocol
➢Wireless transaction protocol;
➢Wireless datagram protocol.
➢ IPV6-Network Layer In The Internet
Mobile IP: Definition and Operation
• Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol,
IP) that allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP
address. It ensures that the communication will continue without the user’s
sessions or connections being dropped.
• If a mobile computer, or mobile node, moves to a new network while keeping its
IP address unchanged, its address does not reflect the new point of attachment.
Consequently, existing routing protocols cannot route datagrams to the mobile
node correctly. In this situation, you must reconfigure the mobile node with a
different IP address representative of its new location, which is a cumbersome
process. Thus, under the current Internet Protocol, if the mobile node moves
without changing its address, it loses routing; but if it does change its address, it
loses connections.
Mobile IP includes three basic capabilities:
Discovery: A mobile node uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective
home agents and foreign agents.
• Registration: A mobile node uses an authenticated registration procedure to
inform its home agent of its care-of address.
• Tunneling: Tunneling is used to forward IP datagrams from a home address to
a care-of address.
Discovery
• The discovery process very similar to the router advertisement process defined in ICMP .
• Accordingly, agent discovery makes use of ICMP router advertisement messages, with
one or more extensions specific to Mobile IP.
• The mobile node is responsible for an ongoing discovery process. It must determine if it
is attached to its home network, in which case IP datagrams may be received without
forwarding, or if it is attached to a foreign network
• For the purpose of discovery, a router or other network node that can act as an agent
periodically issues a router advertisement ICMP message
• A mobile node listens for these agent advertisement messages.
• The mobile node compares the network portion of the router’s IP address with the
network portion of its own home address. If these network portions do not match, then
the mobile node is on a foreign network.
Agent Solicitation
• Foreign agents are expected to issue agent advertisement messages
periodically.
• If a mobile node needs agent information immediately, it can issue an
ICMP router solicitation message
• Any agent receiving this message will then issue an agent
advertisement.
Move Detection
• a mobile node may move from one network to another due to some
handoff mechanism, without the IP level being aware of it.
• The agent discovery process is intended to enable the agent to detect
such a move.
• The agent may use one of two algorithms for this purpose:
❑ Use of Lifetime Field

❑Use of Network Prefix

Co-located Address
• In some cases a mobile node may move to a network that has no
foreign agents or on which all foreign agents are busy.
• As an alternative, the mobile node may act as its own foreign agent by
using a co-located care-of address.
• A co-located care-of address is an IP address obtained by the mobile
node that is associated with the mobile node’s current interface to a
network.
Registration
Once a mobile node has recognized that it is on a foreign network and has acquired a care-of
address, it needs to alert a home agent on its home network and request that the home agent
forward its IP traffic. The registration process involves four steps:
1. The mobile node requests the forwarding service by sending a registration request to the
foreign agent that the mobile node wants to use.
2. The foreign agent relays this request to the mobile node’s home agent.
3. The home agent either accepts or denies the request and sends a registration reply to the
foreign agent.
4. The foreign agent relays this reply to the mobile node.
Securing the Registration Procedure

A key concern with the registration procedure is security. Mobile IP is designed to resist two
types of attacks:

1. A node may pretend to be a foreign agent and send a registration request to a

home agent so as to divert traffic intended for a mobile node to itself.

2. A malicious agent may replay old registration messages, effectively cutting the mobile
node from the network. The technique that is used to protect against such attacks involves the
use of message authentication and the proper use of the identification field of the registration
request and reply message
Tunneling
To forward an IP datagram to a care-of address, the home agent puts the entire IP datagram into an
outer IP datagram. This is a form of encapsulation, just as placing an IP header in front of a TCP
segment encapsulates the TCP segment in an IP datagram. Three options for encapsulation are
allowed for Mobile IP:

IP-within-IP encapsulation: This is the simplest approach, defined in RFC 2003.

• Minimal encapsulation: This approach involves fewer fields, defined in RFC 2004.

• Generic routing encapsulation (GRE): This is a generic encapsulation procedure

that was developed prior to the development of Mobile IP, defined in RFC 1701.
IP-within-IP Encapsulation

With this approach, the entire IP datagram becomes the payload in a new IP datagram (Figure 7a).
The inner, original IP header is unchanged except to decrement TTL by 1. The outer header is a full
IP header. Two fields (indicated as unshaded in the figure) are copied from the inner header: The
version number is 4, which is the protocol identifier for IPv4, and the type of service requested for
the outer IP datagram is the same as that requested for the inner IP datagram.

In the inner IP header, the source address refers to the host that is sending the original datagram, and
the destination address is the home address of the intended recipient. In the outer IP header, the
source and destination addresses refer to the entry and exit points of the tunnel. Thus, the source
address typically is the IP address of the home agent, and the destination address is the care-of
address for the intended destination.
Minimal Encapsulation

Minimal encapsulation results in less overhead and can be used if the mobile node, home agent, and
foreign agent all agree to do so. With minimal encapsulation, the new header is inserted between the
original IP header and the original IP payload (Figure 7b). It includes the following fields:

• Protocol: Copied from the destination address field in the original IP header. This field identifies the
protocol type of the original IP payload and thus identifies the type of header than begins the original IP
payload.
• S: If 0, the original source address is not present, and the length of this header is 8 octets. If 1, the
original source address is present, and the length of this header is 12 octets.
• Header Checksum: Computed over all the fields of this header.
• Original Destination Address: Copied from the destination address field in the original IP header.
• Original Source Address: Copied from the source address field in the original IP header. This field is
present only if the S bit is 1. The field is not present if the encapsulator is the source of the datagram (i.e.,
the datagram originates at the home agent).
The following fields in the original IP header are modified to form the new outer IP header:
• Total Length: Incremented by the size of the minimal forwarding header (8 or 12).
• Protocol: 55; this is the protocol number assigned to minimal IP encapsulation.
• Header Checksum: Computed over all the fields of this header; because some
of the fields have been modified, this value must be recomputed.
• Source Address: The IP address of the encapsulator, typically the home agent.
• Destination Address: The IP address of the exit point of the tunnel.This is thecare-of address and
may either be the IP address of the foreign agent or theIP address of the mobile node (in the case of a
co-located care-of address).

The processing for minimal encapsulation is as follows. The encapsulator (home agent) prepares the
encapsulated datagram with the format of Figure 7b. This datagram is now suitable for tunneling and is
delivered across the Internet to the care-of address. At the care-of address, the fields in the minimal
forwarding header are restored to the original IP header and the forwarding header is removed from the
datagram. The total length field in the IP header is decremented by the size of the minimal forwarding
header (8 or 12) and the header checksum field is recomputed.
Wireless Application Protocol
The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a universal, open standard developed by the WAP
Forum to provide mobile users of wireless phones and other wireless terminals such as pagers and
personal digital assistants (PDAs) access to telephony and information services, including the
Internet and the Web. WAP is designed to work with all wireless network technologies

The WAP specification includes

• A programming model based on the WWW Programming Model

• A markup language, the Wireless Markup Language, adhering to XML
• A specification of a small browser suitable for a mobile, wireless terminal
• A lightweight communications protocol stack
• A framework for wireless telephony applications (WTAs)
 Architectural
Overview

The gateway acts as a proxy server for the wireless domain

The gateway provides DNS services, converts between WAP protocol stack and the WWW stack (HTTP
and TCP/IP), encodes information from the Web into a more compact form that
minimizes wireless communication, and, in the other direction, decodes the compacted
form into standard Web communication conventions.
The gateway also caches frequently requested information.
 Session Initiation Protocol
SIP stands for "session initiation protocol” and enables voice, messaging, video, and other types of
communication through application layer protocols.

SIP contributes to voice and video calls by initiating and terminating an IP communication session.
First, it establishes the session by sending messages in the form of data packets between two or
more identified IP endpoints or SIP addresses.

SIP address :
In a regular telephone communication, a phone number identifies the sender and another phone
number identifies the receiver. In SIP, the sender and receiver are often identified by any of
these.
1.An Email address.
2.An IP address.
3.A Phone number
 Wireless Markup Language
WML was designed to describe content and format for presenting data on devices with limited
bandwidth, limited screen size, and limited user input capability.
WML permits the scaling of displays for use on two-line screens found in some small devices,
as well as the larger screens found on smart phones.
Important features of WML include the following:
• Text and image support: Formatting and layout commands are provided for
text and limited image capability.
• Deck/card organizational metaphor: WML documents are subdivided into small, well-
defined units of user interaction called cards. Users navigate by moving back and forth between
cards. A card specifies one or more units of interaction (a menu, a screen of text, or a text-entry
field). A WML deck is similar to an HTML page in that it is identified by a Web address (URL) and
is the unit of content transmission.
• Support for navigation among cards and decks: WML includes provisions for
event handling, which is used for navigation or executing scripts.
WML SCRIPTS
Scripting language with similarities to JavaScript. It is designed for defining script-type
programs in a user device with limited processing power and

Important capabilities of WMLScript include the following:

• Check the validity of user input before it is sent to the content server.
• Access device facilities and peripherals.
• Interact with the user without introducing round trips to the origin server
(e.g., display an error message).
Key WMLScript features include the following [WAPF98]:

• JavaScript-based scripting language: WMLScript is a subset of JavaScript, with

some extensions.
• Procedural logic: WMLScript adds the power of procedural logic to the Wireless
Application Environment (WAE), discussed subsequently.
• Event based: WMLScript may be invoked in response to certain user or environmental
events.
• Compiled implementation: WMLScript can be compiled down to a more efficient
byte code that is transported to the client.
• Integrated into WAE: WMLScript is fully integrated with the WML browser.
This allows authors to construct their service using both WML and WMLScript.
• Efficient extensible library support: WMLScript can be used to expose and
extend device functionality without changes to the device software.
WAP Services
In addition to a new protocol stack, WAP introduced many other new features and services. These
new features expand the capabilities of wireless devices and allow developers to create more useful
applications and services. The following is a summary of the features of interest:

•WAP Push. WAP Push enables enterprises to initiate the sending of information on the server using
a push proxy. Applications that require updates based on external information are particularly suited
for using WAP Push. Examples include various forms of messaging applications, stock updates,
airline departure and arrival updates, and traffic information.
•User Agent Profile (UAProf). The UAProf enables a server to obtain information about the client
making the request. It works by sending information in the request object, allowing wireless servers
to adapt the information being sent according to the client device making the request.
•External Functionality Interface (EFI). This allows the WAP applications within the WAE to
communicate with external applications, enabling other applications to extend the capabilities of
WAP applications, similar to plug-ins for desktop browsers.
•Wireless Telephony Application (WTA). The WTA allows WAP applications to control various
telephony applications, such as making calls, answering calls, putting calls on hold, or forwarding
them. It allows WAP WTA-enabled cell phones to have integrated voice and data services
.
•Persistent storage interface. WAP 2.x introduces a new storage service with a well-defined
interface to store data locally on the device. The interface defines ways to organize, access, store,
and retrieve data.

•Data synchronization

•Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS). MMS is the framework for rich-content messaging.
Going beyond what is possible for SMS, MMS can be used to transmit multimedia content such as
pictures and videos. In addition, it can work with WAP Push and UAProf to send messages adapted
specifically for the target client device.
WAP Session Protocol
▪ WSP is a transaction-oriented protocol based on the concept of a request and a reply.

▪ Each WSP protocol data unit (PDU) consists of a body, which may contain WML, WMLScript, or
images, and a header, which contains information about the data in the body and about the
transaction.

▪ WSP also defines a server Push operation, in which the server sends unrequested content to a
client device. This may be used for broadcast messages or for services, such as news headlines or
stock quotes, that may be tailored to each client device
WSP Service

In general, a connection-mode WSP provides the following services:

• Establish a reliable session from client to server and release that session in an
orderly manner.
• Agree on a common level of protocol functionality using capability
negotiation.
• Exchange content between client and server using compact encoding.
• Suspend and resume a session.
• Push content from server to client in an unsynchronized manner.
A WSP user acting as a client (mobile node side of the transaction) requests a session with a WSP
user acting as a server (Web Server) on a remote system by issuing an S-Connect.req to WSP.
Four parameters accompany the request:
• Server address: The peer with which the session is to be established.
• Client address: The originator of the session.
• Client headers: Contain attribute information that can be used for application level parameters to
be communicated to the peer. This information is passed without modification by WSP and is not
processed by WSP.
• Requested capabilities: A set of capabilities for this session requested by the client;

The client’s WSP then prepares a WSP PDU, containing these parameters, to convey the request to
the peer WSP at the server. The server address, client address, and client headers are unchanged.
However, the WSP service provider at the client or the WSP service provider at the server, or both,
may modify the set of requested capabilities so that they do not imply a higher level of functionality
than the provider can support.
Wireless Transaction Protocol
WTP manages transactions by conveying requests and responses between a user agent (such as a WAP
browser) and an application server for such activities as browsing and e-commerce transactions.

WTP provides a reliable transport service but dispenses with much of the overhead of TCP, resulting in a
lightweight protocol that is suitable for implementation in “thin” clients (e.g., mobile nodes) and suitable
for use over low-bandwidth wireless links.

WTP includes the following features:

• Three classes of transaction service.
• Optional user-to-user reliability: WTP user triggers the confirmation of each received message.
• Optional out-of-band data on acknowledgments.
• PDU concatenation and delayed acknowledgment to reduce the number of messages sent.
• Asynchronous transactions.

WTP is transaction oriented rather than connection oriented. With WTP, there is no explicit connection
setup or teardown but rather a reliable connectionless service.
WTP Classes
WTP provides three transaction classes that may be invoked by WSP or another higher
layer protocol:

❑ Class 0: Unreliable invoke message with no result message.

❑ Class 1: Reliable invoke message with no result message.
❑ Class 2: Unreliable invoke message with one reliable result message.
Class 0 provides an unreliable datagram service. Data from a WTP user are encapsulated by WTP (the initiator, or
client) in an Invoke PDU and transmitted to the target WTP (the responder, or server), with no acknowledgment.
The responder WTP delivers the data to the target WTP user.

Class 1 provides a reliable datagram service. Data from an initiator are encapsulated in an Invoke PDU and
transmitted to the responder. The responder delivers the data to the target WTP user and acknowledges receipt of
the data by sending back an ACK PDU to the WTP entity on the initiator side, which confirms the transaction to
the source WTP user.

Class 2 provides a request/response transaction service and supports the execution of multiple transactions during
one WSP session. Data from an initiator are encapsulated in an Invoke PDU and transmitted to the responder,
which delivers the data to the target WTP user. The target WTP user prepares response data, which are handed
down to the local WTP entity. The responder WTP entity sends these data back in a result PDU. If there is a delay
in generating the response data beyond a timer threshold, the responder may send an ACK PDU before sending
the result PDU. This prevents the initiator from unnecessarily retransmitting the Invoke message.
TYPE OF PDU
Wireless Datagram Protocol
WDP is used to adapt a higher-layer WAP protocol to the communication mechanism (called the bearer)
used between the mobile node and the WAP gateway.
Adaptation may include partitioning data into segments of appropriate size for the bearer and
interfacing with the bearer network.
WDP hides details of the various bearer networks from the other layers of WAP. In some instances, WAP
is implemented on top of IP.
WDP Service The WDP service is defined by two service primitives. The T-D unit data primitive
provides a nonconfirmed service with the following parameters:
• Source address: Address of the device making a request to the WDP layer
• Source port: Application address associated with the source address
• Destination address: Destination address for the data submitted to WDP
• Destination port: Application address associated with the destination address
• User data: User data from the next higher layer, submitted to WDP for transmission to the destination
port
WDP Protocol
The following fields are necessary in a WDP PDU:
• Destination Port
• Source Port
The underlying bearer does not provide segmentation and reassembly, thefeature is implemented in WDP in a bearer-
independent way.

The WDH PDU for GSM has the following structure:

• Header length (1 byte): Length of header.
• Port numbers identifier (1 byte): The value 5 indicates that this information element consists of two port numbers.
• Destination port (2 bytes)
• Source port (2 bytes)
• SAR identifier (1 byte): The value 0 indicates that this information element consists of information for segmentation and
reassembly.
• SAR length (1 byte): The value 3 indicates that the value portion of this information element is 3 bytes long.
• Datagram reference number (1 bytes): An identifier assigned to all of the segments that make up a block of user data.
• Number of segments (1 byte): The total number of segments that need to be reassembled.
• Segment count: A sequence number that identifies this segment within the sequence of all segments that need to be
reassembled to form the block of user data.
• User data (1 to n bytes)
 IPV6
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the successor to IPv4, designed to address the limitations of
IPv4, primarily the exhaustion of available IPv4 addresses.
Addressing:
• IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, providing a vastly larger address space compared to the 32-bit
addresses of IPv4.
• IPv6 addresses are typically written in hexadecimal notation and separated by colons, such as
"2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.“
Address Types:
• IPv6 introduces several types of addresses, including unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-
many), and anycast (one-to-nearest) addresses.
Simplified Header
• The IPv6 header is more streamlined compared to IPv4, reducing processing overhead and
improving packet forwarding efficiency.
• Features like fragmentation and checksum are removed or handled at upper layers.
Autoconfiguration:
• IPv6 includes stateless address autoconfiguration, allowing devices to generate their addresses
based on network information and router advertisements.
Mobility:
IPv6 supports mobile devices and mobility protocols, making it suitable for mobile networks and Internet of Things (IoT)
devices.
Transition Mechanisms:
Various transition mechanisms exist to facilitate the coexistence of IPv6 and IPv4 networks during the transition phase.
Routing Protocols:
IPv6 uses routing protocols like OSPFv3 and BGP4+ to facilitate routing in IPv6 networks.
Deployment:
IPv6 adoption has been increasing due to the depletion of IPv4 addresses, and many internet service providers (ISPs) and
organizations have transitioned to dual-stack (IPv4 and IPv6) environments.
Address Allocation:
Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) allocate IPv6 address blocks to ISPs and organizations following similar principles to IPv4
address allocation.
Multihoming and Network Security:
IPv6 enables multihoming, allowing a device or network to be connected to multiple providers simultaneously.
Network security features in IPv6 help protect against various threats and vulnerabilities.